ASPH dysregulates cell death and induces chemoresistance in hepatocellular carcinoma

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is resistant to multiple conventional drugs including sorafenib, leading to poor prognosis. Inducing cell death has been inextricably pursued in therapeutics, although targeted therapy and immunotherapy have made very limited progress. ASPH (Aspartate β-hydroxylase) can be breakthrough in meeting this unmet clinical need. In HCC, high expression of ASPH enhanced proliferation, migration and invasion. High levels of ASPH predicted worse clinical outcomes of sorafenib-treated HCC patients. Mechanistically, ASPH upregulated SQSTM1/P62 and SLC7A11-GPX4 axis, thereby promoting tumor cell autophagy but blocking ferroptosis. Sorafenib-induced enhancement of autophagy was attenuated by knockout (KO) of ASPH, resulting in sensitization of tumor cells to sorafenib. By silencing ASPH combined with sorafenib, senescence, apoptosis and ferroptosis were mediated, whereas proliferation, migration, invasion, tube formation and stemness were inhibited. As validated by in vivo murine models of HCC, ASPH promoted tumor growth, distant metastasis, and resistance to sorafenib. By contrast, KO ASPH combined with sorafenib effectively inhibited tumor development and progression, including intrahepatic, pulmonary, and splenic metastases. Targeting ASPH generated antitumor efficacy will pave the way for HCC therapy.

A comprehensive review of the relationship between autophagy and sorafenib-resistance in hepatocellular carcinoma: ferroptosis is noteworthy

Patients with hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) bear a heavy burden of disease and economic burden but have fewer treatment options. Sorafenib, a multi-kinase inhibitor, is the only approved drug that can be used to limit the progression of inoperable or distant metastatic HCC. However, enhanced autophagy and other molecular mechanisms after sorafenib exposure further induce drug resistance in HCC patients. Sorafenib-associated autophagy also generates a series of biomarkers, which may represent that autophagy is a critical section of sorafenib-resistance in HCC. Furthermore, many classic signaling pathways have been found to be involved in sorafenib-associated autophagy, including the HIF/mTOR signaling pathway, endoplasmic reticulum stress, and sphingolipid signaling, among others. In turn, autophagy also provokes autophagic activity in components of the tumor microenvironment, including tumor cells and stem cells, further impacting sorafenib-resistance in HCC through a special autophagic cell death process called ferroptosis. In this review, we summarized the latest research progress and molecular mechanisms of sorafenib-resistance-associated autophagy in detail, providing new insights and ideas for unraveling the dilemma of sorafenib-resistance in HCC.

Autophagic reprogramming of bone marrow–derived macrophages

Macro-autophagy is a highly conserved catabolic process among eukaryotes affecting macrophages. This work studies the genetic regulatory network involving the interplay between autophagy and macrophage polarization (activation). Autophagy-related genes (Atgs) and differentially expressed genes (DEGs) of macrophage polarization (M1–M2) were predicted, and their regulatory networks constructed. Naïve (M0) mouse bone marrow–derived monocytes were differentiated into M1 and M2a. Validation of the targets of Smad1, LC3A and LC3B, Atg16L1, Atg7, IL-6, CD68, Arg-1, and Vamp7 was performed in vitro. Immunophenotyping by flow cytometry revealed three macrophage phenotypes: M0 (IL-6 + /CD68 +), M1 (IL-6 + /CD68 + /Arg-1 +), and M2a (CD68 + /Arg-1). Confocal microscopy revealed increased autophagy in both M1 and M2a and a significant increase in the pre-autophagosomes size and number. Bafilomycin A increased the expression of CD68 and Arg-1 in all cell lineages. In conclusion, our approach predicted the protein targets mediating the interplay between autophagy and macrophage polarization. We suggest that autophagy reprograms macrophage polarization via CD68, arginase 1, Atg16L1-1, and Atg16L1-3. The current findings provide a foundation for the future use of macrophages in immunotherapy of different autoimmune disorders.

