The Protective Effects of Syringic Acid on Bisphenol A-Induced Neurotoxicity Possibly Through AMPK/PGC-1α/Fndc5 and CREB/BDNF Signaling Pathways

Bisphenol A (BPA), an endocrine disruptor, is commonly used to produce epoxy resins and polycarbonate plastics. Continuous exposure to BPA may contribute to the development of diseases in humans and seriously affect their health. Previous research suggests a significant relationship between the increased incidence of neurological diseases and the level of BPA in the living environment. Syringic acid (SA), a natural derivative of gallic acid, has recently considered much attention due to neuromodulator activity and its anti-oxidant, anti-apoptotic, and anti-inflammatory effects. Therefore, in this study, we aimed to investigate the effects of SA on oxidative stress, apoptosis, memory and locomotor disorders, and mitochondrial function, and to identify the mechanisms related to Alzheimer's disease (AD) in the brain of rats receiving high doses of BPA. For this purpose, male Wistar rats received BPA (50, 100, and 200 mg/kg) and SA (50 mg/kg) for 21 days. The results showed that BPA exposure significantly altered the rats' neurobehavioral responses. Additionally, BPA, by increasing the level of ROS, and MDA level, increased the level of oxidative stress while reducing the level of antioxidant enzymes, such as SOD, CAT, GPx, and mitochondrial GSH. The administration of BPA at 200 mg/kg significantly decreased the expression of ERRα, TFAM, irisin, PGC-1α, Bcl-2, and FNDC5, while it increased the expression of TrkB, cytochrome C, caspase 3, and Bax. Moreover, the Western blotting results showed that BPA increased the levels of P-AMPK, GSK3b, p-tau, and Aβ, while it decreased the levels of PKA, P-PKA, Akt, BDNF, CREB, P-CREB, and PI3K. Meanwhile, SA at 50 mg/kg reversed the behavioral, biochemical, and molecular changes induced by high doses of BPA. Overall, BPA could lead to the development of AD by affecting the mitochondria-dependent apoptosis pathway, as well as AMPK/PGC-1α/FNDC5 and CREB/BDNF/TrkB signaling pathways, and finally, by increasing the expression of tau and Aβ proteins. In conclusion, SA, as an antioxidant, significantly reduced the toxicity of BPA.

Role of a Pdlim5:PalmD complex in directing dendrite morphology

Neuronal connectivity is regulated during normal brain development with the arrangement of spines and synapses being dependent on the morphology of dendrites. Further, in multiple neurodevelopmental and aging disorders, disruptions of dendrite formation or shaping is associated with atypical neuronal connectivity. We showed previously that Pdlim5 binds delta-catenin and promotes dendrite branching. We report here that Pdlim5 interacts with PalmD, a protein previously suggested by others to interact with the cytoskeleton (e.g., via adducin/spectrin) and to regulate membrane shaping. Functionally, the knockdown of PalmD or Pdlim5 in rat primary hippocampal neurons dramatically reduces branching and conversely, PalmD exogenous expression promotes dendrite branching as does Pdlim5. Further, we show that each proteins' effects are dependent on the presence of the other. In summary, using primary rat hippocampal neurons we reveal the contributions of a novel Pdlim5:PalmD protein complex, composed of functionally inter-dependent components responsible for shaping neuronal dendrites.

Exogenous GDNF promotes peripheral facial nerve regeneration in rats through the PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling pathway

Facial nerve regeneration still lacks a well-defined and practical clinical intervention. The survival of central facial motoneuron is a critical component in the successful peripheral facial nerve regeneration. Endogenous GDNF is vital for facial nerve regeneration according to earlier investigations. Nevertheless, the low endogenous GDNF level makes it challenging to achieve therapeutic benefits. Thus, we crushed the main trunk of facial nerve in SD rats to provide a model of peripheral facial paralysis, and we administered exogenous GDNF and Rapa treatments. We observed changes in the animal behavior scores, the morphology of facial nerve and buccinator muscle, the electrophysiological of facial nerve, and the expression of GDNF, GAP-43, and PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling pathway-related molecules in the facial motoneurons. We discovered that GDNF could boost axon regeneration, hasten the recovery of facial paralysis symptoms and nerve conduction function, and increase the expression of GDNF, GAP-43, and PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling pathway-related molecules in the central facial motoneurons. Therefore, exogenous GDNF injection into the buccinator muscle can enhance facial nerve regeneration following crushing injury and protect facial neurons via the PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling pathway. This will offer a fresh perspective and theoretical foundation for the management of clinical facial nerve regeneration.

Targeting BDNF with acupuncture: A novel integrated strategy for diabetes and depression comorbidity

Diabetes and depression are common comorbid conditions that impose a substantial health burden. Acupuncture may effectively improve symptoms in patients with diabetes and depression, but the underlying mechanism remains unclear. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) may play a vital role in the effects of acupuncture on diabetes and depression comorbidity. This review summarizes the potential role of BDNF in acupuncture for diabetes and depression comorbidity. BDNF appears to exert its effects via the BDNF-TrkB-ERK-CREB signaling pathway. BDNF levels are reduced in diabetes and depression, and acupuncture may increase BDNF expression, improving symptoms and glycemic control. High-quality research is needed to validate the efficacy of acupuncture for diabetes and depression comorbidity. Randomized controlled trials and mechanistic studies should investigate the BDNF pathway and other potential mechanisms. Improved understanding of the links between diabetes, depression and acupuncture may enable targeted and individualized patient care. Earlier diagnosis and management of diabetes and depression comorbidity should also be a priority.

Role of a Pdlim5:PalmD complex in directing dendrite morphology

Neuronal connectivity is regulated during normal brain development with the arrangement of spines and synapses being dependent on the morphology of dendrites. Further, in multiple neurodevelopmental and aging disorders, disruptions of dendrite formation or shaping is associated with atypical neuronal connectivity. We showed previously that Pdlim5 binds delta-catenin and promotes dendrite branching (Baumert et al., J Cell Biol 2020). We report here that Pdlim5 interacts with PalmD, a protein previously suggested by others to interact with the cytoskeleton (e.g., via adducin/ spectrin) and to regulate membrane shaping. Functionally, the knockdown of PalmD or Pdlim5 in rat primary hippocampal neurons dramatically reduces branching and conversely, PalmD exogenous expression promotes dendrite branching as does Pdlim5. Further, we show that effects of each protein are dependent on the presence of the other. In summary, using primary rat hippocampal neurons we reveal the contributions of a novel Pdlim5:PalmD protein complex, composed of functionally inter-dependent components responsible for shaping neuronal dendrites.

Mesenchymal stem cell-derived conditioned medium and Methysergide give rise to crosstalk inhibition of 5-HT2A and 5-HT7 receptors in neuroblastoma cells

OBJECTIVE

(s): We aimed to investigate the effects of mesenchymal stem cell secretome and methysergide combination on 5-hydroxytryptamine 2A, (5-HT2AR), 5-hydroxytryptamine 7 (5-HT7R), adenosine 2A (A2AR) receptors and CD73 on neuroblastoma cell line and how they affect biological characteristics. Methysergide was used as a serotonin antagonist on the neuroblastoma cells.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Human dental pulp-derived stem cells (hDPSCs) used to obtain conditioned medium (CM). Methysergide drug was prepared in CM and applied to neuroblastoma cells. Analysis of 5-HT7R, 5-HT2AR, A2AR and CD73 expressions was performed by western blot and immunofluorescence staining. Total apoptosis, mitochondrial membrane depolarization, Ki-67 proliferation test, viability analysis, DNA damage and cell cycle analysis were performed in accordance with the product procedure by using biological activity test kits.

