Persistence and Decay of Fecal Microbiota in Aquatic Habitats

Assessing the nucleic acid decay of human wastewater markers and enteric viruses in estuarine waters in Sydney, Australia

This research investigated the in-situ decay rates of four human wastewater-associated markers (Bacteroides HF183 (HF183), Lachnospiraceae Lachno3 (Lachno3), cross-assembling phage (crAssphage), pepper mild mottle virus (PMMoV) and three enteric viruses (human adenovirus 40/41 (HAdV 40/41), enterovirus (EV) and human norovirus GII (HNoV GII) in two estuarine water environments (Davidson Park (DP) and Hen and Chicken Bay (HCB) in temperate Sydney, NSW, Australia, employing qPCR and RT-qPCR assays. The study also aimed to compare decay rates observed in mesocosms with previously published laboratory microcosms, providing insights into the persistence of markers and viruses in estuarine environments. Results indicated varying decay rates between DP and HCB mesocosms, with HF183 exhibiting relatively faster decay rates compared to other markers and enteric viruses in sunlight and dark mesocosms. In DP mesocosms, HF183 decayed the fastest, contrasting with PMMoV, which exhibited the slowest. Sunlight induced higher decay rates for all markers and viruses in DP mesocosms. In HCB sunlight mesocosms, HF183 nucleic acid decayed most rapidly compared to other markers and enteric viruses. In dark mesocosms, crAssphage showed the fastest decay, while PMMoV decayed at the slowest rate in both sunlight and dark mesocosms. Comparisons with laboratory microcosms revealed faster decay of markers and enteric viruses in laboratory microcosms than the mesocosms, except for crAssphage and HAdV 40/41 in dark, and PMMoV in sunlight mesocosms. The study concludes that decay rates of markers and enteric viruses vary between estuarine mesocosms, emphasizing the impact of sunlight exposure, which was potentially influenced by the elevated turbidity at HCB estuarine waters. The generated decay rates contribute valuable insights for establishing site-specific risk-based thresholds of human wastewater-associated markers.

A fecal score approximation model for analysis of real-time quantitative PCR fecal source identification measurements

Numerous qPCR-based methods are available to estimate the concentration of fecal pollution sources in surface waters. However, qPCR fecal source identification data sets often include a high proportion of non-detections (reactions failing to attain a prespecified minimal signal intensity for detection) and measurements below the assay lower limit of quantification (minimal signal intensity required to estimate target concentration), making it challenging to interpret results in a quantitative manner while accounting for error. In response, a Bayesian statistic based Fecal Score (FS) approach was developed that estimates the weighted average concentration of a fecal source identification genetic marker across a defined group of samples, mathematically incorporating qPCR measurements from all samples. Yet, implementation is technically demanding and computationally intensive requiring specialized training, the use of expert software, and access to high performance computing. To address these limitations, this study reports a novel approximation model for FS determination based on a frequentist approach. The performance of the Bayesian and Frequentist models are compared using fecal source identification qPCR data representative of different 'censored' data scenarios from a recently published study focusing on the impact of stormwater discharge in urban streams. In addition, data set eligibility recommendations for the responsible use of these models are presented. Findings indicate that the Frequentist model can generate similar average concentrations and uncertainty estimates for FS, compared to the original Bayesian approach. The Frequentist model should make calculations less computationally and technically intensive, allowing for the development of easier to use data analysis tools for fecal source identification applications.

Monitoring of bivalve mollusk harvesting areas: the relevance of Salmonella spp

The microbiological monitoring of bivalve mollusk harvesting areas in the Marche region is based on the parameters of Escherichia coli and Salmonella spp. However, Regulation EU/2019/627 stated criteria based on E. coli only to determine the health status of these areas. Therefore, the reason for Salmonella spp. monitoring, as provided in the Marche region, could be aimed at reducing the risk of placing on the market contaminated bivalve mollusks. This study, using the results of microbiological monitoring carried out in the Marche region from 2015 to 2022 and the methods based on Bayes' theorem and Poisson's distribution, evaluated the effectiveness and efficiency of Salmonella spp. monitoring in reducing the risk to the consumer. The results show that i) the use of a single sample unit significantly reduced the possibility of detecting non-compliance with the microbiological safety criterion; ii) the time taken to report positive results (average of approximately 10 days) did not allow the timely implementation of control measures; iii) the prevalence of positive outcomes was quite sporadic: a random trend of positivity is recognizable on a geographical and monthly basis for mussels and a geographical basis for striped clams; iv) considering the predictive value of E. coli against Salmonella spp., the specificity is very high and the negative predictive value versus Salmonella spp. would be >80%. In conclusion, the study shows that the monitoring of Salmonella spp. has a limited effect on reducing the risk to the consumer; however, in the cost/benefit assessment, other aspects not covered by this study should be considered.

Unbalanced predatory communities and a lack of microbial degraders characterize the microbiota of a highly sewage-polluted Eastern-Mediterranean stream

Wastewater pollution of water resources takes a heavy toll on humans and on the environment. In highly polluted water bodies, self-purification is impaired, as the capacity of the riverine microbes to regenerate the ecosystem is overwhelmed. To date, information on the composition, dynamics and functions of the microbial communities in highly sewage-impacted rivers is limited, in particular in arid and semi-arid environments. In this year-long study of the highly sewage-impacted Al-Nar/Kidron stream in the Barr al-Khalil/Judean Desert east of Jerusalem, we show, using 16S and 18S rRNA gene-based community analysis and targeted qPCR, that both the bacterial and micro-eukaryotic communities, while abundant, exhibited low stability and diversity. Hydrolyzers of organics compounds, as well as nitrogen and phosphorus recyclers were lacking, pointing at reduced potential for regeneration. Furthermore, facultative bacterial predators were almost absent, and the obligate predators Bdellovibrio and like organisms were found at very low abundance. Finally, the micro-eukaryotic predatory community differed from those of other freshwater environments. The lack of essential biochemical functions may explain the stream's inability to self-purify, while the very low levels of bacterial predators and the disturbed assemblages of micro-eukaryote predators present in Al-Nar/Kidron may contribute to community instability and disfunction.

Influence of combined abiotic/biotic factors on decay of P. aeruginosa and E. coli in Rhine River water

Understanding the dynamic change in abundance of both fecal and opportunistic waterborne pathogens in urban surface water under different abiotic and biotic factors helps the prediction of microbiological water quality and protection of public health during recreational activities, such as swimming. However, a comprehensive understanding of the interaction among various factors on pathogen behavior in surface water is missing. In this study, the effect of salinity, light, and temperature and the presence of indigenous microbiota, on the decay/persistence of Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa in Rhine River water were tested during 7 days of incubation with varying salinity (0.4, 5.4, 9.4, and 15.4 ppt), with light under a light/dark regime (light/dark) and without light (dark), temperature (3, 12, and 20 °C), and presence/absence of indigenous microbiota. The results demonstrated that light, indigenous microbiota, and temperature significantly impacted the decay of E. coli. Moreover, a significant (p<0.01) four-factor interactive impact of these four environmental conditions on E. coli decay was observed. However, for P. aeruginosa, temperature and indigenous microbiota were two determinate factors on the decay or growth. A significant three-factor interactive impact between indigenous microbiota, temperature, and salinity (p<0.01); indigenous microbiota, light, and temperature (p<0.01); and light, temperature, and salinity (p<0.05) on the decay of P. aeruginosa was found. Due to these interactive effects, caution should be taken when predicting decay/persistence of E. coli and P. aeruginosa in surface water based on a single environmental condition. In addition, the different response of E. coli and P. aeruginosa to the environmental conditions highlights that E. coli monitoring alone underestimates health risks of surface water by non-fecal opportunistic pathogens, such as P. aeruginosa. KEY POINTS: Abiotic and biotic factors interactively affect decay of E. coli and P. aeruginosa E.coli and P.aeruginosa behave significantly different under the given conditions Only E. coli as an indicator underestimates the microbiological water quality.

Scenario-based assessment of fecal pathogen sources affecting bathing water quality: novel treatment options to reduce norovirus and Campylobacter infection risks

Wastewater discharge and runoff waters are significant sources of human and animal fecal microbes in surface waters. Human-derived fecal contamination of water is generally estimated to pose a greater risk to human health than animal fecal contamination, but animals may serve as reservoirs of zoonotic pathogens. In this study, quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) tools were used to evaluate the hygienic impact of sewage effluents and runoff water from municipalities and animal farms on surface and bathing waters. The human-specific microbial source tracking (MST) marker HF183 was used to evaluate the dilution of fecal pathogens originating from the sewage effluent discharge to the downstream watershed. As novel risk management options, the efficiency of UV-LED disinfection and wetland treatment as well as biochar filtration was tested on-site for the contamination sources. According to the dilution pattern of the MST marker HF183, microbes from wastewater were diluted (2.3-3.7 log10) in the receiving waters. The scenario-based QMRA revealed, that the health risks posed by exposure to human-specific norovirus GII and zoonotic Campylobacter jejuni during the bathing events were evaluated. The risk for gastroenteritis was found to be elevated during wastewater contamination events, where especially norovirus GII infection risk increased (1-15 cases per day among 50 bathers) compared with the business as usual (BAU) situation (1 case per day). The noted C. jejuni infection risk was associated with animal farm contamination (1 case per day, versus 0.2-0.6 cases during BAU). Tertiary treatment of wastewater with wetland treatment and UV-LED disinfection effectively reduced the waterborne gastroenteritis risks associated with bathing. Based on the experiences from this study, a QMRA-based approach for health risk evaluations at bathing sites can be useful and is recommended for bathing site risk assessments in the future. In case of low pathogen numbers at the exposure sites, the MST marker HF183 could be used as a pathogen dilution coefficient for the watershed under evaluation. The full-scale implementation of novel tertiary treatment options at wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) as well as on-site runoff water treatment options should be considered for infection risk management at locations where scenario-based QMRA implies elevated infection risks.