Autophagy in gastrointestinal cancers

Gastrointestinal cancers are a group of cancers occurred in gastrointestinal tissues with high morbidity and mortality rate. Although numerous studies were conducted on the investigation of gastrointestinal cancers, the real mechanisms haven’t been discovered, and no effective methods of prevention and treatment of gastrointestinal cancers have been developed. Autophagy, a vital catabolic process in organisms, have been proven to participate in various mechanisms and signaling pathways, thus producing a regulatory effect on various diseases. The role of autophagy in gastrointestinal cancers remains unclear due to its high complexity. In this review, firstly, the biological features of autophagy will be introduced. Secondly, the role of autophagy in three popular gastrointestinal cancers, namely esophageal cancer, gastric cancer, and colorectal cancer will be described and discussed by reviewing the related literature. We aimed to bring novel insights in exploring the real mechanisms for gastrointestinal cancers and developing effective and efficient therapeutic methods to treat gastrointestinal cancers.

A genetic model of methionine restriction extends Drosophila health- and lifespan

Loss of metabolic homeostasis is a hallmark of aging and is characterized by dramatic metabolic reprogramming. To analyze how the fate of labeled methionine is altered during aging, we applied ¹³C5-Methionine labeling to Drosophila and demonstrated significant changes in the activity of different branches of the methionine metabolism as flies age. We further tested whether targeted degradation of methionine metabolism components would "reset" methionine metabolism flux and extend the fly lifespan. Specifically, we created transgenic flies with inducible expression of Methioninase, a bacterial enzyme capable of degrading methionine and revealed methionine requirements for normal maintenance of lifespan. We also demonstrated that microbiota-derived methionine is an alternative and important source in addition to food-derived methionine. In this genetic model of methionine restriction (MetR), we also demonstrate that either whole-body or tissue-specific Methioninase expression can dramatically extend Drosophila health- and lifespan and exerts physiological effects associated with MetR. Interestingly, while previous dietary MetR extended lifespan in flies only in low amino acid conditions, MetR from Methioninase expression extends lifespan independently of amino acid levels in the food. Finally, because impairment of the methionine metabolism has been previously associated with the development of Alzheimer's disease, we compared methionine metabolism reprogramming between aging flies and a Drosophila model relevant to Alzheimer's disease, and found that overexpression of human Tau caused methionine metabolism flux reprogramming similar to the changes found in aged flies. Altogether, our study highlights Methioninase as a potential agent for health- and lifespan extension.

Implications on the Therapeutic Potential of Statins via Modulation of Autophagy

Statins, which are functionally known as 3-hydroxy-3-methyl-glutaryl-CoA (HMG-CoA) inhibitors, are lipid-lowering compounds widely prescribed in patients with cardiovascular diseases (CVD). Several biological and therapeutic functions have been attributed to statins, including neuroprotection, antioxidation, anti-inflammation, and anticancer effects. Pharmacological characteristics of statins have been attributed to their involvement in the modulation of several cellular signaling pathways. Over the past few years, the therapeutic role of statins has partially been attributed to the induction of autophagy, which is critical in maintaining cellular homeostasis and accounts for the removal of unfavorable cells or specific organelles within cells. Dysregulated mechanisms of the autophagy pathway have been attributed to the etiopathogenesis of various disorders, including neurodegenerative disorders, malignancies, infections, and even aging. Autophagy functions as a double-edged sword during tumor metastasis. On the one hand, it plays a role in inhibiting metastasis through restricting necrosis of tumor cells, suppressing the infiltration of the inflammatory cell to the tumor niche, and generating the release of mediators that induce potent immune responses against tumor cells. On the other hand, autophagy has also been associated with promoting tumor metastasis. Several anticancer medications which are aimed at inducing autophagy in the tumor cells are related to statins. This review article discusses the implications of statins in the induction of autophagy and, hence, the treatment of various disorders.

On the Role of Normal Aging Processes in the Onset and Pathogenesis of Diseases Associated with the Abnormal Accumulation of Protein Aggregates

Aging is a prime systemic cause of various age-related diseases, in particular, proteinopathies. In fact, most diseases associated with protein misfolding are sporadic, and their incidence increases with aging. This review examines the process of protein aggregate formation, the toxicity of such aggregates, the organization of cellular systems involved in proteostasis, and the impact of protein aggregates on important cellular processes leading to proteinopathies. We also analyze how manifestations of aging (mitochondrial dysfunction, dysfunction of signaling systems, changes in the genome and epigenome) facilitate pathogenesis of various proteinopathies either directly, by increasing the propensity of key proteins for aggregation, or indirectly, through dysregulation of stress responses. Such analysis might help in outlining approaches for treating proteinopathies and extending healthy longevity.