RESULTS

Our results showed that neuroblastoma cancer cells are normally on the Gs signaling axis via the serotonin 7 receptor and the adenosine 2A receptor. CM and Methysergide inhibited the 5-HT7 and A2A receptor levels in neuroblastoma cells. We found that CM and methysergide formed crosstalk inhibition between 5-HT2AR, 5-HT7R, A2AR and CD73. CM and Methysergide increased the total apoptosis in neuroblastoma cells and induced the mitochondrial membrane depolarization. CM and Methysergide induced the DNA damage and arrested in G0/G1 phase of cell cycle of the neuroblastoma cells.

CONCLUSION

These findings suggest that the combination of CM and methysergite may exert a therapeutic effect on neuroblastoma cancer cells, and future in vivo studies may be important in area of neuroblastoma research to support the findings.

Development of the Placenta and Brain Are Affected by Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitor Exposure During Critical Periods

Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are usually prescribed to treat major depression and anxiety disorders. Fetal brain development exhibits dependency on serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT) from maternal, placental, and fetal brain sources. At very early fetal stages, fetal serotonin is provided by maternal and placental sources. However, in later fetal stages, brain sources are indispensable for the appropriate development of neural circuitry and the rise of emergent functions implied in behavior acquisition. Thus, susceptible serotonin-related critical periods are recognized, involving the early maternal and placental 5-HT synthesis and the later endogenous 5-HT synthesis in the fetal brain. Acute and chronic exposure to SSRIs during these critical periods may result in short- and long-term placental and brain dysfunctions affecting intrauterine and postnatal life. Maternal and fetal cells express serotonin receptors which make them susceptible to changes in serotonin levels influenced by SSRIs. SSRIs block the serotonin transporter (SERT), which is required for 5-HT reuptake from the synaptic cleft into the presynaptic neuron. Chronic SSRI administration leads to pre- and postsynaptic 5-HT receptor rearrangement. In this review, we focus on the effects of SSRIs administered during critical periods upon placentation and brain development to be considered in evaluating the risk-safety balance in the clinical use of SSRIs.

Nanowired Delivery of Cerebrolysin Together with Antibodies to Amyloid Beta Peptide, Phosphorylated Tau, and Tumor Necrosis Factor Alpha Induces Superior Neuroprotection in Alzheimer's Disease Brain Pathology Exacerbated by Sleep Deprivation

Sleep deprivation induces amyloid beta peptide and phosphorylated tau deposits in the brain and cerebrospinal fluid together with altered serotonin metabolism. Thus, it is likely that sleep deprivation is one of the predisposing factors in precipitating Alzheimer's disease (AD) brain pathology. Our previous studies indicate significant brain pathology following sleep deprivation or AD. Keeping these views in consideration in this review, nanodelivery of monoclonal antibodies to amyloid beta peptide (AβP), phosphorylated tau (p-tau), and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) in sleep deprivation-induced AD is discussed based on our own investigations. Our results suggest that nanowired delivery of monoclonal antibodies to AβP with p-tau and TNF-α induces superior neuroprotection in AD caused by sleep deprivation, not reported earlier.

Indole Acetic Acid Exerts Anti-Depressive Effects on an Animal Model of Chronic Mild Stress

Indole acetic acid (IAA), an intestinal bacteria-derived tryptophan metabolite, has been detected at abnormal concentrations in the cerebrospinal fluid and urine of depressed individuals. The effects of such altered IAA concentrations on mood regulation are not known. A mouse model of unpredictable chronic mild stress (UCMS) was used to assess the effects of IAA administration (50 mg/kg). Treatment with IAA for 5 weeks attenuated depression and anxiety-like behaviours, improved hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis dysfunction and increased brain-derived neurotrophic factor expression. IAA supplementation also enhanced the serotonin pathway in the brain and gut. UCMS caused an imbalance of microbial indole metabolites in the colon, whereas IAA treatment reversed this. However, IAA intake did not affect the concentrations of indoles in the brain. Intestinal bacteria in different sections of the gut were altered by IAA treatment, with the colon showing more changes than other segments. The gut microbiome in the colon had increased proportions of Ruminococcaceae UCG013, Ruminiclostridium 6, Prevotella, Alloprevotella and Bacteroides species, which can produce short-chain fatty acids and indole derivatives. Cumulatively, our study highlights the potential of IAA treatment to alleviate mood disorders and offers a theoretical basis for understanding the antidepressant effects of IAA.

Sublingual buprenorphine/naloxone treatment is not affected by OPRM1 A118G and BDNF Va66Met polymorphisms, but alters the plasma beta-endorphin and BDNF levels in individuals with opioid use disorder

The study aimed to examine the genetic contribution to buprenorphine (BUP) treatment in individuals with opioid use disorder (OUD), with a specific focus on BDNF and OPRM1 genes. A total of 113 controls and 111 OUD patients receiving sublingual BUP/naloxone were enrolled. OPRM1 A118G and BDNF Val66Met polymorphisms were investigated by PCR-FRLP. Plasma BDNF and beta-endorphin levels were assessed by ELISA kits in both groups. Blood BUP levels were measured by LC-MS/MS and normalized with daily BUP dose (BUP/D). OPRM1 A118G and BDNF Val66Met polymorphisms didn't have an effect on plasma beta-endorphin and BDNF levels in OUD patients, respectively. Interestingly, OUD patients had significantly higher plasma BDNF and lower beta-endorphin levels compared to the controls (p < 0.001). A negative and significant correlation between plasma BUP/D and BDNF levels was found. Age onset of first use was associated with OPRM1 A118G polymorphism. The findings indicated that sublingual BUP/naloxone may increase plasma BDNF levels, but may decrease beta-endorphin levels in individuals with OUD. Plasma BDNF level seemed to be decreased in a BUP/D concentration-dependent manner.

Serotonin Receptor 5-HT2A Regulates TrkB Receptor Function in Heteroreceptor Complexes

Serotonin receptor 5-HT_2A and tropomyosin receptor kinase B (TrkB) strongly contribute to neuroplasticity regulation and are implicated in numerous neuronal disorders. Here, we demonstrate a physical interaction between 5-HT_2A and TrkB in vitro and in vivo using co-immunoprecipitation and biophysical and biochemical approaches. Heterodimerization decreased TrkB autophosphorylation, preventing its activation with agonist 7,8-DHF, even with low 5-HT_2A receptor expression. A blockade of 5-HT_2A receptor with the preferential antagonist ketanserin prevented the receptor-mediated downregulation of TrkB phosphorylation without restoring the TrkB response to its agonist 7,8-DHF in vitro. In adult mice, intraperitoneal ketanserin injection increased basal TrkB phosphorylation in the frontal cortex and hippocampus, which is in accordance with our findings demonstrating the prevalence of 5-HT_2A–TrkB heteroreceptor complexes in these brain regions. An expression analysis revealed strong developmental regulation of 5-HT_2A and TrkB expressions in the cortex, hippocampus, and especially the striatum, demonstrating that the balance between TrkB and 5-HT_2A may shift in certain brain regions during postnatal development. Our data reveal the functional role of 5-HT_2A–TrkB receptor heterodimerization and suggest that the regulated expression of 5-HT_2A and TrkB is a molecular mechanism for the brain-region-specific modulation of TrkB functions during development and under pathophysiological conditions.

Autophagy: A Key Regulator of Homeostasis and Disease: An Overview of Molecular Mechanisms and Modulators

Autophagy is a highly conserved lysosomal degradation pathway active at basal levels in all cells. However, under stress conditions, such as a lack of nutrients or trophic factors, it works as a survival mechanism that allows the generation of metabolic precursors for the proper functioning of the cells until the nutrients are available. Neurons, as post-mitotic cells, depend largely on autophagy to maintain cell homeostasis to get rid of damaged and/or old organelles and misfolded or aggregated proteins. Therefore, the dysfunction of this process contributes to the pathologies of many human diseases. Furthermore, autophagy is highly active during differentiation and development. In this review, we describe the current knowledge of the different pathways, molecular mechanisms, factors that induce it, and the regulation of mammalian autophagy. We also discuss its relevant role in development and disease. Finally, here we summarize several investigations demonstrating that autophagic abnormalities have been considered the underlying reasons for many human diseases, including liver disease, cardiovascular, cerebrovascular diseases, neurodegenerative diseases, neoplastic diseases, cancers, and, more recently, infectious diseases, such as SARS-CoV-2 caused COVID-19 disease.