Microbial source tracking of fecal pollution to coral reef lagoons of Norfolk Island, Australia

Fecal pollution contributes to global degradation of water quality and requires identification of the source(s) for predicting human health risk, tracking disease, and developing management strategies. While fecal indicator bacteria are commonly used to detect fecal pollution, they cannot identify sources. Novel approaches, such as microbial source tracking (MST), can be applied to evaluate the origin of fecal pollution. This study examined fecal pollution in the coral reef lagoons of Norfolk Island, Australia where reef health decline has been related to nutrient input. The primary objective of this study was to evaluate the host sensitivity and specificity of two human wastewater-associated marker genes (Bacteroides HF183 (HF183) and cross-assembly phage (crAssphage)) and four animal feces associated marker genes targeting avian, ruminant, dog, and pig (Helicobacter-associated GFD (GFD), Bacteroides BacR (BacR), Bacteroides DogBact (DogBact), and Bacteroides Pig-2-Bac (Pig-2-Bac)) in wastewater and animal fecal samples collected from Norfolk Island. The prevalence and concentrations of these marker genes along with enterococci genetic marker (ENT 23S rRNA) of general fecal pollution and human adenovirus (HAdV), which is considered predominantly a pathogen but also a human-wastewater associated marker gene, were determined in surface, ground, and marine water resources. A secondary objective of this study was to assess the sources and pathways of fecal pollution to a sensitive marine environment under rainfall events. HF183, crAssphage, HAdV, and BacR demonstrated absolute host sensitivity values of 1.00, while GFD and Pig-2-Bac had host sensitivity values of 0.60, and 0.20, respectively. Host specificity values were > 0.94 for all marker genes. Human and animal (avian, ruminant, dog) fecal sources were present in the coral reef lagoons and surface water whereas groundwater was polluted by human wastewater markers. This study provides understanding of fecal pollution in water resources on Norfolk Island, Australia after precipitation events. The results may aid in effective water quality management, mitigating potential adverse effects on both human and environmental health.

Comparing the decay of human wastewater-associated markers and enteric viruses in laboratory microcosms simulating estuarine waters in a temperate climatic zone using qPCR/RT-qPCR assays

This study investigated the decay rates of wastewater-associated markers and enteric viruses in laboratory microcosms mimicking estuarine water environments in temperate Sydney, NSW, Australia using qPCR and RT-qPCR assays. The results demonstrated the reduction in concentrations of Bacteroides HF183, Lachnospiraceae Lachno3, cross-assembly phage (crAssphage), pepper mild mottle virus (PMMoV), human adenovirus (HAdV 40/41), and enterovirus (EV) over a span of 42 days under spring/summer temperatures, presence/absence of microbiota, and different light conditions. The study found that HF183, Lachno3, crAssphage, PMMoV, HAdV 40/41, and EV exhibited varying decay rates depending on the experimental conditions. The average T90 values ranged from a few days to several months, indicating the rapid decay or prolonged persistence of these markers and enteric viruses in the estuarine environment. Furthermore, the study examined the effects of indigenous microbiota and spring/summer temperatures on wastewater-associated markers and enteric viruses decay rates. It was found that the presence of microbiota and temperature significantly influenced the decay rates of HF183 and PMMoV. Additionally, the study compared the effects of artificial sunlight and spring/summer temperatures on marker decay rates. Bacterial markers decayed faster than viral markers, although among viral markers crAssphage decay rates were relatively faster when compared to PMMoV. The exposure to artificial sunlight significantly accelerated the decay rates of bacterial markers, viral markers, and enteric viruses. Temperature also had an impact on the decay rates of Lachno3, crAssphage, and HAdV 40/41. In conclusion, this study provides valuable insights into the decay rates of wastewater-associated markers and enteric viruses under different experimental conditions that mimicked temperate environmental conditions. The findings contribute to our understanding of the fate and persistence of these markers in the environment which is crucial for assessing and managing risks from contamination by untreated human wastewater.

Colicins and T6SS-based competition systems enhance enterotoxigenic E. coli (ETEC) competitiveness

Diarrheal diseases are still a significant problem for humankind, causing approximately half a million deaths annually. To cause diarrhea, enteric bacterial pathogens must first colonize the gut, which is a niche occupied by the normal bacterial microbiota. Therefore, the ability of pathogenic bacteria to inhibit the growth of other bacteria can facilitate the colonization process. Although enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) is one of the major causative agents of diarrheal diseases, little is known about the competition systems found in and used by ETEC and how they contribute to the ability of ETEC to colonize a host. Here, we collected a set of 94 fully assembled ETEC genomes by performing whole-genome sequencing and mining the NCBI RefSeq database. Using this set, we performed a comprehensive search for delivered bacterial toxins and investigated how these toxins contribute to ETEC competitiveness in vitro. We found that type VI secretion systems (T6SS) were widespread among ETEC (n = 47). In addition, several closely related ETEC strains were found to encode Colicin Ia and T6SS (n = 8). These toxins provide ETEC competitive advantages during in vitro competition against other E. coli, suggesting that the role of T6SS as well as colicins in ETEC biology has until now been underappreciated.

Characterizing Spatial Information Loss for Wastewater Surveillance Using crAssphage: Effect of Decay, Temperature, and Population Mobility

Populations contribute information about their health status to wastewater. Characterizing how that information degrades in transit to wastewater sampling locations (e.g., wastewater treatment plants and pumping stations) is critical to interpret wastewater responses. In this work, we statistically estimate the loss of information about fecal contributions to wastewater from spatially distributed populations at the census block group resolution. This was accomplished with a hydrologically and hydraulically influenced spatial statistical approach applied to crAssphage (Carjivirus communis) load measured from the influent of four wastewater treatment plants in Hamilton County, Ohio. We find that we would expect to observe a 90% loss of information about fecal contributions from a given census block group over a travel time of 10.3 h. This work demonstrates that a challenge to interpreting wastewater responses (e.g., during wastewater surveillance) is distinguishing between a distal but large cluster of contributions and a near but small contribution. This work demonstrates new modeling approaches to improve measurement interpretation depending on sewer network and wastewater characteristics (e.g., geospatial layout, temperature variability, population distribution, and mobility). This modeling can be integrated into standard wastewater surveillance methods and help to optimize sewer sampling locations to ensure that different populations (e.g., vulnerable and susceptible) are appropriately represented.

Bacteriophages from faecal contamination are an important reservoir for AMR in aquatic environments

Bacteriophages have been shown to play an important role in harbouring and propagating antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs). Faecal matter contains high levels of phages, suggesting that faecal contamination of water bodies may lead to increased antimicrobial resistance (AMR) levels due to increased phage loading in aquatic environments. In this study, we assessed whether faecal pollution of three rivers (Rivers Liffey, Tolka, and Dodder) was responsible for increased levels of ARGs in phage particles using established phage-faecal markers, focusing on four ARGs (blaTEM, tet(O), qnrS, and sul1). We observed all four ARGs in phage fractions in all three rivers, with ARGs more frequently observed in agricultural and urban sampling sites compared to their source. These findings highlight the role of faecal pollution in environmental AMR and the impact of agricultural and urban activities on water quality. Furthermore, our results suggest the importance of including phages as indicators when assessing environmental AMR, as they serve as significant reservoirs of resistance genes in aquatic environments. This study provides important insights into the role of faecal pollution and phages in the prevalence of AMR in the environment and the need for their inclusion in future studies to provide a comprehensive understanding of environmental AMR.

Persistence of human- and cattle-associated Bacteroidales and mitochondrial DNA markers in freshwater mesocosms

Accurate identification of the origins of non-point source pollution is essential for the effective control of fecal pollution. Host-associated Bacteroidales and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) markers have been developed to identify the sources of human and cattle fecal pollution. However, the differences in persistence between these two types of markers under different environmental conditions are still poorly understood. Here, we conducted mesocosm experiments to investigate the influence of indigenous microbiota and nutrients on the decay of Bacteroidales and mtDNA markers associated with humans and cattle. Raw sewage or cattle feces were inoculated into mesocosms containing natural eutrophic water, sterile eutrophic water or artificial freshwater. The Bacteroidales markers HF183 (human) and CowM3 (cattle) and mtDNA markers HcytB (human) and QMIBo (cattle) were quantified using the quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) assays. All markers but HF183 decreased the fastest in the presence of indigenous microbiota. Nutrients caused a decrease in the persistence of HF183; however, no significant nutrient effects were observed for HcytB, CowM3, and QMIBo. The time to reach one log reduction (T90) for HF183 and HcytB was similar; CowM3 reached T90 earlier than QMIBo in all the treatments but eutrophic water. E. coli persisted longer than both Bacteroidales and mtDNA markers in the mesocosms regardless of inoculum type. Additionally, 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing was used to determine the changes in bacterial communities accompanying the marker decay. Analysis using the SourceTracker software showed that bacterial communities in the mesocosms became more dissimilar to those in the corresponding inoculants over time. Our results indicate that environmental factors are important determinants of genetic markers' persistence, but their impact can vary depending on the genetic markers. The cattle Bacteroidales markers may be more suitable for determining recent fecal contamination than cattle mtDNA.