BCAT1 decreases the sensitivity of cancer cells to cisplatin by regulating mTOR-mediated autophagy via branched-chain amino acid metabolism

Cisplatin is one of the most effective chemotherapy drugs and is widely used in the treatment of cancer, including hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) and cervical cancer, but its therapeutic benefit is limited by the development of resistance. Our previous studies demonstrated that BCAT1 promoted cell proliferation and decreased cisplatin sensitivity in HCC cells. However, the exact role and mechanism of how BCAT1 is involved in cisplatin cytotoxicity remain undefined. In this study, we revealed that cisplatin triggered autophagy in cancer cells, with an increase in BCAT1 expression. The cisplatin-induced up-regulation of BCAT1 decreased the cisplatin sensitivity by regulating autophagy through the mTOR signaling pathway. In addition, branched-chain amino acids or leucine treatment inhibited cisplatin- or BCAT1-mediated autophagy and increased cisplatin sensitivity by activating mTOR signaling in cancer cells. Moreover, inhibition of autophagy by chloroquine increased cisplatin sensitivity in vivo. Also, the knockdown of BCAT1 or the administration of leucine activated mTOR signaling, inhibited autophagy, and increased cisplatin sensitivity in cancer cells in vivo. These findings demonstrate a new mechanism, revealing that BCAT1 decreases cisplatin sensitivity in cancer cells by inducing mTOR-mediated autophagy via branched-chain amino acid leucine metabolism, providing an attractive pharmacological target to improve the effectiveness of chemotherapy.

Targeting metabolic pathways for extension of lifespan and healthspan across multiple species

Metabolism plays a significant role in the regulation of aging at different levels, and metabolic reprogramming represents a major driving force in aging. Metabolic reprogramming leads to impaired organismal fitness, an age-dependent increase in susceptibility to diseases, decreased ability to mount a stress response, and increased frailty. The complexity of age-dependent metabolic reprogramming comes from the multitude of levels on which metabolic changes can be connected to aging and regulation of lifespan. This is further complicated by the different metabolic requirements of various tissues, cross-organ communication via metabolite secretion, and direct effects of metabolites on epigenetic state and redox regulation; however, not all of these changes are causative to aging. Studies in yeast, flies, worms, and mice have played a crucial role in identifying mechanistic links between observed changes in various metabolic traits and their effects on lifespan. Here, we review how changes in the organismal and organ-specific metabolome are associated with aging and how targeting of any one of over a hundred different targets in specific metabolic pathways can extend lifespan. An important corollary is that restriction or supplementation of different metabolites can change activity of these metabolic pathways in ways that improve healthspan and extend lifespan in different organisms. Due to the high levels of conservation of metabolism in general, translating findings from model systems to human beings will allow for the development of effective strategies for human health- and lifespan extension.

Is the era of sorafenib over? A review of the literature

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the most severe diseases worldwide. For the different stages of HCC, there are different clinical treatment strategies, such as surgical therapy for the early stage, and transarterial chemoembolization (TACE) and selective internal radiation therapy (SIRT) for intermediate-stage disease. Systemic treatment, which uses mainly targeted drugs, is the standard therapy against advanced HCC. Sorafenib is an important first-line therapy for advanced HCC. As a classically effective drug, sorafenib can increase overall survival markedly. However, it still has room for improvement because of the heterogeneity of HCC and acquired resistance. Scientists have reported the acquired sorafenib resistance is associated with the anomalous expression of certain genes, most of which are also related with HCC onset and development. Combining sorafenib with inhibitors targeting these genes may be an effective treatment. Combined treatment may not only overcome drug resistance, but also inhibit the expression of carcinoma-related genes. This review focuses on the current status of sorafenib in advanced HCC, summarizes the inhibitors that can combine with sorafenib in the treatment against HCC, and provides the rationale for clinical trials of sorafenib in combination with other inhibitors in HCC. The era of sorafenib in the treatment of HCC is far from over, as long as we find better methods of medication.