Medicinal Plants and Their Impact on the Gut Microbiome in Mental Health: A Systematic Review

Background: Various neurocognitive and mental health-related conditions have been associated with the gut microbiome, implicating a microbiome–gut–brain axis (MGBA). The aim of this systematic review was to identify, categorize, and review clinical evidence supporting medicinal plants for the treatment of mental disorders and studies on their interactions with the gut microbiota. Methods: This review included medicinal plants for which clinical studies on depression, sleeping disorders, anxiety, or cognitive dysfunction as well as scientific evidence of interaction with the gut microbiome were available. The studies were reported using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) statement. Results: Eighty-five studies met the inclusion criteria and covered thirty mental health-related medicinal plants with data on interaction with the gut microbiome. Conclusion: Only a few studies have been specifically designed to assess how herbal preparations affect MGBA-related targets or pathways. However, many studies provide hints of a possible interaction with the MGBA, such as an increased abundance of health-beneficial microorganisms, anti-inflammatory effects, or MGBA-related pathway effects by gut microbial metabolites. Data for Panax ginseng, Schisandra chinensis, and Salvia rosmarinus indicate that the interaction of their constituents with the gut microbiota could mediate mental health benefits. Studies specifically assessing the effects on MGBA-related pathways are still required for most medicinal plants.

Bioelectric Potential in Next-Generation Organoids: Electrical Stimulation to Enhance 3D Structures of the Central Nervous System

Pluripotent stem cell-derived organoid models of the central nervous system represent one of the most exciting areas in in vitro tissue engineering. Classically, organoids of the brain, retina and spinal cord have been generated via recapitulation of in vivo developmental cues, including biochemical and biomechanical. However, a lesser studied cue, bioelectricity, has been shown to regulate central nervous system development and function. In particular, electrical stimulation of neural cells has generated some important phenotypes relating to development and differentiation. Emerging techniques in bioengineering and biomaterials utilise electrical stimulation using conductive polymers. However, state-of-the-art pluripotent stem cell technology has not yet merged with this exciting area of bioelectricity. Here, we discuss recent findings in the field of bioelectricity relating to the central nervous system, possible mechanisms, and how electrical stimulation may be utilised as a novel technique to engineer “next-generation” organoids.

Retinopathy of prematurity: contribution of inflammatory and genetic factors

Retinopathy of prematurity (ROP) is a retinal vasoproliferative disorder that represents an important cause of childhood visual impairment and blindness. Although oxidative stress has long been implicated in ROP etiology, other prenatal and perinatal factors are also involved. This review focuses on current research involving inflammation and genetic factors in the pathogenesis of ROP. Increasing evidence suggests that perinatal inflammation or infection contributes to ROP pathogenesis. Cytokines and chemokines with a fundamental role in inflammatory responses and that significantly contributing to angiogenesis are analyzed. Microglia cells, the retinal-resident macrophages, are crucial for retinal homeostasis, however, under sustained pathological stimuli release exaggerated amounts of inflammatory mediators and can promote pathological neovascularization. Current modulation of angiogenic cytokines, such as treatment with antibodies to vascular endothelial growth factor (anti-VEGF), has shown efficacy in the treatment of ocular neovascularization; however, some patients are refractory to anti-VEGF agents, suggesting that other angiogenic or anti-angiogenic cytokines need to be identified. Much evidence suggests that genetic factors contribute to the phenotypic variability of ROP. Several studies have implicated the involvement of candidate genes from different signaling pathways in the development of ROP. However, a genetic component with a major impact on ROP has not yet been discovered. Most studies have limitations and did not replicate results. Future research involving bioinformatics, genomics, and proteomics may contribute to finding more genes associated with ROP and may allow discovering better solutions in the management and treatment of ROP.

Role of Microbiota-Gut-Brain Axis in Regulating Dopaminergic Signaling

Dopamine is a neurotransmitter that plays a critical role both peripherally and centrally in vital functions such as cognition, reward, satiety, voluntary motor movements, pleasure, and motivation. Optimal dopamine bioavailability is essential for normal brain functioning and protection against the development of neurological diseases. Emerging evidence shows that gut microbiota have significant roles in maintaining adequate concentrations of dopamine via intricate, bidirectional communication known as the microbiota-gut-brain axis. The vagus nerve, immune system, hypothalamus–pituitary–adrenal axis, and microbial metabolites serve as important mediators of the reciprocal microbiota-gut-brain signaling. Furthermore, gut microbiota contain intrinsic enzymatic activity that is highly involved in dopamine metabolism, facilitating dopamine synthesis as well as its metabolite breakdown. This review examines the relationship between key genera of gut microbiota such as Prevotella, Bacteroides, Lactobacillus, Bifidobacterium, Clostridium, Enterococcus, and Ruminococcus and their effects on dopamine. The effects of gut dysbiosis on dopamine bioavailability and the subsequent impact on dopamine-related pathological conditions such as Parkinson’s disease are also discussed. Understanding the role of gut microbiota in modulating dopamine activity and bioavailability both in the periphery and in the central nervous system can help identify new therapeutic targets as well as optimize available methods to prevent, delay, or restore dopaminergic deficits in neurologic and metabolic disorders.

Influence of N-Arachidonoyl Dopamine and N-Docosahexaenoyl Dopamine on the Expression of Neurotrophic Factors in Neuronal Differentiated Cultures of Human Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells under Conditions of Oxidative Stress

Oxidative stress (OS) is implicated in the pathogenesis of several neurodegenerative diseases. We have previously shown that N-acyl dopamines (N-ADA and N-DDA) protect the neural cells of healthy donors and patients with Parkinson’s disease from OS. In this study, we assessed the effects of N-acyl dopamines on the expression of neurotrophic factors in human-induced pluripotent stem cell-derived neuronal cultures enriched with dopaminergic neurons under conditions of OS induced by hydrogen peroxide. We showed that hydrogen peroxide treatment increased BDNF but not GDNF mRNA levels, while it did not affect the secretion of corresponding proteins into the culture medium of these cells. Application of N-acyl dopamines promoted BDNF release into the culture medium. Under conditions of OS, N-DDA also increased TRKB, TRKC and RET mRNA levels. Furthermore, N-acyl dopamines prevented cell death 24 h after OS induction and promoted the expression of antioxidant enzymes GPX1, GPX7, SOD1, SOD2 and CAT, as well as reduced the BAX/BCL2 mRNA ratio. These findings indicate that stimulation of the expression of neurotrophic factors and their receptors may underlie the neuroprotective effects of N-acyl dopamines in human neurons.

The Relationship Between 5-Hydroxytryptamine and Its Metabolite Changes With Post-stroke Depression

Post-stroke depression (PSD) is the most common and serious sequelae of stroke. Approximately 33% of stroke survivors were affected by PSD. However, many issues (e.g., incidence, diagnostic marker, and risk factor) related to PSD remained unclear. The "monoamine hypothesis" is a significant hypothesis for depression, which suggests that three monoamines play a key role in depression. Therefore, most current antidepressants are developed to modulate the monoamines on PSD treatment, and these antidepressants have good effects on patients with PSD. However, the potential mechanisms of three monoamines in PSD are still unclear. Previously, we proposed "three primary emotions," which suggested a new model of basic emotions based on the three monoamines. It may provide a new way for PSD treatment. In addition, recent studies have found that monoamine-related emotional intervention also showed potential effects in the treatment and prevention of PSD. This study discusses these issues and attempts to provide a prospect for future research on PSD.