Survival of clinical and environmental carbapenem-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae ST147 in surface water

Carbapenem-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae represents a healthcare threat, already disseminated in the environment. This study aimed to compare the behaviour of a clinical and an environmental K. pneumoniae strain (multilocus sequence type ST147) harbouring the gene blaKPC-3 in water. The abundance of the genes phoE (specific for K. pneumoniae) and blaKPC-3 was monitored by quantitative PCR in urban runoff water and sterile ultra-pure water microcosms, aiming to assess survival, blaKPC-3 persistence, and the effect of the native water microbiota. In sterile ultra-pure water, the abundance of cultivable K. pneumoniae and blaKPC-3 gene did not change over the incubation period (8 days). In contrast, in urban runoff, the K. pneumoniae and the genes phoE and blaKPC genes decreased by up to 3 log-units. These results suggest that K. pneumoniae were outcompeted by the native microbiota of the urban runoff water and that the decay of blaKPC-3 gene was due to host death, rather than to gene loss. The study highlights that although native microbiota is essential to hamper the persistence of non-native bacteria, carbapenemase producing K. pneumoniae can survive in urban runoff water for at least one week.

Integrating culture-based and molecular methods provides an improved assessment of microbial quality in a coastal lagoon

Faecal pollution in aquatic environments is a worldwide public health concern, yet the reliability and comprehensiveness of the methods used to assess faecal contamination are still debated. We compared three approaches, namely a culture-based method to enumerate Faecal Indicator Bacteria (FIB), a FIB-targeting qPCR assay, and High-Throughput Sequencing (HTS) to detect faeces- and sewage-associated taxa in water and sediment samples of an impacted model lagoon and its adjacent sea across one year. Despite at different levels, all approaches agreed in showing a higher contamination in the lagoon than in the sea, and higher in sediments than water. FIB significantly correlated when considering separately sediment and water, and when using both cultivation and qPCR. Similarly, FIB correlated between cultivation and qPCR, but qPCR provided consistently higher estimates of FIB. Faeces-associated bacteria positively correlated with cultivated FIB in both compartments, whereas sewage-associated bacteria did only in water. Considering their benefits and limitations, we conclude that, in our study site, improved quali-quantitative information on contamination is provided when at least two approaches are combined (e.g., cultivation and qPCR or HTS data). Our results provide insights to move beyond the use of FIB to improve faecal pollution management in aquatic environments and to incorporate HTS analysis into routine monitoring.

Persistence of Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica ser. Javiana, Listeria monocytogenes, and Listeria innocua in Hydroponic Nutrient Solution

This study aimed to determine the persistence of Salmonella Javiana, Listeria monocytogenes, and Listeria innocua in nonsterile, hydroponic nutrient solution (NS) at 15, 25, 30, and 37°C over a 21-day period to mimic time from seedling to mature lettuce. Bacteria were inoculated in modified Hoagland's NS at 106 CFU/mL and maintained at 15, 25, 30, and 37°C. Samples were collected at various time points, and bacteria were quantified. A mixed model was used to determine the effect of bacteria type, time (day), and temperature on bacteria concentration (log CFU/mL). The least-squares means were calculated to compare the mean log CFU/mL, and the mean values were compared with Tukey-Kramer honest significant difference test with a significance level of P = 0.05. Statistical analysis indicated that a 3-way interaction effect between temperature, time, and bacteria type had a significant impact on bacterial persistence in NS (P < 0.0001). At all temperatures, S. Javiana persisted in NS throughout the 21-day study period, compared to L. innocua and L. monocytogenes where persistence was limited to between 1 and 14 days. Similarly, decimal reduction values (D-values) of S. Javiana indicated longer persistence in NS than L. innocua and L. monocytogenes at most temperatures. For instance, at 15°C and 25°C, D-values for S. Javiana were estimated at 82 and 26 d, respectively, compared to D-values of 3.6 and ∼3 d for L. monocytogenes. Data indicate that the temperature of NS has a differential effect on the persistence of S. Javiana and Listeria spp. This study furthers the understanding of potential food safety risks associated with hydroponic systems and will contribute to the refinement of further studies to aid in the development of operation-specific risk profiles.

Microbe-sediment interactions in Great Lakes recreational waters: Implications for human health risk

Microbial assessments of recreational water have traditionally focused on culturing or DNA-based approaches of the planktonic water column, omitting influence from microbe-sediment relationships. Sediment (bed and suspended) has been shown to often harbour levels of bacteria higher than the planktonic phase. The fate of suspended sediment (SS) bacteria is extensively related to transport dynamics (e.g., deposition) of the associated sediment/floc. When hydraulic energy allows, SS will settle, introducing new (potentially pathogenic) organisms to the bed. With turbulence, including waves, currents and swimmers, the risk of human ingestion is elevated due to resuspension of bed sediment and associated microbes. This research used multiplex nanofluidic reverse transcriptase quantitative PCR on RNA of bacteria associated with bed and SS to explore the active bacteria in freshwater shorelines. Bacterial genes of human health concern regarding recreational water use were targeted, such as faecal indicator bacteria (FIB), microbial source tracking genes and virulence factors from waterborne pathogens. Results indicate avian sources (i.e., gulls, geese) to be the largest nonpoint source of FIB associated with sediment in Great Lakes shorelines. This research introduces a novel approach to microbial water quality assessments and enhances our understanding of microbe-sediment dynamics and the quality of freshwater beaches.

High-Throughput Microfluidic Quantitative PCR Platform for the Simultaneous Quantification of Pathogens, Fecal Indicator Bacteria, and Microbial Source Tracking Markers

Contamination of water with bacterial, viral, and protozoan pathogens can cause human diseases. Both humans and nonhumans can release these pathogens through their feces. To identify the sources of fecal contamination in the water environment, microbial source tracking (MST) approaches have been developed; however, the relationship between MST markers and pathogens is still not well understood most likely due to the lack of comprehensive datasets of pathogens and MST marker concentrations. In this study, we developed a novel microfluidic quantitative PCR (MFQPCR) platform for the simultaneous quantification of 37 previously validated MST markers, two fecal indicator bacteria (FIB), 22 bacterial, 11 viral, and five protozoan pathogens, and three internal amplification/process controls in many samples. The MFQPCR chip was applied to analyze pathogen removal rates during the wastewater treatment processes. In addition, multiple host-specific MST markers, FIB, and pathogens were successfully quantified in human and avian-impacted surface waters. While the genes for pathogens were relatively infrequently detected, positive correlations were observed between some potential pathogens such as Clostridium perfringens and Mycobacterium spp., and human MST markers. The MFQPCR chips developed in this study, therefore, can provide useful information to monitor and improve water quality.

Fate of microbial contamination in a South European Coastal Lagoon (Ria Formosa) under the influence of treated effluents dispersal

AIM

Assessment of the fate of microbial contamination driven from treated wastewater disposal at a highly productive zone on a South European coastal lagoon (Ria Formosa).

METHODS AND RESULTS

Microbial indicators of contamination (Total coliforms, Escherichia coli, and Enterococci) were evaluated monthly during September 2018-September 2020 at three study areas (Faro, Olhão, and Tavira) under different wastewater discharge flows and hydrodynamic conditions. Additional data on E. coli monitoring in bivalves, available from the national institution responsible for their surveillance was also considered. The maximum microbial contamination was found at Faro, the highest-load and less-flushed study area, contrasting the lowest contamination at Olhão, a lower-load and strongly flushed area. The wastewater impact decreased along the spatial dispersal gradients and during high water, particularly at Faro and Tavira study areas, due to a considerable dilution effect. Microbial contamination at Olhão increased during the summer, while at the other study areas seasonal evidence was not clear. Data also indicate that E. coli in bivalves from bivalve production zones next to the three study areas reflected the differentiated impact of the wastewater treatment plants effluents on the water quality of those areas.

CONCLUSIONS

Effluent loads together with local hydrodynamics, water temperature, solar radiation, precipitation, and land runoff as well as seabirds populations and environmentally adapted faecal or renaturelized bacterial communities, contributed to microbial contamination of the study areas.