Methionine metabolism and methyltransferases in the regulation of aging and lifespan extension across species

Methionine restriction (MetR) extends lifespan across different species and exerts beneficial effects on metabolic health and inflammatory responses. In contrast, certain cancer cells exhibit methionine auxotrophy that can be exploited for therapeutic treatment, as decreasing dietary methionine selectively suppresses tumor growth. Thus, MetR represents an intervention that can extend lifespan with a complementary effect of delaying tumor growth. Beyond its function in protein synthesis, methionine feeds into complex metabolic pathways including the methionine cycle, the transsulfuration pathway, and polyamine biosynthesis. Manipulation of each of these branches extends lifespan; however, the interplay between MetR and these branches during regulation of lifespan is not well understood. In addition, a potential mechanism linking the activity of methionine metabolism and lifespan is regulation of production of the methyl donor S-adenosylmethionine, which, after transferring its methyl group, is converted to S-adenosylhomocysteine. Methylation regulates a wide range of processes, including those thought to be responsible for lifespan extension by MetR. Although the exact mechanisms of lifespan extension by MetR or methionine metabolism reprogramming are unknown, it may act via reducing the rate of translation, modifying gene expression, inducing a hormetic response, modulating autophagy, or inducing mitochondrial function, antioxidant defense, or other metabolic processes. Here, we review the mechanisms of lifespan extension by MetR and different branches of methionine metabolism in different species and the potential for exploiting the regulation of methyltransferases to delay aging.

SVIP alleviates CCl4-induced liver fibrosis via activating autophagy and protecting hepatocytes

Prolonged parenchymal cell death leads to activation of fibrogenic cells and extracellular matrix accumulation and eventually liver fibrosis. Autophagy, a major catabolic process of intracellular degradation and recycling, participates in hepatic fibrosis. However, the precise role of autophagy in the pathogenesis of hepatic fibrosis is controversial. The present study aims to investigate the key role of small VCP/p97 interacting protein (SVIP) against CCl₄-induced hepatic fibrosis via activating autophagy. Autophagy could be activated by SVIP in HepG2 cells, but starvation cannot increase SVIP expression in vitro and in vivo. Moreover, SVIP expression, in agreement with autophagic activity and the volume of lipid droplets, first increases and then decreases during the progression of liver fibrosis with CCl₄ treatment in vivo and in vivo. Further, overexpression of SVIP can protect HepG2 cells from the toxicity of CCl₄, which could be enhanced by starvation. Finally, starvation keeps SVIP and autophagy at such high levels in the rat livers that markedly delays the progress of hepatic fibrosis. Probably, the protective effect of SVIP is associated with stabilizing nuclear factor (erythroid-derived 2)-related factor 2 (Nrf2) and transcription factor EB (TFEB). The current study provides insight into the biological role of SVIP and autophagy in regulating hepatic fibrosis, targeting SVIP might be a novel therapeutic strategy in the future.

Inositol-6 phosphate inhibits the mTOR pathway and induces autophagy-mediated death in HT-29 colon cancer cells

INTRODUCTION

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is common, with a worldwide incidence estimated at more than 1 million cases annually. Therefore, the search for agents for CRC treatment is highly warranted. Inositol-6 phosphate (IP₆) is enriched in rice bran and possesses many beneficial effects. In the present study the effect of IP6 on autophagy-mediated death by modulating the mTOR pathway in HT-29 colon cancer cells was studied.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Autophagy was assessed by acridine orange (AO) staining, transmission electron microscopy, and western blotting to detect LC3-II and Beclin 1. Akt/mTOR signaling protein expression was also analyzed by western blotting. Apoptosis was analyzed by annexin V staining.

RESULTS

Incubation of cells with IP₆ resulted in downregulation of the p-Akt at 3h. Along with that confocal microscopic analysis of p-AKT, IP₆ administration resulted that a diminished expression of p-Akt. mTOR pathway regulates autophagy and incubation with IP6 to HT-29 cells showed decreased expression of p-70S6Kinase, 4-EBP-1 in a time-dependent manner. Inositol-6 phosphate (10 μg/ml, 24 and 48 h) induced autophagic vesicles, as confirmed by AO staining and transmission electron microscopy. We also found increased expression of LC3-II and Beclin 1 in a time-dependent manner after incubation with IP₆. Furthermore, IP₆ induced apoptosis, as revealed by annexin V staining.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results clearly indicate that IP6 induces autophagy by inhibiting the Akt/mTOR pathway.