Acute sleep deprivation immediately increases serum GDNF, BDNF and VEGF levels in healthy subjects

Acute sleep deprivation upregulates hippocampal neurogenesis. Neurotrophic factors such as glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF), brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) are mediators of neuronal plasticity and neurogenesis. These neurotrophins are involved in sleep and sleep disorders and are associated with sleep deprivation. In this study, it is aimed to investigate the changes of neurotrophin levels with total sleep deprivation in healthy individuals. Seventeen healthy young adults with a mean age of 19.8 (SD = 1.0) years underwent an experimental protocol consisting of 36 h of total sleep deprivation. Venous blood samples were obtained on Day1 at 09.00, on Day2 at 09.00, and at 21.00. Serum levels of neurotrophins were detected using the ELISA method. The participants were asked to mark the scores corresponding to their subjective energy, happiness, depression, tension levels on the visual analog scale; and sleepiness level on the Epworth Sleepiness Scale; during the course of the study. As a result of 36 h of sleep deprivation, serum GDNF, BDNF, and VEGF levels showed a statistically significant increase compared to the baseline values in the participants included in the study (P < 0.0001). While this increase was evident in 24 h, it continued after 36 h. In parallel, sleepiness levels, subjective depression, and tension levels increased, on the other hand, subjective energy and happiness scores decreased at a statistically significant level at the end of the study compared to basal values (P < 0.0001). The results show that acute sleep deprivation significantly affects and increases serum levels of neurotrophic factors, and it seems that these effects are likely to occur as an immediate response to the stress and disruption caused by sleep deprivation.

FEATURES OF SOCIAL DYSFUNCTION, ASSESSMENT OF LEVELS OF SOCIAL FRUSTRATION AND SATISFACTION WITH THE QUALITY OF MEDICAL CARE IN PATIENTS WITH SCHIZOPHRENIA ON THE BACKGROUND OF SOMATIC COMORBIDITY

OBJECTIVE

The aim: To study the features of social dysfunction, assess the levels of social frustration and satisfaction with the quality of medical care in patients with schizophrenia on the background of somatic comorbidity.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Materials and methods: The study included 105 patients (55 women - 52.38% and 50 men - 47.61%) with a verified diagnosis of schizophrenia (F20.0-F20.3). The psychopathological condition of patients was assessed according to the "Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale" (PANSS). A special psychodiagnostic technique by L. I. Wasserman in the modification of V.V. Boiko was used to assess the level of social frustration. Peculiarities of social dysfunction were assessed based on the "Personal and Social Performance scale" (PSP). "The Health Resource Use Questionnaire" was used to obtain the information about the coverage of this patient with primary or specialized somatic care during the last three months. General and systematic examination of the patient was also performed, physical methods of diagnosis (palpation, percussion, auscultation) were applied, body mass index was calculated. Consultations of specialists, instrumental (ECG, ultrasound, Echo-CS, etc.) and laboratory diagnostic methods were prescribed depending on the detection or suspicion of concomitant somatic pathology.

RESULTS

Results: The results showed significant social isolation of the respondents, their contacts were limited to communication with relatives and friends. This was confirmed by the data of social functioning on the PSP scale, according to which the most pronounced violations in the examined patients were found in the areas of "personal and social relationships", "socially useful activities, including work and study". It should be noted that the higher the rates of social dysfunction, the stronger the level of frustration (p<0.05). In particular, the low level of satisfaction with the field of medical services due to its inaccessibility, according to respondents, attracts attention. According to the relatives, the main reason for this restriction was the patients' lack of awareness of their condition, neglect and indifference.

CONCLUSION

Conclusions: Further attention is required to develop strategies to improve comorbid treatment in the patients with schizophrenia regardless of whether this situation is the result of negative attitude of health professionals towards patients with mental illness, or the result of the patients' ignorance of their physical condition, or other factors.

Effects of a Cc2d1a/Freud-1 Knockdown in the Hippocampus on Behavior, the Serotonin System, and BDNF

The serotonin 5-HT_1A receptor is one of the most abundant and widely distributed brain serotonin (5-HT) receptors that play a major role in the modulation of emotions and behavior. The 5-HT_1A receptor gene (Htr1a) is under the control of transcription factor Freud-1 (also known as Cc2d1a/Freud-1). Here, using adeno-associated virus (AAV) constructs in vivo, we investigated effects of a Cc2d1a/Freud-1 knockdown in the hippocampus of C57BL/6J mice on behavior, the brain 5-HT system, and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). AAV particles carrying the pAAV_H1-2_shRNA-Freud-1_Syn_EGFP plasmid encoding a short-hairpin RNA targeting mouse Cc2d1a/Freud-1 mRNA had an antidepressant effect in the forced swim test 5 weeks after virus injection. The knockdown impaired spatiotemporal memory as assessed in the Morris water maze. pAAV_H1-2_shRNA-Freud-1_Syn_EGFP decreased Cc2d1a/Freud-1 mRNA and protein levels. Furthermore, the Cc2d1a/Freud-1 knockdown upregulated 5-HT and its metabolite 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid but not their ratio. The Cc2d1a/Freud-1 knockdown failed to increase mRNA and protein levels of Htr1a but diminished a 5-HT_1A receptor functional response. Meanwhile, the Cc2d1a/Freud-1 knockdown reduced Creb mRNA expression and CREB phosphorylation and upregulated cFos mRNA. The knockdown enhanced the expression of a BDNF precursor (proBDNF protein), which is known to play a crucial part in neuroplasticity. Our data indicate that transcription factor Cc2d1a/Freud-1 is implicated in the pathogenesis of depressive disorders not only via the 5-HT_1A receptor and transcription factor CREB but also through an influence on BDNF.

Psychedelic-inspired approaches for treating neurodegenerative disorders

Psychedelics are increasingly being recognized for their potential to treat a wide range of brain disorders including depression, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and substance use disorder. Their broad therapeutic potential might result from an ability to rescue cortical atrophy common to many neuropsychiatric and neurodegenerative diseases by impacting neurotrophic factor gene expression, activating neuronal growth and survival mechanisms, and modulating the immune system. While the therapeutic potential of psychedelics has not yet been extended to neurodegenerative disorders, we provide evidence suggesting that approaches based on psychedelic science might prove useful for treating these diseases. The primary target of psychedelics, the 5-HT_2A receptor, plays key roles in cortical neuron health and is dysregulated in Alzheimer's disease. Moreover, evidence suggests that psychedelics and related compounds could prove useful for treating the behavioral and psychological symptoms of dementia (BPSD). While more research is needed to probe the effects of psychedelics in models of neurodegenerative diseases, the robust effects of these compounds on structural and functional neuroplasticity and inflammation clearly warrant further investigation.

Structure-Activity Relationship of Novel Second-Generation Synthetic Cathinones: Mechanism of Action, Locomotion, Reward, and Immediate-Early Genes

Several new synthetic cathinones, which mimic the effect of classical psychostimulants such as cocaine or MDMA, have appeared in the global illicit drug market in the last decades. In fact, the illicit drug market is continually evolving by constantly adding small modifications to the common chemical structure of synthetic cathinones. Thus, the aim of this study was to investigate the in vitro and in vivo structure–activity relationship (SAR) of six novel synthetic cathinones currently popular as recreational drugs, pentedrone, pentylone, N-ethyl-pentedrone (NEPD), N-ethyl-pentylone (NEP), 4-methyl-pentedrone (4-MPD), and 4-methyl-ethylaminopentedrone (4-MeAP), which structurally differ in the absence or presence of different aromatic substituents and in their amino terminal group. Human embryonic kidney (HEK293) cells expressing the human isoforms of SERT and DAT were used for the uptake inhibition and release assays. Moreover, Swiss CD-1 mice were used to investigate the psychostimulant effect, rewarding properties (3, 10, and 30 mg/kg, i.p.), and the induction of immediate-early genes (IEGs), such as Arc and c-fos in the dorsal striatum (DS) and ventral striatum (VS) as well as bdnf in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), of the test compounds. Our results demonstrated that all tested synthetic cathinones are potent dopamine (DA) uptake inhibitors, especially the N-ethyl analogs, while the ring-substituted cathinones tested showed higher potency as SERT inhibitors than their no ring-substituted analogs. Moreover, unlike NEP, the remaining test compounds showed clear “hybrid” properties, acting as DAT blockers but SERT substrates. Regarding the locomotion, NEP and NEPD were more efficacious (10 mg/kg) than their N-methyl analogs, which correlates with their higher potency inhibiting the DAT and an overexpression of Arc levels in the DS and VS. Furthermore, all compounds tested induced an increase in c-fos expression in the DS, except for 4-MPD, the least effective compound in inducing hyperlocomotion. Moreover, NEP induced an up-regulation of bdnf in the mPFC that correlates with its 5-HTergic properties. Finally, the present study demonstrated for the first time that NEP, 4-MPD, and 4-MeAP induce reward in mice. Altogether, this study provides valuable information about the mechanism of action and psychostimulant and rewarding properties as well as changes in the expression of IEGs related to addiction induced by novel second-generation synthetic cathinones.