Zika virus RNA persistence and recovery in water and wastewater: An approach for Zika virus surveillance in resource-constrained settings

During the 2015-2016 Zika virus (ZIKV) epidemic in the Americas, serological cross-reactivity with other flaviviruses and relatively high costs of nucleic acid testing in the region hindered the capacity for widespread diagnostic testing. In such cases where individual testing is not feasible, wastewater monitoring approaches may offer a means of community-level public health surveillance. To inform such approaches, we characterized the persistence and recovery of ZIKV RNA in experiments where we spiked cultured ZIKV into surface water, wastewater, and a combination of both to examine the potential for detection in open sewers serving communities most affected by the ZIKV outbreak, such as those in Salvador, Bahia, Brazil. We used reverse transcription droplet digital PCR to quantify ZIKV RNA. In our persistence experiments, we found that the persistence of ZIKV RNA decreased with increasing temperature, significantly decreased in surface water versus wastewater, and significantly decreased when the initial concentration of virus was lowered by one order of magnitude. In our recovery experiments, we found higher percent recovery of ZIKV RNA in pellets versus supernatants from the same sample, higher recoveries in pellets using skimmed milk flocculation, lower recoveries of ZIKV RNA in surface water versus wastewater, and lower recoveries from a freeze thaw. We also analyzed samples collected from Salvador, Brazil during the ZIKV outbreak (2015-2016) that consisted of archived samples obtained from open sewers or environmental waters thought to be contaminated by sewage. Although we did not detect any ZIKV RNA in the archived Brazil samples, results from these persistence and recovery experiments serve to inform future wastewater monitoring efforts in open sewers, an understudied and important application of wastewater monitoring.

Microbiome and Resistome Profiles along a Sewage-Effluent-Reservoir Trajectory Underline the Role of Natural Attenuation in Wastewater Stabilization Reservoirs

Antibiotic-resistant bacteria and antibiotic resistance gene (ARGs) loads dissipate through sewage treatment plants to receiving aquatic environments, but the mechanisms that mitigate the spread of these ARGs are not well understood due to the complexity of full-scale systems and the difficulty of source tracking in downstream environments. To overcome this problem, we targeted a controlled experimental system comprising a semicommercial membrane-aerated bioreactor (MABR), whose effluents fed a 4,500-L polypropylene basin that mimicked effluent stabilization reservoirs and receiving aquatic ecosystems. We analyzed a large set of physicochemical measurements, concomitant with the cultivation of total and cefotaxime-resistant Escherichia coli, microbial community analyses, and quantitative PCR (qPCR)/digital droplet PCR (ddPCR) quantification of selected ARGs and mobile genetic elements (MGEs). The MABR removed most of the sewage-derived organic carbon and nitrogen, and simultaneously, E. coli, ARG, and MGE levels dropped by approximately 1.5- and 1.0-log unit mL-1, respectively. Similar levels of E. coli, ARGs, and MGEs were removed in the reservoir, but interestingly, unlike in the MABR, the relative abundance (normalized to 16S rRNA gene-inferred total bacterial abundance) of these genes also decreased. Microbial community analyses revealed the substantial shifts in bacterial and eukaryotic community composition in the reservoir relative to the MABR. Collectively, our observations lead us to conclude that the removal of ARGs in the MABR is mainly a consequence of treatment-facilitated biomass removal, whereas in the stabilization reservoir, mitigation is linked to natural attenuation associated with ecosystem functioning, which includes abiotic parameters, and the development of native microbiomes that prevent the establishment of wastewater-derived bacteria and associated ARGs. IMPORTANCE Wastewater treatment plants are sources of antibiotic resistant bacteria (ARB) and antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs), which can contaminate receiving aquatic environments and contribute to antibiotic resistance. We focused on a controlled experimental system comprising a semicommercial membrane-aerated bioreactor (MABR) that treated raw sewage, whose effluents fed a 4,500-L polypropylene basin that mimicked effluent stabilization reservoirs. We evaluated ARB and ARG dynamics across the raw-sewage-MABR-effluent trajectory, concomitant with evaluation of microbial community composition and physicochemical parameters, in an attempt to identify mechanisms associated with ARB and ARG dissipation. We found that removal of ARB and ARGs in the MABR was primarily associated with bacterial death or sludge removal, whereas in the reservoir it was attributed to the inability of ARBs and associated ARGs to colonize the reservoir due to a dynamic and persistent microbial community. The study demonstrates the importance of ecosystem functioning in removing microbial contaminants from wastewater.

Combined effect of salinity and hypoxia on digestive enzymes and intestinal microbiota in the oyster Crassostrea hongkongensis

Anthropologic activities caused frequent eutrophication in coastal and estuarine waters, resulting in diel-cycling hypoxia. Given global climate change, extreme weather events often occur, thus salinity fluctuation frequently breaks out in these waters. This study aimed to evaluate the combined effects of salinity and hypoxia on intestinal microbiota and digestive enzymes of Crassostrea hongkongensis. Specifically, we sequenced 16 S rRNA of intestinal microbiota and measured the digestive enzymes trypsin (TRS), lipase (LPS) and amylase (AMY) in oysters exposed for 28 days to three salinities (10, 25 and 35) and two dissolved oxygen conditions, normoxia (6 mg/L) and hypoxia (6 mg/L for 12 h, 2 mg/L for 12 h). Oysters in normoxia and salinity of 25 were treated as control. After 28-day exposure, for microbial components, Fusobacteriota, Firmicutes, Bacteroidota, Proteobacteria and Actinobacteriota comprised the majority for all experimental groups. Compared with the control group, the diversity and structure of intestinal microbiota tended to change in all treated groups. The species richness in C. hongkongensis intestine also changed. It was the most significant that high salinity increased Proteobacteria proportion while low salinity and hypoxia increased Fusobacteriota but decreased Proteobacteria, respectively. Additionally, Actinobacteriota was sensitive and changed under environmental stressor (P < 0.01). The prediction results on intestinal microbiota showed that, all functions of oysters were up-regulated to distinct degrees under low/high salinity with hypoxia. According to the KEGG prediction, cellular processes were more active and energy metabolism upregulated, indicating the adaptation of C. hongkongensis to environmental change. Periodical hypoxia and low/high salinity had complex effect on the digestive enzymes, in which the activity of TRS and LPS decreased while AMY increased. High/low salinity and periodical hypoxia can change the secretion of digestive enzymes and influence intestinal microbial diversity and species richness of C. hongkongensis, deducing the chronic adverse effects on the digestive physiology in long-term exposure.

Investigation of Human and Animal Viruses in Water Matrices from a Rural Area in Southeastern Region of Brazil and Their Potential Use as Microbial Source-Tracking Markers

This study assessed the sources of contamination of water matrices in a rural area using detection of a host-specific virus (human adenovirus [HAdV], porcine adenovirus [PAdV] and bovine polyomaviruses [BoPyV]) as potential microbial source-tracking tool, and rotavirus A [RVA], given its epidemiological importance in Brazil. From July 2017 to June 2018, 92 samples were collected from eight points (P1-P8) of surface and raw waters in southeastern region of Brazil. Fifty-five (59.8%) were positive for HAdV, 41 (44.5%) for RVA, 10 (10.9%) for PAdV and four (4.3%) for BoPyV. HAdV and RVA were detected at all sites, and over the entire sampling period, PAdV was detected at a porcine breeding area and at Guarda River site, presenting high concentrations up to 2.6 × 10⁹ genome copies per liter [GC/L], and viral concentrations ranging from 9.6 × 10¹ to 7.1 × 10⁷, while BoPyV (1.5 × 10⁴ GC/L-9.2 × 10⁵ GC/L) was only detected in samples from the bovine breeding areas. The combination of human and animal virus circulation presents a potential impact in the environment due to raw sewage discharge from regional communities, as well as potential hazard to human and animal health.

The Effect of Protozoa Indigenous to Lakewater and Wastewater on Decay of Fecal Indicator Bacteria and Coliphage

Fecal indicator bacteria (FIB: Escherichia coli and enterococci) are used to assess recreational water quality. Viral indicators (i.e., somatic and F+ coliphage), could improve the prediction of viral pathogens in recreational waters, however, the impact of environmental factors, including the effect of predatory protozoa source, on their survival in water is poorly understood. We investigated the effect of lakewater or wastewater protozoa, on the decay (decreasing concentrations over time) of culturable FIB and coliphages under sunlight and shaded conditions. FIB decay was generally greater than the coliphages and was more rapid when indicators were exposed to lake vs. wastewater protozoa. F+ coliphage decay was the least affected by experimental variables. Somatic coliphage decayed fastest in the presence of wastewater protozoa and sunlight, though their decay under shaded conditions was-10-fold less than F+ after 14 days. The protozoa source consistently contributed significantly to the decay of FIB, and somatic, though not the F+ coliphage. Sunlight generally accelerated decay, and shade reduced somatic coliphage decay to the lowest level among all the indicators. Differential responses of FIB, somatic, and F+ coliphages to environmental factors support the need for studies that address the relationship between the decay of coliphages and viral pathogens under environmentally relevant conditions.