Docetaxel-mediated autophagy promotes chemoresistance in castration-resistant prostate cancer cells by inhibiting STAT3

Signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT)3 expression is correlated with neoplasm growth, metastasis, and prognosis; it has also been implicated in the regulation of autophagy, which may in turn contribute to tumor chemoresistance. However, it is unknown whether STAT3 is involved in cancer cell survival in response to chemotherapy. In this study, we show that autophagy is triggered during chemotherapy and that inhibiting autophagy increased chemosensitivity of castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) cells. Meanwhile, docetaxel induced autophagy was inhibited by STAT3 activation, which increased mitochondrial damage and decreased CRPC cell viability. These results suggest that STAT3 contributes to CRPC cell survival and chemoresistance by modulating autophagy.

Suppression of p53 potentiates chemosensitivity in nutrient-deprived cholangiocarcinoma cells via inhibition of autophagy

Tumor protein p53 has been intensively studied as a major tumor suppressor. The activation of p53 is associated with various anti-neoplastic functions, including cell senescence, cell cycle arrest, apoptosis and inhibition of angiogenesis. However, the role of p53 in cancer cell chemosensitivity remains unknown. Cholangiocarcinoma cell lines QBC939 and RBE were grown in full-nutrient and nutrient-deprived conditions. The cell lines were treated with 5-fluorouracil or cisplatin and the rate of cell death was determined in these and controls using Cell Counting Kit-8 and microscopy-based methods, including in the presence of autophagy inhibitor 3MA, p53 inhibitor PFT-α or siRNA against p53 or Beclin-1. The present study demonstrated that the inhibition of p53 enhanced the sensitivity to chemotherapeutic agents in nutrient-deprived cholangiocarcinoma cells. Nutrient deprivation-induced autophagy was revealed to be inhibited following inhibition of p53. These data indicate that p53 is important for the activation of autophagy in nutrient-deprived cholangiocarcinoma cells, and thus contributes to cell survival and chemoresistance.

Plant Phenols and Autophagy

Many plant phenols (stilbenes, curcumins, catechins, flavonoids, etc.) are effective antioxidants and protect cells during oxidative stress. Extensive clinical studies on the potential of phenolic compounds for treatment of cardiovascular, neurodegenerative, oncological, and inflammatory diseases are now being conducted. In addition to direct antioxidant effect, plant phenols may provide a protective effect via activation of the Keap1/Nrf2/ARE redox-sensitive signaling system and regulation of autophagy. In this review, mechanisms of effects of the most common plant phenols on autophagy are presented.

Inhibition of Cell Proliferation in an NRAS Mutant Melanoma Cell Line by Combining Sorafenib and α-Mangostin

α-Mangostin is a natural product commonly used in Asia for cosmetic and medicinal applications including topical treatment of acne and skin cancer. Towards finding new pharmacological strategies that overcome NRAS mutant melanoma, we performed a cell proliferation-based combination screen using a collection of well-characterized small molecule kinase inhibitors and α-Mangostin. We found that α-Mangostin significantly enhances Sorafenib pharmacological efficacy against an NRAS mutant melanoma cell line. The synergistic effects of α-Mangostin and Sorafenib were associated with enhanced inhibition of activated AKT and ERK, induced ER stress, and reduced autophagy, eventually leading to apoptosis. The structure of α-Mangostin resembles several inhibitors of the Retinoid X receptor (RXR). MITF expression, which is regulated by RXR, was modulated by α-Mangostin. Molecular docking revealed that α-Mangostin can be accommodated by the ligand binding pocket of RXR and may thereby compete with RXR-mediated control of MITF expression. In summary, these data demonstrate an unanticipated synergy between α-Mangostin and sorafenib, with mechanistic actions that convert a known safe natural product to a candidate combinatorial therapeutic agent.

Possible role of proteases in preconditioning of brain cells to pathological conditions

Preconditioning (PC) is one of the most effective strategies to reduce the severity of cell damage, in particular of nervous tissue cells. Although PC mechanisms are studied insufficiently, it is clear that proteases are involved in them, but their role has yet been not studied in detail. In this work, some mechanisms of a potential recruiting of proteases in PC are considered. Our attention is mainly focused on the protease families of caspases and cathepsins and on protease receptors. We present evidence that just these proteins are involved in the PC of brain cells. A hypothesis is proposed that secreted cathepsin B is involved in the realization of PC through activation of PAR2 receptor.