Repeated exposure to sevoflurane in neonatal rats impairs cognition in adulthood via the PKA-CREB-BDNF signaling pathway

Sevoflurane (Sev) anesthesia is widely used in pediatrics due to its low blood-gas partition coefficient and lack of pungency. However, Sev treatment may lead to cognitive dysfunction in later life. The current study administered Sev to neonatal rats to investigate the effects of Sev treatment on cognitive performance in adulthood. In total, 6-day-old rats received 3% Sev for 2 h daily for 3 consecutive days. The cognitive function of rats in adulthood was evaluated in 56-day-old rats by Morris water maze test. The hippocampal neuron morphology was observed by Nissl staining. Hippocampal brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) levels were measured by ELISA. The protein expression of protein kinase A (PKA), cAMP response element binding protein (CREB), phosphorylated-CREB (p-CREB) and BDNF in hippocampus were assessed by western blotting. The water maze results demonstrated that neonatal treatment with Sev resulted in a significant impairment of cognition in 56-day-old adult rats. Behavioral analysis revealed that Sev treatment increased latency to first pass the platform and decreased residence in target quadrants and across platform frequency compared with the control group in Morris water maze tests. Furthermore, compared with the control group, neonatal exposure to Sev reduced the number of neurons and the concentration of BDNF in the hippocampus, a brain region important for learning and memory. Additionally, Sev significantly decreased the expression of PKA, p-CREB, BDNF and the p-CREB/CREB ratio. Treatment with bucladesine, a selective PKA agonist, partially reversed the deleterious effects of Sev. In summary, the results indicated that PKA-CREB-BDNF signaling served an important role in the cognitive decline caused by neonatal exposure to Sev.

Zonisamide attenuates the severity of levodopa-induced dyskinesia via modulation of the striatal serotonergic system in a rat model of Parkinson's disease

Glutamate, GABA, acetylcholine, dopamine, and serotonin interact with each other to regulate the flow of neural information in the striatum. Serotonin type 1A receptor (5HT1A) is primarily expressed on glutamatergic nerve terminals, and 5HT1B is expressed on GABAergic medium spiny neurons (MSNs). Zonisamide (ZNS) reportedly improves the off period without worsening levodopa-induced dyskinesia (LID) in patients with advanced Parkinson's disease. In this study, LID model rats were prepared by administrating levodopa to unilaterally 6-OHDA-lesioned rats. We analyzed changes in serotonergic neurotransmission of LID model rats to elucidate the relationship between LID and the serotonergic system and pathomechanism of the anti-dyskinetic effects of ZNS. Abnormal involuntary movements (AIMs) were most severe in intermittently levodopa-treated rats but milder in rats intermittently medicated with levodopa and ZNS. Continuously levodopa-infused rats or intermittently ZNS-injected rats did not develop AIMs, and no differences in the expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor, 5-HT transporter, 5HT1A, and 5HT1B mRNA between the lesioned striatum and normal side were observed. Expression of 5HT1B mRNA was elevated in the lesioned striatum of intermittently levodopa-treated rats, but this elevation was normalized by concomitant use of ZNS. The severity of AIMs was correlated with the ratio of 5HT1B to 5HT1A mRNA expression in the lesioned striatum, indicating that the anti-LID effect of ZNS is based on inhibition via 5HT1B receptors to direct pathway MSNs sensitized by intermittent levodopa treatment. Selectively acting serotonergic drugs, especially those that lower the 5HT1B to 5HT1A ratio, are promising new therapeutic agents to attenuate LID development.

Cerebral Dopamine Neurotrophic Factor (CDNF): Structure, Functions, and Therapeutic Potential

The cerebral dopamine neurotrophic factor (CDNF) together with the mesencephalic astrocyte-derived neurotrophic factor (MANF) form a unique family of neurotrophic factors (NTFs) structurally and functionally different from other proteins with neurotrophic activity. CDNF has no receptors on the cell membrane, is localized mainly in the cavity of endoplasmic reticulum (ER), and its primary function is to regulate ER stress. In addition, CDNF is able to suppress inflammation and apoptosis. Due to its functions, CDNF has demonstrated outstanding protective and restorative properties in various models of neuropathology associated with ER stress, including Parkinson's disease (PD). That is why CDNF already passed clinical trials in patients with PD. However, despite the name, CDNF functions extend far beyond the dopamine system in the brain. In particular, there are data on participation of CDNF in the maturation and maintenance of other neurotransmitter systems, regulation of the processes of neuroplasticity and non-motor behavior. In the present review, we discuss the features of CDNF structure and functions, its protective and regenerative properties.

Pimavanserin Promotes Trophic Factor Release and Protects Cultured Primary Dopaminergic Neurons Exposed to MPP+ in a GDNF-Dependent Manner

Neurodegeneration and impaired neural development are a common feature of many neuropsychiatric disorders. Second-generation antipsychotics (SGAs) and certain atypical antidepressants display neuroprotective effects. Though these drugs interact with many molecular targets, a common shared attribute is high antagonist potency at 5-HT_2A receptors. Pimavanserin is a selective 5-HT_2A inverse agonist/antagonist that was recently FDA approved for treating hallucinations and delusions associated with Parkinson's disease. Unlike SGAs, pimavanserin lacks activity at other targets like dopamine, histamine, muscarinic, and adrenergic receptors. To investigate whether selective 5-HT_2A inverse agonists have neuroprotective properties, pimavanserin and another selective 5-HT_2A inverse agonist, M100907, were applied to primary cultures of dopaminergic neurons treated with 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium (MPP+). Both pimavanserin and M100907 protected dopaminergic neurons against MPP+-induced cell death. The neuroprotective effects of pimavanserin required signaling through the extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 pathway, restored mitochondrial function, and reduced oxidative stress. Further investigation showed that pimavanserin promotes the release of brain-derived neurotrophic factor and glial-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) and that the neuroprotective effects of pimavanserin were blocked by antibodies to GDNF but not by anti-tyrosine receptor kinase B receptor antibodies. Thus, pimavanserin induces release of neurotrophic factors and protects dopaminergic neurons against MPP+ toxicity in a GDNF-dependent manner.

Gestational Folic Acid Administration Alleviated Maternal Postpartum Emotional and Cognitive Dysfunction in Mice

Gestational folic acid (FA) supplementation has been widely recognized for its benefits in preventing offspring defects, but its effect on postpartum females has not yet been adequately assessed. The occurrence of emotional and cognitive dysfunction is common in postpartum women, and its treatment remains limited. Considering the promising results of FA in various psychiatric disorders both in human and redents, we tested the effect of gestational FA administration on postpartum psychiatric behavioral phenotypes and the implicated brain-related mechanisms in a murine model. FA was administered orally in both the hormone-stimulated-pregnancy (HSP) model and pregnant mice at doses of 1 and 5 mg/kg. Postpartum behavioral results showed that the disorders of cognitive performance, depressive, and anxiety-related behaviors were all alleviated in the 5 mg/kg FA group. However, the general development of their offspring remained unaffected. Immunofluorescence and immunoblot results revealed that FA pretreatment significantly activated the maternal hippocampal BDNF-related pathway. Morphological studies have confirmed that FA promotes hippocampal neurogenesis. Moreover, synaptic plasticity and synaptic transmission are enhanced. All of these hippocampal changes play critical roles in rescuing neuronal function and behaviors. Thus, our data suggest that gestational FA administration has a therapeutic effect that improves cognition and reduces depression and anxiety in a murine postpartum model. This may be developed as a preventive and adjuvant therapeutic option for pregnant women.