Effects of temperature and light exposure on the decay characteristics of fecal indicators, norovirus, and Legionella in mesocosms simulating subarctic river water

Knowledge of the decay characteristics of health-related microbes in surface waters is important for modeling the transportation of waterborne pathogens and for assessing their public health risks. Although water temperature and light exposure are major factors determining the decay characteristics of enteric microbes in surface waters, such effects have not been well studied in subarctic surface waters. This study comprehensively evaluated the effect of temperature and light on the decay characteristics of health-related microbes [Escherichia coli, enterococci, microbial source tracking markers (GenBac3 & HF183 assays), coliphages (F-specific and somatic), noroviruses GII and Legionella spp.] under simulated subarctic river water conditions. The experiments were conducted in four different laboratory settings (4 °C/dark, 15 °C/dark, 15 °C/light, and 22 °C/light). The T90 values (time required for a 90 % reduction in the population of a target) of all targets were higher under cold and dark (2.6-51.3 days depending upon targets) than under warm and light conditions (0.6-3.5 days). Under 4 °C/dark (simulated winter) water conditions, F-specific coliphages had 27.2 times higher, and coliform bacteria had 3.3 times higher T90 value than under 22 °C/light (simulated summer) water conditions. Bacterial molecular markers also displayed high variation in T90 values, with the greatest difference between 4 °C/dark and 22 °C/light recorded for HF183 DNA (20.6 times) and the lowest difference for EC23S857 RNA (6.6 times). E. coli, intestinal enterococci, and somatic coliphages were relatively more sensitive to light than water temperature, but F-specific coliphages, norovirus, and all bacterial rDNA and rRNA markers were relatively more sensitive to temperature than light exposure. Due to the slow microbial decay in winter under subarctic conditions, the microbial quality of river water might remain low for a long time after a sewage spill. This increased risk associated with fecal pollution during winter may deserve more attention, especially when river waters are used for drinking water production.

Assessment of SARS-CoV-2 Stability in human and environmental matrices, and potential hazards

In the context of the ongoing pandemic of COVID-19, SARS-CoV-2 was detected in human excreta and environmental matrices. The occurrence of SARS-CoV-2 in environmental compartments raises questions on its fate and stability in these matrices and its potential to spread in the exposed communities. This review focused on the stability of the SARS-CoV-2 in human excreta, wastewater, soils, crops, and other environmental matrices, that may be reached through human excreta and sewage products spreading. Little is known about the persistence and survival of SARS-CoV-2 in the environment. Up to now sewage sludge, soil and crops are seldom investigated implying the convenience of considering future researches focusing on SARS-CoV-2 in soils receiving wastewater and sewage sludge, as well as on grown crops. Information regarding SARS-CoV-2 persistence in environmental media is crucial to establish and implement effective policies and measures for mitigating the transmission of COVID-19 and tackling eventual future outbreaks.

Mobilization of Escherichia coli and fecal source markers from decomposing cowpats

In rural environments, the sources of fecal contamination in freshwater environments are often diffuse and a mix of fresh and aged fecal sources. It is important for water monitoring purposes, therefore, to understand the impacts of weathering on detection of the fecal source markers available for mobilization from livestock sources. This study targets the impacts of rainfall events on the mobilization of fecal source tracking (FST) markers from simulated cowpats decomposing in situ for five-and-a-half-months. The FST markers analysed were Escherichia coli, microbial source tracking (MST) markers, fecal steroids and a fecal ageing ratio based on the ratio between counts of river microflora and total coliforms. There was a substantial concentration of E. coli (10⁴/100 mL) released from the ageing cowpats suggesting a long-term reservoir of E. coli in the cowpat. Mobilization of fecal markers from rainfall-impacted cowpats, however, was markedly reduced compared with fecal markers in the cowpat. Overall, the Bacteroidales bovine-associated MST markers were less persistent than E. coli in the cowpat and rainfall runoff. The ten fecal steroids, including the major herbivore steroid, 24-ethylcoprostanol, are shown to be stable markers of bovine pollution due to statistically similar degradation rates among all steroids. The mobilizable fraction for each FST marker in the rainfall runoff allowed generation of mobilization decline curves and the derived decline rate constants can be incorporated into source attribution models for agricultural contaminants. Findings from this study of aged bovine pollution sources will enable water managers to improve attribution of elevated E. coli to the appropriate fecal source in rural environments.

Distribution Patterns of Antibiotic Resistance Genes and Their Bacterial Hosts in a Manure Lagoon of a Large-Scale Swine Finishing Facility

The spread of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) that are present in livestock manures, which are discharged into the environment, is a severe threat to human and animal health. Here, we used 16S rRNA gene profiling and metagenomic analysis to characterize microbial community composition and antibiotic resistance in a manure storage lagoon from a large-scale swine finishing facility. Manure samples were collected at intervals of two years. Both the prokaryotic community and the resistome were dominated by the Firmicutes, Proteobacteria and Bacteroidota. Metagenomic analysis of two samples revealed 726 and 641 ARGs classified into 59 and 46 AMR gene families. Besides multidrug efflux pumps, the predominating ARGs potentially encoded resistance to tetracyclines, macrolide-lincosamide-streptogramin, aminoglycosides, peptide antibiotics, rifamycin, chloramphenicol, and beta-lactams. Genes from all predominant AMR gene families were found in both samples indicating overall long-term stability of the resistome. Antibiotic efflux pumps were the primary type of ARGs in the Proteobacteria, while antibiotic target alteration or protection was the main mechanism of resistance in the Firmicutes, Actinobacteriota and Bacteroidota. Metagenome-assembled genomes (MAG) of four multidrug-resistant strains were assembled. The first MAG, assigned to Escherichia flexneri, contained 46 ARGs, including multidrug efflux pumps, modified porins, beta-lactamases, and genes conferring resistance to peptide antibiotics. The second MAG, assigned to the family Alcaligenaceae, contained 18 ARGs encoding resistance to macrolide-lincosamide-streptogramin, tetracyclines, aminoglycosides and diaminopyrimidins. Two other MAGs representing the genera Atopostipes and Prevotella, contained four and seven ARGs, respectively. All these MAGs represented minor community members and accounted for less than 0.3% of the whole metagenome. Overall, a few lineages originated from the gut but relatively rare in the manure storage lagoon, are the main source of ARGs and some of them carry multiple resistance determinants.

Detection and Quantification of Antimicrobial-Resistant Cells in Aquatic Environments by Bioorthogonal Noncanonical Amino Acid Tagging

Aquatic environments are important reservoirs of antibiotic wastes, antibiotic resistance genes, and bacteria, enabling the persistence and proliferation of antibiotic resistance in different bacterial populations. To prevent the spread of antibiotic resistance, effective approaches to detect antimicrobial susceptibility in aquatic environments are highly desired. In this work, we adopt a metabolism-based bioorthogonal noncanonical amino acid tagging (BONCAT) method to detect, visualize, and quantify active antimicrobial-resistant bacteria in water samples by exploiting the differences in bacterial metabolic responses to antibiotics. The BONCAT approach can be applied to rapidly detect bacterial resistance to multiple antibiotics within 20 min of incubation, regardless of whether they act on proteins or DNA. In addition, the combination of BONCAT with the microscope enables the intuitive characterization of antibiotic-resistant bacteria in mixed systems at single-cell resolution. Furthermore, BONCAT coupled with flow cytometry exhibits good performance in determining bacterial resistance ratios to chloramphenicol and population heterogeneity in hospital wastewater samples. In addition, this approach is also effective in detecting antibiotic-resistant bacteria in natural water samples. Therefore, such a simple, fast, and efficient BONCAT-based approach will be valuable in monitoring the increase and spread of antibiotic resistance within natural and engineered aquatic environments.

Nitrate enrichment does not affect enteropathogenic Escherichia coli in aquatic microcosms but may affect other strains present in aquatic habitats

Eutrophication of the planet's aquatic systems is increasing at an unprecedented rate. In freshwater systems, nitrate-one of the nutrients responsible for eutrophication-is linked to biodiversity losses and ecosystem degradation. One of the main sources of freshwater nitrate pollution in New Zealand is agriculture. New Zealand's pastoral farming system relies heavily on the application of chemical fertilisers. These fertilisers in combination with animal urine, also high in nitrogen, result in high rates of nitrogen leaching into adjacent aquatic systems. In addition to nitrogen, livestock waste commonly carries human and animal enteropathogenic bacteria, many of which can survive in freshwater environments. Two strains of enteropathogenic bacteria found in New Zealand cattle, are K99 and Shiga-toxin producing Escherichia coli (STEC). To better understand the effects of ambient nitrate concentrations in the water column on environmental enteropathogenic bacteria survival, a microcosm experiment with three nitrate-nitrogen concentrations (0, 1, and 3 mg NO₃-N /L), two enteropathogenic bacterial strains (STEC O26-human, and K99-animal), and two water types (sterile and containing natural microbiota) was run. Both STEC O26 and K99 reached 500 CFU/10 ml in both water types at all three nitrate concentrations within 24 hours and remained at those levels for the full 91 days of the experiment. Although enteropathogenic strains showed no response to water column nitrate concentrations, the survival of background Escherichia coli, imported as part of the in-stream microbiota did, surviving longer in 1 and 3 mg NO₃-N/Lconcentrations (P < 0.001). While further work is needed to fully understand how nitrate enrichment and in-stream microbiota may affect the viability of human and animal pathogens in freshwater systems, it is clear that these two New Zealand strains of STEC O26 and K99 can persist in river water for extended periods alongside some natural microbiota.