Kinase mTOR: regulation and role in maintenance of cellular homeostasis, tumor development, and aging

Serine/threonine protein kinase mTOR regulates the maintenance of cellular homeostasis by coordinating transcription, translation, metabolism, and autophagy with availability of amino acids, growth factors, ATP, and oxygen. The mTOR kinase is a component of two protein complexes, mTORC1 and mTORC2, which are different in their composition and regulate different cellular processes. An uncontrolled activation of the mTOR kinase is observed in cells of the majority of tumors, as well as in diabetes and neurodegenerative and some other diseases. At present, inhibitors of the kinase complex mTORC1 are undergoing clinical trials. This review focuses on different aspects of the regulation of the mTORC1 and mTORC2 complexes, on their role in the regulation of protein synthesis, metabolism, and autophagy, as well as on using mTOR inhibitors for treatment of tumors and slowing of aging.

The essential role of TNIK gene amplification in gastric cancer growth

Traf2- and Nck-interacting kinase (TNIK) is one of the germinal center kinase family members involved in cytoskeleton organization and neuronal dendrite extension. Emerging evidence supports that TNIK is essential for activation of WNT signaling pathway in colon cancer growth. To search for novel genetic aberrations that drive carcinogenesis, we performed microarray-based comparative hybridization assay for gene copy number variations in primary tumor samples. Our data showed that TNIK gene was amplified in 7% (8/106) of Chinese gastric cancer patients. Theses amplifications were confirmed by fluorescence in situ hybridization analysis. PAMC82 human gastric cancer and T47D human breast cancer cell lines with TNIK amplification were identified to further understand the function of TNIK gene amplification. RNA-interference-mediated silencing of TNIK resulted in significant inhibition of cell growth and induction of cell death in TNIK-amplified, but not in TNIK-non-amplified, cell lines tested. This selective sensitivity to the TNIK inhibition was also observed under the effect of a small-molecule TNIK inhibitor. Furthermore, our data indicated that TNIK's role in gastric cancer growth was not dependent on Wnt signaling but rather was involved in AKT activation and cell autophagy. Together, our results suggest that TNIK is a novel therapeutic target in gastric cancer and TNIK amplification can be potentially used for patient selection.

Dichloroacetate induces protective autophagy in LoVo cells: involvement of cathepsin D/thioredoxin-like protein 1 and Akt-mTOR-mediated signaling

Dichloroacetate (DCA) is an inhibitor of pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase (PDK), and recently it has been shown as a promising nontoxic antineoplastic agent. In this study, we demonstrated that DCA could induce autophagy in LoVo cells, which were confirmed by the formation of autophagosomes, appearance of punctate patterns of LC3 immunoreactivity and activation of autophagy associated proteins. Moreover, autophagy inhibition by 3-methyladenine (3-MA) or Atg7 siRNA treatment can significantly enhance DCA-induced apoptosis. To determine the underlying mechanism of DCA-induced autophagy, target identification using drug affinity responsive target stability (DARTS) coupled with ESI-Q-TOF MS/MS analysis were utilized to profile differentially expressed proteins between control and DCA-treated LoVo cells. As a result, Cathepsin D (CTSD) and thioredoxin-like protein 1 (TXNL1) were identified with significant alterations compared with control. Further study indicated that DCA treatment significantly promoted abnormal reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. On the other hand, DCA-triggered autophagy could be attenuated by N-acetyl cysteine (NAC), a ROS inhibitor. Finally, we demonstrated that the Akt-mTOR signaling pathway, a major negative regulator of autophagy, was suppressed by DCA treatment. To our knowledge, it was the first study to show that DCA induced protective autophagy in LoVo cells, and the potential mechanisms were involved in ROS imbalance and Akt-mTOR signaling pathway suppression.

Crosstalk between autophagy and inflammasomes

A variety of cellular stresses activate the autophagy pathway, which is fundamentally important in protection against injurious stimuli. Defects in the autophagy process are associated with a variety of human diseases, including inflammatory and metabolic diseases. The inflammasomes are emerging as key signaling platforms directing the maturation and secretion of interleukin-1 family cytokines in response to pathogenic and sterile stimuli. Recent studies have identified the critical role of inflammasome activation in host defense and inflammation. Delineation of the relationship between autophagy and inflammasome activation is now being greatly facilitated by the use of mice models of autophagy gene deficiency and clinical studies. We surveyed the recent research regarding the contribution of autophagy to the control of inflammation, in particular the association between autophagy and inflammasomes. Understanding the mechanisms by which autophagy balances inflammation might facilitate the development of autophagy-based therapeutic modalities for infectious and inflammatory diseases.