Xanthoceraside administration produces significant antidepressant effects in mice through activation of the hippocampal BDNF signaling pathway

Current available antidepressants have various adverse reactions and slow pharmacodynamics, so it is necessary to find novel antidepressants for effective treatment. Xanthoceraside (XAN), a novel triterpenoid saponin extracted from the fruit husks of Xanthoceras sorbifolium Bunge, has anti-amnesic and neuroprotective properties. The purpose and significance of this study is to assess whether XAN has antidepressant effects in mice using the forced swim test (FST), tail suspension test (TST) and chronic unpredictable mild stress (CUMS) model of depression. The effects of XAN treatment on the hippocampal brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) signaling pathway and neurogenesis were examined. The antidepressant mechanism of XAN was explored using a BDNF inhibitor (K252a) and an anti-BDNF antibody. It was found that XAN administration significantly reversed the depressive-like behaviors of CUMS-treated mice. XAN treatment also significantly prevented the decreasing effects of CUMS on the hippocampal BDNF signaling and neurogenesis. The antidepressant effects of XAN in mice were blocked by both administration of K252a and anti-BDNF antibody. Collectively, these findings indicate that XAN possesses antidepressant effects in mice which are mediated by activation of hippocampal BDNF signaling pathway, thus providing the first evidence that XAN can be a potential antidepressant candidate.

The Influence of Val66Met Polymorphism in Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor on Stroke Recovery Outcome: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

Background and purpose. A single nucleotide polymorphism at nucleotide 196 (G/A) in the human brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) gene produces an amino acid substitution (valine to methionine) at codon 66(Val66Met). It is unclear whether carriers of this substitution may have worse functional outcomes after stroke. We aimed to explore the distribution of Val66Met polymorphism and evaluate the effect of different genotypes on stroke functional recovery. Methods. Several databases were searched using the keywords BDNF or brain-derived neurotrophic factor, codon66, G196A, rs6265, or Val66Met, and stroke. Results. A total of 25 articles were relevant to estimate the distribution of alleles; 5 reports were applied in the meta-analysis to assess genetic differences on recovery outcomes. The genetic model analysis showed that the recessive model should be used; we combined data for AA versus GA+GG (GG-Val/Val, GA-Val/Met, AA-Met/Met). The results showed that stroke patients with AA might have worse recovery outcomes than those with GA+GG (odds ratio = 1.90; 95% CI: 1.17-3.10; P = .010; I² = 69.2%). Overall, the A allele may be more common in Asian patients (48.6%; 95% CI: 45.8%-51.4%, I² = 54.2%) than Caucasian patients (29.8%; 95% CI: 7.5%-52.1%; I² = 99.1%). However, in Caucasian patients, the frequency of the A allele in Iranians (87.9%; 95% CI: 83.4%-92.3%) was quite higher than that in other Caucasians (18.7%; 95% CI: 16.6%-20.9%; I² = 0.00%). Conclusion. Val66Met AA carriers may have worse rehabilitation outcomes than GA+GG carriers. Further studies are needed to determine the effect of Val66Met polymorphism on stroke recovery and to evaluate this relationship with ethnicity, sex, age, stroke type, observe duration, stroke severity, injury location, and therapies.

Glial Cell-Derived Neurotrophic Factor Functions as a Potential Candidate Gene in Obstructive Sleep Apnea Based on a Combination of Bioinformatics and Targeted Capture Sequencing Analyses

Background

Obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) is a prevalent chronic disease that increases the risk of cardiovascular disease and metabolic and neuropsychiatric disorders, resulting in a considerable socioeconomic burden. The present study was aimed at identifying potential key genes influencing the mechanisms and consequences of OSA.

Methods

Gene expression profiles associated with OSA were obtained from the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database. Differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in subcutaneous adipose tissues from patients with OSA and normal tissues were screened using R software, followed by gene ontology and pathway enrichment analyses. Subsequently, a protein-protein interaction (PPI) network was constructed and hub genes were extracted using Cytoscape plugins. The intersected core genes derived from different topological algorithms were considered hub genes, and the potential candidate gene was selected from them for further analyses of expression variations using another GEO dataset and targeted capture sequencing in 100 subjects (50 with severe OSA and 50 without OSA).

Results

A total of 373 DEGs were identified in OSA samples relative to normal controls, which were primarily associated with olfactory transduction and neuroactive ligand-receptor interaction. Upon analyses of nine topological algorithms and available literature, we finally focused on glial cell-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) as the candidate gene and validated its low expression in OSA samples. Two rare nonsynonymous variants (p.D56N and p.R93Q) were identified among the 100 cases through targeted sequencing of GDNF, which could be potentially deleterious based on pathogenicity prediction programs; however, no significant association was detected in single nucleotide polymorphisms.

Conclusion

The present study identified GDNF as a promising candidate gene for OSA and its two rare and potentially deleterious mutations through a combination of bioinformatics and targeted capture sequencing analyses.

Effects of Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors on Depression-Like Behavior in a Laser-Induced Shock Wave Model

Primary blast injury can result in depression-like behavior in the long-term. However, the effects of the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) on the depression induced by mild blast traumatic brain injury (bTBI) in the long-term remain unclear. We generated a mouse model of mild bTBI using laser-induced shock wave (LISW) and administered an SSRI to mice by oral gavage for 14 days after LISW exposure. This study aimed to investigate the mechanisms of SSRI-mediated alleviation of depression-like behavior induced by mild bTBI. Animals were divided into three groups: sham, LISW-Vehicle, and LISW-SSRI. LISW was applied to the head of anesthetized mice at 0.5 J/cm². Twenty-eight days after the LISW, mice in the LISW-SSRI group exhibited reduced depression-like behavior, a significant increase in the number of cells co-stained for 5-bromo-2'-deoxyuridine (Brd-U) and doublecortin (DCX) in the dentate gyrus (DG) as well as increased brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and serotonin levels in the hippocampus compared to the sham and LISW-Vehicle groups. Additionally, levels of phosphorylated cAMP response element binding protein (pCREB) in the DG were significantly decreased in the LISW-Vehicle group compared to that in the sham group. Importantly, pCREB levels were not significantly different between LISW-SSRI and sham groups suggesting that SSRI treatment may limit the downregulation of pCREB induced by mild bTBI. In conclusion, recovery from depression-like behavior after mild bTBI may be mediated by hippocampal neurogenesis induced by increased BDNF and serotonin levels as well as the inhibition of pCREB downregulation in the hippocampus.

Effect of 5-HT6 Receptor Ligands Combined with Haloperidol or Risperidone on Antidepressant-/Anxiolytic-Like Behavior and BDNF Regulation in Hippocampus and Prefrontal Cortex of Rats

BACKGROUND

The presence of depressive and anxiety symptoms in patients with schizophrenia may have an important impact on treatment and compliance. Hence, interventions addressing such comorbidity in schizophrenia should be explored. One target may be a serotonergic 5-HT₆ receptor (5-HT₆R) since its ligands displayed antidepressant- and anxiolytic-like activities in preclinical experiments.

METHODS

Acute and chronic (21 days) administration of haloperidol or risperidone in combination with a selective 5-HT₆R agonist (WAY-181187) or antagonist (SB-742457) to rats was performed for detecting antidepressant- and anxiolytic-like behaviors. In addition, the level of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) protein and its gene expression in hippocampus and prefrontal cortex were determined.