Estimating the duration and overlap of Escherichia coli contamination events in private groundwater supplies for quantitative risk assessment using a multiannual (2010-2017) provincial dataset

Approximately 1.6 million individuals in Ontario rely on private water wells. Private well water quality in Ontario remains the responsibility of the well owner, and due to the absence of regulation, quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) likely represents the most effective approach to estimating and mitigating waterborne infection risk(s) from these supplies. Annual contamination duration (i.e., contaminated days per annum) represents a central input for waterborne QMRA; however, it is typically based on laboratory studies or meta-analyses, thus representing an important limitation for risk assessment, as groundwater mesocosms cannot accurately replicate subsurface conditions. The present study sought to address these limitations using a large spatio-temporal in-situ groundwater quality dataset (>700,000 samples) to evaluate aquifer-specific E. coli die-off rates (CFU/100 mL per day decline), subsequent contamination sequence duration(s) and the likelihood of overlapping contamination events. Findings indicate median E. coli die-off rates of 0.38 CFU/100 mL per day and 0.64 CFU/100 mL per day, for private wells located in unconsolidated and consolidated aquifers, respectlvely, with mean calculated contamination sequence durations of 18 days (unconsolidated) and 11 days (consolidated). Study findings support and permit development of increasingly evidence-based, regionally- and temporally-specific quantitative waterborne risk assessment.

Influence of temperature and water quality on the persistence of human mitochondrial DNA, human Hf183 Bacteroidales, fecal coliforms and enterococci in surface water in human fecal source tracking context

Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is used as a genetic marker to track fecal contamination in surface water. Its potential to effectively discriminate between the nonpoint sources of fecal pollution (e.g. human, livestock) in water environments is relevant for water quality management. However, there is a lack of knowledge about the environmental persistence of mtDNA in relation to those of other microbial parameters, such as fecal indicator bacteria (FIB). In this study, mesocosms composed of water collected from four rivers and tap water were spiked with raw wastewater to mimic human fecal contamination. Mesocosms composed of raw wastewater were also studied. The mesocosms were incubated at 4 °C or at 22 °C for 189 days, from which the levels of human mtDNA (HumtDNA) and human Bacteroidales (Hf183) were measured by qPCR. The levels of FIB (fecal coliforms and enterococci) and heterotrophs were determined by culture methods along with the determination of physicochemical attributes. The decay rates of the genetic markers and FIB were determined with first-order decay rate models. The decay rates of HumtDNA (0.004-0.059 d^-1), Hf183 (0.007-0.082 d^-1), and the two FIBs (0.005-0.066 d^-1) were similar at 4 °C, while the genetic markers both had higher decay rates (0.013-0.919 d^-1) at 22 °C. Different HumtDNA decay rates were observed between the river mesocosms (0.043-0.919 d^-1) and the wastewater and tap water mesocosms (0.004-0.095 d^-1). Covariations of pH and conductivity among the HumtDNA, Hf183 and FIB decay rates were observed. HumtDNA and Hf183 had similar environmental persistence, whereas fecal coliforms and enterococci persisted longer at 22 °C. Finally, HumtDNA had the same trends of persistence in the four river mesocosms, suggesting a relative stability of this marker in different rivers. Our results suggest that HumtDNA could be more suitable for tracking the source of a recent fecal contamination in complement to FIB.

Guts of the Urban Ecosystem: Microbial Ecology of Sewer Infrastructure

Microbes have inhabited the oceans and soils for millions of years and are uniquely adapted to their habitat. In contrast, sewer infrastructure in modern cities dates back only ~150 years. Sewer pipes transport human waste and provide a view into public health, but the resident organisms that likely modulate these features are relatively unexplored. Here, we show that the bacterial assemblages sequenced from untreated wastewater in 71 U.S. cities were highly coherent at a fine sequence level, suggesting that urban infrastructure separated by great spatial distances can give rise to strikingly similar communities. Within the overall microbial community structure, temperature had a discernible impact on the distribution patterns of closely related amplicon sequence variants, resulting in warm and cold ecotypes. Two bacterial genera were dominant in most cities regardless of their size or geographic location; on average, Arcobacter accounted for 11% and Acinetobacter 10% of the entire community. Metagenomic analysis of six cities revealed these highly abundant resident organisms carry clinically important antibiotic resistant genes blaCTX-M, blaOXA, and blaTEM. In contrast, human fecal bacteria account for only ~13% of the community; therefore, antibiotic resistance gene inputs from human sources to the sewer system could be comparatively small, which will impact measurement capabilities when monitoring human populations using wastewater. With growing awareness of the metabolic potential of microbes within these vast networks of pipes and the ability to examine the health of human populations, it is timely to increase our understanding of the ecology of these systems. IMPORTANCE Sewer infrastructure is a relatively new habitat comprised of thousands of kilometers of pipes beneath cities. These wastewater conveyance systems contain large reservoirs of microbial biomass with a wide range of metabolic potential and are significant reservoirs of antibiotic resistant organisms; however, we lack an adequate understanding of the ecology or activity of these communities beyond wastewater treatment plants. The striking coherence of the sewer microbiome across the United States demonstrates that the sewer environment is highly selective for a particular microbial community composition. Therefore, results from more in-depth studies or proven engineering controls in one system could be extrapolated more broadly. Understanding the complex ecology of sewer infrastructure is critical for not only improving our ability to treat human waste and increasing the sustainability of our cities but also to create scalable and effective sewage microbial observatories, which are inevitable investments of the future to monitor health in human populations.

Molecular and metabolic characteristics of wastewater associated Escherichia coli strains

We previously characterized the genetic diversity of Escherichia coli strains isolated from septic tanks in the Canberra region, Australia. In this study, we used repetitive element palindromic (REP) PCR fingerprinting to identify dominant REP-types belonging to phylogroups A and B1 strains across septic tanks. Subsequently, 76 E. coli strains were selected for whole-genome sequencing and phenotype microarrays. Comparative genome analysis was performed to compare septic tank E. coli genomes with a collection of 433 E. coli isolates from different hosts and freshwater. Clonal complexes (CCs) 10 (n = 15) and 399 (n = 10) along with sequence type (ST) 401 (n = 9) were the common lineages in septic tanks. CC10 strains have been detected from animal hosts and freshwater, whereas CC399 and ST401 strains appeared to be associated with septic tanks as they were uncommon in isolates from other sources. Comparative genome analysis revealed that CC399 and ST401 were genetically distinct from other isolates and carried an abundance of niche-specific traits involved in environmental adaptation. These strains also showed distinct metabolic characteristics, such as the ability to utilize pectin, which may provide a fitness advantage under nutrient-limited conditions. The results of this study characterized the adaptive mechanisms allowing E. coli to persist in wastewater.

Genome Analysis of Enterobacter asburiae and Lelliottia spp. Proliferating in Oligotrophic Drinking Water Reservoirs and Lakes

Surface waters are one of the main sources for drinking water production, and thus microbial contamination should be as minimal as possible. However, high concentrations of coliform bacteria were detected in reservoirs and lakes used for drinking water production during summer months due to autochthonous proliferation processes. Here, we present the genomic analyses of 17 strains of Enterobacter asburiae and Lelliottia spp. proliferating in reservoirs and lakes with special focus on the hygienic relevance, antibiotic resistance, and adaptations to the oligotrophic environments. The genomes contain neither genes for the type III secretion system nor cytotoxins or hemolysins, which are considered typical virulence factors. Examination of antibiotic resistance genes revealed mainly efflux pumps and β-lactamase class C (ampC) genes. Phenotypically, single isolates of Enterobacter asburiae showed resistance to fosfomycin and ceftazidime. The genome analyses further suggest adaptations to oligotrophic and changing environmental conditions in reservoirs and lakes, e.g., genes to cope with low nitrate and phosphate levels and the ability to utilize substances released by algae, like amino acids, chitin, alginate, rhamnose, and fucose. This leads to the hypothesis that the proliferation of the coliform bacteria could occur at the end of summer due to algae die-off. IMPORTANCE Certain strains of coliform bacteria have been shown to proliferate in the oligotrophic water of drinking water reservoirs and lakes, reaching values above 10⁴ per 100 mL. Such high concentrations challenge drinking water treatment, and occasionally the respective coliform bacteria have been detected in the treated drinking water. Thus, the question of their hygienic relevance is of high importance for water suppliers and authorities. Our genomic analyses suggest that the strains are not hygienically relevant, as typical virulence factors are absent and antibiotic resistance genes in the genomes most likely are of natural origin. Furthermore, their presence in the water is not related to fecal contamination. The proliferation in reservoirs and lakes during stable summer stratification is an autochthonic process of certain E. asburiae and Lelliottia strains that are well adapted to the surrounding oligotrophic environment.

Sources, fates and treatment strategies of typical viruses in urban sewage collection/treatment systems: A review

The ongoing coronavirus pandemic (COVID-19) throughout the world has severely threatened the global economy and public health. Due to receiving severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) from a wide variety of sources (e.g., households, hospitals, slaughterhouses), urban sewage treatment systems are regarded as an important path for the transmission of waterborne viruses. This review presents a quantitative profile of the concentration distribution of typical viruses within wastewater collection systems and evaluates the influence of different characteristics of sewer systems on virus species and concentration. Then, the efficiencies and mechanisms of virus removal in the units of wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) are summarized and compared, among which the inactivation efficiencies of typical viruses by typical disinfection approaches under varied operational conditions are elucidated. Subsequently, the occurrence and removal of viruses in treated effluent reuse and desalination, as well as that in sewage sludge treatment, are discussed. Potential dissemination of viruses is emphasized by occurrence via aerosolization from toilets, the collection system and WWTP aeration, which might have a vital role in the transmission and spread of viruses. Finally, the frequency and concentration of viruses in reclaimed water, the probability of infection are also reviewed for discussing the potential health risks.

Elevated Fecal Mitochondrial DNA from Symptomatic Norovirus Infections Suggests Potential Health Relevance of Human Mitochondrial DNA in Fecal Source Tracking

An end goal of fecal source tracking (FST) is to provide information on risk of transmission of waterborne illnesses associated with fecal contamination. Ideally, concentrations of FST markers in ambient waters would reflect exposure risk. Human mtDNA is an FST marker that is exclusively human in origin and may be elevated in feces of individuals experiencing gastrointestinal inflammation. In this study, we examined whether human mtDNA is elevated in fecal samples from individuals with symptomatic norovirus infections using samples from the United States (US), Mozambique, and Bangladesh. We quantified hCYTB484 (human mtDNA) and HF183/BacR287 (human-associated Bacteroides) FST markers using droplet digital polymerase chain reaction. We observed the greatest difference in concentrations of hCYTB484 when comparing samples from individuals with symptomatic norovirus infections versus individuals without norovirus infections or diarrhea symptoms: log₁₀ increase of 1.42 in US samples (3,820% increase, p-value = 0.062), 0.49 in Mozambique (308% increase, p-value = 0.061), and 0.86 in Bangladesh (648% increase, p-value = 0.035). We did not observe any trends in concentrations of HF183/BacR287 in the same samples. These results suggest concentrations of fecal mtDNA may increase during symptomatic norovirus infection and that mtDNA in environmental samples may represent an unambiguously human source-tracking marker that correlates with enteric pathogen exposure risk.

Persistence of wastewater-associated antibiotic resistant bacteria in river microcosms

The spread of antibiotic-resistant bacteria (ARB) associated with wastewater is a significant environmental concern, but little is known about the persistence and proliferation of these organisms in receiving water bodies after discharge. To address this knowledge gap, we performed a series of microcosm experiments in which river water was amended with either untreated or treated wastewater, and the abundance of viable ciprofloxacin-, Bactrim-, and erythromycin-resistant bacteria was monitored for 72 h. Both types of wastewater amendments significantly increased the initial abundance of ARB compared to microcosms containing only river water (all p < 0.03). The increase was greatest with untreated wastewater, but that effect decreased steadily over time. In contrast, microcosms amended with treated wastewater saw a smaller initial increase and more complex temporal dynamics. Following a brief lag, ARB abundance bloomed for all three of the antibiotics that we considered. This suggests that ARB that survive wastewater treatment are particularly hardy and may proliferate in riverine conditions after a short recovery period. To determine how interactions with the native river microbial community impacted the persistence of wastewater-associated ARB, an additional set of microcosms was prepared using filter-sterilized river water. Peak abundance in these microcosms was significantly higher by 1-2 orders of magnitude compared to microcosms containing an intact river microbial community (all p < 0.05), which suggests that biotic interactions play a significant role in regulating the persistence and proliferation of ARB. The data presented in this paper are among the first available that specifically consider persistence of viable ARB and represent an important step toward understanding AR-related human health risks downstream from wastewater discharge points and following sewer overflow events. Additional studies that consider longer time scales and the interplay of biotic and abiotic variables are essential for modeling public health risks associated with wastewater inputs of ARB to rivers and other aquatic environments.

Decay of four enteric pathogens and implications to wastewater-based epidemiology: Effects of temperature and wastewater dilutions

Measurement of pathogens in raw wastewater from a population within certain sewer catchments can provide quantitative information on public health status within the sampled urban area. This so-called wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) approach has the potential of becoming a powerful tool to monitor pathogen circulation and support timely intervention during outbreaks. However, many WBE studies failed to account for the pathogen decay during wastewater transportation in back calculating the disease prevalence. Various sewer process factors, including water temperature and infiltration/inflow, can lead to the variation of pathogen decay rates. This paper firstly reviewed the effects of temperature and types of water, i.e., wastewater, freshwater, and saline water, on the decay of four selected enteric pathogens, i.e., Campylobacter, Salmonella, Norovirus, and Adenovirus. To elucidate the importance of the pathogen decay rates (measured by culture and molecular methods) to WBE, a sensitivity analysis was conducted on the back-calculation equation for infection prevalence with decay rates collected from published literature. It was found that WBE back-calculation is more sensitive to decay rates under the condition of high wastewater temperature (i.e., over 25 °C) or if wastewater is diluted by saline water (i.e., sewer infiltration or use of seawater as an alternative source of freshwater constituting around 1/3 household water demand in some cities). Stormwater dilution of domestic wastewater (i.e., sewer inflow might achieve 10 times volumetric dilution) was shown to play a role in increasing the sensitivity of WBE back-calculation to bacterial pathogens, but not viral pathogens. Hence, WBE back-calculation in real sewers should account for in-sewer decay of specific pathogen species under different wastewater temperatures and dilutions. Overall, this review contributes to a better understanding of pathogen decay in wastewater which can lead to improved accuracy of WBE back-calculation.

Zooplankton as a Transitional Host for Escherichia coli in Freshwater

This study shows that Escherichia coli can be temporarily enriched in zooplankton under natural conditions and that these bacteria can belong to different phylogroups and sequence types (STs), including environmental, clinical, and animal isolates. We isolated 10 E. coli strains and sequenced the genomes of two of them. Phylogenetically, the two isolates were closer to strains isolated from poultry meat than to freshwater E. coli, albeit their genomes were smaller than those of the poultry isolates. After isolation and fluorescent protein tagging of strains ED1 and ED157, we show that Daphnia sp. can take up these strains and release them alive again, thus becoming a temporary host for E. coli. In a chemostat experiment, we show that this association does not prolong bacterial long-term survival, but at low abundances it also does not significantly reduce bacterial numbers. We demonstrate that E. coli does not belong to the core microbiota of Daphnia, suffers from competition by the natural Daphnia microbiota, but can profit from its carapax to survive in water. All in all, this study suggests that the association of E. coli with Daphnia is only temporary, but the cells are viable therein, and this might allow encounters with other bacteria for genetic exchange and potential genomic adaptation to the freshwater environment.

IMPORTANCE The contamination of freshwater with feces-derived bacteria is a major concern regarding drinking water acquisition and recreational activities. Ecological interactions promoting their persistence are still very scarcely studied. This study, which analyses the survival of E. coli in the presence of zooplankton, is thus of ecological and water safety relevance.

Characterizing Differences in Sources of and Contributions to Fecal Contamination of Sediment and Surface Water with the Microbial FIT Framework

Surface water monitoring and microbial source tracking (MST) are used to identify host sources of fecal pollution and protect public health. However, knowledge of the locations of spatial sources and their relative impacts on the environment is needed to effectively mitigate health risks. Additionally, sediment samples may offer time-integrated information compared to transient surface water. Thus, we implemented the newly developed microbial find, inform, and test framework to identify spatial sources and their impacts on human (HuBac) and bovine (BoBac) MST markers, quantified from both riverbed sediment and surface water in a bovine-dense region. Dairy feeding operations and low-intensity developed land-cover were associated with 99% (p-value < 0.05) and 108% (p-value < 0.05) increases, respectively, in the relative abundance of BoBac in sediment, and with 79% (p-value < 0.05) and 39% increases in surface water. Septic systems were associated with a 48% increase in the relative abundance of HuBac in sediment and a 56% increase in surface water. Stronger source signals were observed for sediment responses compared to water. By defining source locations, predicting river impacts, and estimating source influence ranges in a Great Lakes region, this work informs pollution mitigation strategies of local and global significance.

Removal of Fecal Indicator Bacteria by River Networks

Fecal contamination is a significant source of water quality impairment globally. Aquatic ecosystems can provide an important ecosystem service of fecal contamination removal. Understanding the processes that regulate the removal of fecal contamination among river networks across flow conditions is critical. We applied a river network model, the Framework for Aquatic Modeling in the Earth System (FrAMES-Ecoli), to quantify removal of fecal indicator bacteria by river networks across flow conditions during summers in a series of New England watersheds of different characteristics. FrAMES-Ecoli simulates sources, transport, and riverine removal of Escherichia coli (E. coli). Aquatic E. coli removal was simulated in both the water column and the hyporheic zone, and is a function of hydraulic conditions, flow exchange rates with the hyporheic zone, and die-off in each compartment. We found that, at the river network scale during summers, removal by river networks can be high (19–99%) with variability controlled by hydrologic conditions, watershed size, and distribution of sources in the watershed. Hydrology controls much of the variability, with 68–99% of network scale inputs removed under base flow conditions and 19–85% removed during storm events. Removal by the water column alone could not explain the observed pattern in E. coli, suggesting that processes such as hyporheic removal must be considered. These results suggest that river network removal of fecal indicator bacteria should be taken into consideration in managing fecal contamination at critical downstream receiving waters.

Dilution of Epidemic Potential of Environmentally Transmitted Infectious Diseases for Species with Partially Overlapping Habitats

AbstractSpecies diversity may play an important role in the modulation of pathogen transmission through the dilution effect. Infectious disease models can help elucidate mechanisms that may underlie this effect. While many modeling studies have assumed direct host-to-host transmission, many pathogens are transmitted through the environment. We present a mathematical modeling analysis exploring conditions under which we observe the dilution effect in systems with environmental transmission where host species interact through fully or partially overlapping habitats. We measure the strength of the dilution effect by the relative decrease in the basic reproduction number of two-species assemblages compared with that of a focal host species. We find that a dilution effect is most likely when the pathogen is environmentally persistent (frequency-dependent-like transmission). The magnitude of this effect is strongest when the species with the greater epidemic potential is relatively slow to pick up pathogens in the environment (density-dependent transmission) and the species with the lesser epidemic potential is efficient at picking up pathogens (frequency-dependent transmission). These findings suggest that measurable factors, including pathogen persistence and the host's relative efficiency of pathogen pickup, can guide predictions of when biodiversity might lead to a dilution effect and may thus give concrete direction to future ecological work.

Prevalence, diversity and genetic structure of Escherichia coli isolates from septic tanks

The present study investigated the diversity and genetic structure of Escherichia coli isolates from 100 septic tanks in the Canberra region, Australia. The physicochemical characteristics of the septic tanks were determined to examine the extent to which environmental factors might influence E. coli prevalence, diversity and population structure. The results of this study indicated that the temperature of the septic tank could explain some of the variation observed in the number of E. coli isolates recovered per septic tank, whereas pH was an important driver of E. coli diversity. Conductivity, pH and household size had a significant impact on E. coli population structure, and household size significantly affected the probability of detecting human-associated E. coli lineages [sequence types (STs) 69, 73, 95 and 131] in septic tanks. Phylogroup A and B1 strains were not randomly distributed among septic tanks, and the strong negative association between them may indicate intraspecific competition. The findings of this study suggest that the combination of environmental factors and intraspecific interactions may influence the distribution and genetic structure of E. coli in the environment.

Minimizing errors in RT-PCR detection and quantification of SARS-CoV-2 RNA for wastewater surveillance

Wastewater surveillance for pathogens using reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) is an effective and resource-efficient tool for gathering community-level public health information, including the incidence of coronavirus disease-19 (COVID-19). Surveillance of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) in wastewater can potentially provide an early warning signal of COVID-19 infections in a community. The capacity of the world's environmental microbiology and virology laboratories for SARS-CoV-2 RNA characterization in wastewater is increasing rapidly. However, there are no standardized protocols or harmonized quality assurance and quality control (QA/QC) procedures for SARS-CoV-2 wastewater surveillance. This paper is a technical review of factors that can cause false-positive and false-negative errors in the surveillance of SARS-CoV-2 RNA in wastewater, culminating in recommended strategies that can be implemented to identify and mitigate some of these errors. Recommendations include stringent QA/QC measures, representative sampling approaches, effective virus concentration and efficient RNA extraction, PCR inhibition assessment, inclusion of sample processing controls, and considerations for RT-PCR assay selection and data interpretation. Clear data interpretation guidelines (e.g., determination of positive and negative samples) are critical, particularly when the incidence of SARS-CoV-2 in wastewater is low. Corrective and confirmatory actions must be in place for inconclusive results or results diverging from current trends (e.g., initial onset or reemergence of COVID-19 in a community). It is also prudent to perform interlaboratory comparisons to ensure results' reliability and interpretability for prospective and retrospective analyses. The strategies that are recommended in this review aim to improve SARS-CoV-2 characterization and detection for wastewater surveillance applications. A silver lining of the COVID-19 pandemic is that the efficacy of wastewater surveillance continues to be demonstrated during this global crisis. In the future, wastewater should also play an important role in the surveillance of a range of other communicable diseases.

Minimizing errors in RT-PCR detection and quantification of SARS-CoV-2 RNA for wastewater surveillance

Wastewater surveillance for pathogens using reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) is an effective and resource-efficient tool for gathering community-level public health information, including the incidence of coronavirus disease-19 (COVID-19). Surveillance of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) in wastewater can potentially provide an early warning signal of COVID-19 infections in a community. The capacity of the world's environmental microbiology and virology laboratories for SARS-CoV-2 RNA characterization in wastewater is increasing rapidly. However, there are no standardized protocols or harmonized quality assurance and quality control (QA/QC) procedures for SARS-CoV-2 wastewater surveillance. This paper is a technical review of factors that can cause false-positive and false-negative errors in the surveillance of SARS-CoV-2 RNA in wastewater, culminating in recommended strategies that can be implemented to identify and mitigate some of these errors. Recommendations include stringent QA/QC measures, representative sampling approaches, effective virus concentration and efficient RNA extraction, PCR inhibition assessment, inclusion of sample processing controls, and considerations for RT-PCR assay selection and data interpretation. Clear data interpretation guidelines (e.g., determination of positive and negative samples) are critical, particularly when the incidence of SARS-CoV-2 in wastewater is low. Corrective and confirmatory actions must be in place for inconclusive results or results diverging from current trends (e.g., initial onset or reemergence of COVID-19 in a community). It is also prudent to perform interlaboratory comparisons to ensure results' reliability and interpretability for prospective and retrospective analyses. The strategies that are recommended in this review aim to improve SARS-CoV-2 characterization and detection for wastewater surveillance applications. A silver lining of the COVID-19 pandemic is that the efficacy of wastewater surveillance continues to be demonstrated during this global crisis. In the future, wastewater should also play an important role in the surveillance of a range of other communicable diseases.

Detection and Phylogenetic Analysis of Hepatitis A Virus in the Wastewater Treatment Plant of Ekbatan Town in Tehran, Iran

Background: Limited sources of fresh water necessitate the application of health policies for treatment and decontamination of human sewage for further use. A wide variety of infectious agents, including bacteria, fungi, parasites, and viruses, can be found in sewage. Enteric viruses such as hepatitis A virus (HAV) can survive the current treatments and infect susceptible hosts. Objectives: This study aimed to evaluate HAV contamination in human sewage before and after treatment in the wastewater treatment plant of Ekbatan town in Tehran, Iran, and analyze the phylogenetic properties of the identified viruses. Methods: Over a 12-month period, we collected the wastewater samples including influent, before chlorination, and effluent, from the wastewater treatment plant of Ekbatan town in Tehran, Iran. Ribonucleic acid (RNA) extraction, complementary deoxyribonucleic acid (cDNA) synthesis, and semi-nested polymerase chain reaction (PCR) were performed to identify HAV contamination. Phylogenetic analysis was performed to investigate subgenotypes of the virus. Results: HAV was detected in all influents and samples before chlorination, while the virus was detected in 50% of the effluent samples. All detected viruses belonged to subgenotype IB. Conclusions: Investigating the presence of HAV in sewage provides a general picture of the virus spread in the population of interest. HAV was detected in all influent samples, indicating that the infection is endemic in this area all year round. This also indicates the inability of the current treatment protocols in virus removal, which can be a threat to the public health.

Unravelling the effects of treated wastewater discharges on the water quality in a coastal lagoon system (Ria Formosa, South Portugal): Relevance of hydrodynamic conditions

This study aimed to assess the influence of treated wastewater disposal on Ria Formosa coastal lagoon (South Portugal), the largest national producer of bivalve mollusks. Water quality was evaluated at two areas under different wastewater loads and hydrodynamic conditions, using physico-chemical variables, bacterial indicators of contamination, chlorophyll-a concentration, phytoplankton abundance and composition. Samples were collected monthly, between October 2018 and September 2019. Minor influence of effluent discharge was detected at the eastern Olhão area, exposed to stronger hydrodynamics and higher wastewater load than the northwestern Faro area (ca. 2-4-fold total nitrogen and phosphorus). The lower load weakly flushed area showed a poorer water quality, up to 500 m from the discharge point, more marked during the spring-summer period. The intensity, persistence, and spatial extent of the wastewater footprint, lower for the highest-loading area, reflected the role of local hydrodynamic conditions, modulating the influence of wastewater discharge on lagoonal water quality.

Determinants of Pathogen Contamination of the Environment in the Greater Yangon Area, Myanmar

Recent results from water, sanitation, and hygiene interventions highlight the need to better understand environmental influences on enteropathogen transmission. We quantified a range of viral, bacterial, and protozoal pathogens and one indicator, Enterococcus faecalis in soil and water from urban and rural sites in and around Yangon, Myanmar. We found that environmental characteristics associated with contamination differed by pathogens and substrates. In soil, bacterial pathogen gene counts were associated with elevation and drainage ditches (compared to stagnant water) (RR = 0.96, 95% CI 0.93, 0.99 and RR = 1.70, 95% CI 1.18, 2.45, respectively), while viral gene counts were associated with the presence of sanitation facilities within 50 m of the collection point (RR = 3.99, 95% CI 1.12, 14.24). In water, E. faecalis, total pathogen, and bacterial pathogen gene counts were associated with drainage ditches (RR = 1.86, 95% CI 1.27, 2.72, RR = 1.38 95% CI 1.09, 1.74, and RR = 1.38 95% CI 1.07, 1.77, respectively). E. faecalis, total pathogen, bacterial pathogen, and viral gene counts were associated with the presence of uncollected garbage within 50 m of the collection point (RR = 1.57, 95% CI 1.00, 2.47, RR = 1.52, 95% CI 1.16, 2.00, RR = 1.52, 95% CI 1.13, 2.06, and RR = 1.75, 95% CI 1.17, 2.61 respectively). Measuring the environment provides added specificity toward identifying important environmental pathways that require mitigation.