RESULTS

Both single and chronic administration of WAY-181187 with haloperidol produced antidepressant- and anxiolytic-like activities. SB-742457 did not provide full benefits in terms of improvement of haloperidol-induced adverse mood effects. However, the administration of SB-742457 with risperidone triggered its anxiolytic-like activity. Both 5-HT₆R ligands evoked no changes in haloperidol-induced effects on BDNF level. WAY-181187 induced repression of the BDNF gene while SB-742457 increased its expression in both structures. 5-HT₆R ligands, when combined with risperidone, did not change BDNF protein level and increased gene expression in the hippocampus, while they elevated BDNF level and potentiated gene expression in the prefrontal cortex.

CONCLUSION

The combined administration of WAY-181187 and haloperidol provided the greatest benefits, which were manifested by antidepressant-like effects and suppression of the anxiogenic-like properties. The combined administration of risperidone with both agonist and antagonist resulted only in an anxiolytic-like effect. It seems that the anxiolytic-like effects induced by haloperidol or risperidone with the addition of 5-HT₆R ligands are task-specific. The data on BDNF protein and gene expression did not fully correspond with the behavioral outcomes, and thus it appears that other factors/mechanisms are involved in the observed antidepressant- and/or anxiolytic-like effects.

Forced activity and environmental enrichment mildly improve manifestation of rapid cerebellar degeneration in mice

Exercise therapy represents an important tool for the treatment of many neurological diseases, including cerebellar degenerations. In mouse models, exercise may decelerate the progression of gradual cerebellar degeneration via potent activation of neuroprotective pathways. However, whether exercise could also improve the condition in mice with already heavily damaged cerebella remains an open question. Here we aimed to explore this possibility, employing a mouse model with dramatic early-onset cerebellar degeneration, the Lurcher mice. The potential of forced physical activity and environmental enrichment (with the possibility of voluntary running) for improvement of behaviour and neuroplasticity was evaluated by a series of behavioural tests, measuring BDNF levels and using stereological histology techniques. Using advanced statistical analysis, we showed that while forced physical activity improved motor learning by ∼26 % in Lurcher mice and boosted BDNF levels in the diseased cerebellum by 57 %, an enriched environment partially alleviated some behavioural deficits related to behavioural disinhibition. Specifically, Lurcher mice exposed to the enriched environment evinced reduced open arm exploration in elevated plus maze test by 18 % and increased immobility almost 9-fold in the forced swim test. However, we must conclude that the overall beneficial effects were very mild and much less clear, compared to previously demonstrated effects in slowly-progressing cerebellar degenerations.

Venlafaxine protects against chronic stress-related behaviors in mice by activating the mTORC1 signaling cascade

BACKGROUND

Recent studies have suggested the role of mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1) in the pathophysiology of depression. Although venlafaxine was thought to be a serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor (SNRI), its pharmacological mechanism remain elusive. In this study, the effects of venlafaxine on the mTORC1 system were studied in both chronic unpredictable mild stress (CUMS) and chronic social defeat stress (CSDS) models.

METHOD

First, we examined whether repeated venlafaxine treatment reversed the effects of CUMS and CSDS on the mTORC1 signaling cascade in both the hippocampus and medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC). Second, several selective pharmacological inhibitors of the mTORC1 system, including rapamycin, LY294002 and U0126, were used together to determine whether the protective effects of venlafaxine against the CUMS and CSDS models were prevented by mTORC1 system blockade. Finally, genetic knockdown of mTORC1 by mTORC1-shRNA was further adopted to test whether mTORC1 was necessary for the anti-stress effects of venlafaxine in mice.

RESULT

Our results showed that the decreasing effects of CUMS and CSDS on the mTORC1 signaling cascade in the hippocampus and mPFC were restored by venlafaxine, and the use of rapamycin, LY294002, U0126 and mTORC1-shRNA fully abolished the anti-stress actions of venlafaxine in mice.

CONCLUSION

The mTORC1 system is involved in the pharmacological mechanism of venlafaxine.

Combination of syringaresinol-di-O-β-D-glucoside and chlorogenic acid shows behavioral pharmacological anxiolytic activity and activation of hippocampal BDNF-TrkB signaling

Mental stress, such as anxiety and conflict, causes physiological changes such as dysregulation of autonomic nervous activity, depression, and gastric ulcers. It also induces glucocorticoid production and changes in hippocampal brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) levels. We previously reported that Acanthopanax senticosus HARMS (ASH) exhibited anxiolytic activity. Thus, we attempted to identify the anxiolytic constituents of ASH and investigated its influence on hippocampal BDNF protein expression in male Sprague Dawley rats administered chlorogenic acid (CHA), ( +)-syringaresinol-di-O-β-D-glucoside (SYG), or a mixture of both (Mix) for 1 week using the open field test (OFT) and improved elevated beam walking (IEBW) test. As with ASH and the benzodiazepine anxiolytic cloxazolam (CLO), Mix treatment significantly increased locomotor activity in the OFT. CHA and Mix increased the time spent in the open arm in the IEBW test. SYG and Mix treatment inhibited the significant increase in normalized low-frequency power, indicative of sympathetic nervous activity, and significant decrease in normalized high-frequency power, indicative of parasympathetic nervous activity, as observed in the IEBW test. SYG and Mix treatment significantly increased hippocampal BDNF protein expression. The combination of CHA and SYG possibly induces anxiolytic behavior and modulates autonomic regulation, activates hippocampal BDNF signaling as with ASH.

Spaceflight and brain plasticity: Spaceflight effects on regional expression of neurotransmitter systems and neurotrophic factors encoding genes

The critical problem of space exploration is the effect of long-term space travel on brain functioning. Current information concerning the effects of actual spaceflight on the brain was obtained on rats and mice flown on five missions of Soviet/Russian biosatellites, NASA Neurolab Mission STS90, and International Space Station (ISS). The review provides converging lines of evidence that: 1) long-term spaceflight affects both principle regulators of brain neuroplasticity - neurotransmitters (5-HT and DA) and neurotrophic factors (CDNF, GDNF but not BDNF); 2) 5-HT- (5-HT_2A receptor and MAO A) and especially DA-related genes (TH, MAO A, COMT, D1 receptor, CDNF and GDNF) belong to the risk neurogenes; 3) brain response to spaceflight is region-specific. Substantia nigra, striatum and hypothalamus are highly sensitive to the long-term spaceflight: in these brain areas spaceflight decreased the expression of both DA-related and neurotrophic factors genes. Since DA system is involved in the regulation of movement and cognition the data discussed in the review could explain dysfunction of locomotion and behavior of astronauts and direct further investigations to the DA system.

Mood-related behavioral and neurochemical alterations in mice exposed to low chlorpyrifos levels during the brain growth spurt

Organophosphates are among the most used pesticides. Particularly, chlorpyrifos (CPF) is responsible for a number of deleterious effects on brain development, which may program behavioral changes later in life. Here, we investigated whether a regimen of early low level CPF exposure that did not result in a significant inhibition of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) had deleterious effects on mood-related behaviors, as well as on cholinergic and serotonergic biomarkers in the mice brain. From the 3^rd to 9^th postnatal day (PN), male and female Swiss mice were subcutaneously injected with CPF. Mice were submitted to a battery of behavioral tests from PN60 to PN63: open field, elevated plus maze and forced swimming tests. The cholinergic and serotonergic biomarkers were assessed at PN10 and PN63. Our data indicated that early CPF exposure increased anxiety-like behavior in females and altered decision-making behavior in both sexes. Most biochemical alterations were sex-dependent and restricted to females. At PN10, CPF female mice showed increased serotonin and choline transporter binding in cerebral cortex. Distinctively, in adult females, the effects indicated a hypoactive state: CPF exposure reduced 5-HT_1a receptor binding in cerebral cortex, as well as serotonin transporter binding and choline acetyltransferase activity in brainstem. Our results indicate that CPF exposure during the brain growth spurt deregulates serotonergic and cholinergic biomarkers. The effects are consistent with impaired synaptic function, may be related to long-term mood disorders and point out to higher female susceptibility.

Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF) As a Regulator of Apoptosis under Conditions of Focal Experimental Stroke

The immunolocalization of apoptotic factors in rat neocortex was studied on the model of permanent occlusion of the middle cerebral artery with administration of exogenous BDNF. We revealed heterogeneous distribution of pro- and anti-apoptotic factors in the stroke area and in the surrounding penumbra, where caspase-3⁺ and p53⁺ cells were found. Their number was maximum on day 3 of ischemia. The number of neurons containing anti-apoptotic factors was relatively decreased. Injection of BDNF changed the distribution of apoptotic factors. In the penumbra area, BDNF enhanced the expression of Mdm2 primarily in the pyramid cells of layers V/VI and Bcl-2 in interneurons of layers II and III. Localization of p53 and caspase-3 varied at different terms of the ischemic period and showed an inverse dependence. Considering the selective neuroprotective effect of BDNF, various mechanisms of the formation of ischemic tolerance in neurons are proposed.

On the interaction between BDNF and serotonin systems: The effects of long-term ethanol consumption in mice

We investigated the effect of chronic (6 weeks) consumption of 10% alcohol on the principal elements of BDNF (BDNF, proBDNF, p75, and TrkB receptors) and 5-HT (5-HT, 5-HIAA, tryptophan hydroxylase-2 [Tph-2], 5-HT transporter [5-HTT], 5-HT_1A, 5-HT_2A, and 5-HT₇ receptors) systems in the brain of C57Bl/6 mice. BDNF mRNA level in the raphe nuclei area and BDNF protein level in the hippocampus were lowered in ethanol-treated mice. The increase in proBDNF protein level in the raphe nuclei area, cortex, and amygdala and the increase of p75 receptor protein levels in the raphe nuclei area were revealed after ethanol exposure. Alcohol intake reduced the protein level and increased the activity of Tph-2, the key enzyme for serotonin biosynthesis in the brain, and increased the main 5-HT metabolite 5-HIAA level and 5-HIAA/5-НТ ratio as well as the 5-HT₇ receptor mRNA level in the raphe nuclei area. In the cortex, 5-HT_2A receptor protein level was reduced, and 5-HIAA/5-HT ratio was increased. These data showed considerable impact of alcoholization on the BDNF system, resulting in proBDNF and p75 receptor expression enhancement. Alcohol-induced changes in BDNF and 5-HT systems were revealed in the raphe nuclei area where the majority of the cell bodies of the 5-HT neurons are localized, as well as in the cortex, hippocampus, and amygdala. Our data suggest that the BDNF/5-HT interaction contributes to the mechanism underlying chronic alcohol-induced neurodegenerative disorders.

Neonatal Tactile Stimulations Affect Genetic Generalized Epilepsy and Comorbid Depression-Like Behaviors

Recent studies suggest that development of absence epilepsy and comorbid depression might be prevented by increased maternal care of the offspring, in which tactile stimulation induced by licking/grooming and non-nutritive contact seem to be crucial. In this study, we aimed to evaluate the effect of neonatal tactile stimulations (NTS) on absence epilepsy and depression-like behaviors in adulthood. Wistar Albino Glaxo from Rijswijk (WAG/Rij) rat pups with a genetic predisposition to absence epilepsy were divided into tactile stimulation (TS) group, deep touch pressure (DTP) group, maternal separation (MS) group or control group. Between postnatal day 3 and 21, manipulations (TS, DTP, and MS) were carried out for 15 min and three times a day. Animals were submitted to locomotor activity, sucrose consumption test (SCT) and forced swimming test (FST) at five months of age. At the age of six months, the electroencephalogram (EEG) recordings were conducted in order to quantify the spike-wave discharges (SWDs), which is the hallmark of absence epilepsy. The TS and DTP groups showed less and shorter SWDs in later life in comparison to maternally separated and control rats. SWDs’ number and total duration were significantly reduced in TS and DTP groups whereas mean duration of SWDs was reduced only in DTP group (p < 0.05). TS and DTP also decreased depression-like behaviors measured by SCT and FST in adult animals. In the SCT, number of approaches was significantly higher in TS and DTP groups than the maternally separated and control rats. In the FST, while the immobility latency of TS and DTP groups was significantly higher, only TS group showed significantly decreased immobility and increased swimming time. The results showed that NTS decreases both the number and length of SWDs and the depression-like behaviors in WAG/Rij rats probably by increasing arousal level and causing alterations in the level of some neurotrophic factors as well as in functions of the neural plasticity in the developing rat’s brain.

Intermittent fasting promotes adult hippocampal neuronal differentiation by activating GSK-3β in 3xTg-AD mice

Moderate dietary restriction can ameliorate age-related chronic diseases such as Alzheimer's disease (AD) by increasing the expression of neurotrophic factors and promoting neurogenesis in the brain. Glycogen synthase kinase-3β (GSK-3β) signaling is essential for the coordination of progenitor cell proliferation and differentiation during brain development. The mechanisms by which GSK-3β is involved in dietary restriction-induced neurogenesis and cognitive improvement remain unclear. Six-month-old male 3xTg-AD and wild-type mice were fed on alternate days (intermittent fasting, IF) or ad libitum (AL) for 3 months. GSK-3β activity was regulated by bilaterally infusing lentiviral vectors carrying siRNA targeting GSK-3β into the dentate gyrus region of the hippocampus. Intermittent fasting promoted neuronal differentiation and maturation in the dentate gyrus and ameliorated recognized dysfunction in 3xTg-AD mice. These effects were reversed by siRNA targeting GSK-3β. After intermittent fasting, the insulin and protein kinase A signaling pathways were inhibited, while the adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase and brain-derived neurotrophic factor pathways were activated. These findings suggest that intermittent fasting can promote neuronal differentiation and maturation in the hippocampus by activating GSK-3β, thus improving learning and memory.

State-of-the-Art: Inflammatory and Metabolic Markers in Mood Disorders

Mounting evidence highlights the involvement of inflammatory/immune systems and their relationships with neurotransmitters and different metabolic processes in mood disorders. Nevertheless, there is a general agreement that available findings are still inconclusive. Therefore, further investigations are required, aimed at deepening the role of possible alterations of biomarkers in the pathophysiology of mood disorders that might lead to more focused and tailored treatments. The present study is a comprehensive review on these topics that seem to represent intriguing avenues for the development of real innovative therapeutic strategies of mood disorders.

A Single Administration of the Atypical Psychedelic Ibogaine or Its Metabolite Noribogaine Induces an Antidepressant-Like Effect in Rats

Anecdotal reports and open-label case studies in humans indicated that the psychedelic alkaloid ibogaine exerts profound antiaddictive effects. Ample preclinical evidence demonstrated the efficacy of ibogaine, and its main metabolite, noribogaine, in substance-use-disorder rodent models. In contrast to addiction research, depression-relevant effects of ibogaine or noribogaine in rodents have not been previously examined. We have recently reported that the acute ibogaine administration induced a long-term increase of brain-derived neurotrophic factor mRNA levels in the rat prefrontal cortex, which led us to hypothesize that ibogaine may elicit antidepressant-like effects in rats. Accordingly, we characterized behavioral effects (dose- and time-dependence) induced by the acute ibogaine and noribogaine administration in rats using the forced swim test (FST, 20 and 40 mg/kg i.p., single injection for each dose). We also examined the correlation between plasma and brain concentrations of ibogaine and noribogaine and the elicited behavioral response. We found that ibogaine and noribogaine induced a dose- and time-dependent antidepressant-like effect without significant changes of animal locomotor activity. Noribogaine's FST effect was short-lived (30 min) and correlated with high brain concentrations (estimated >8 μM of free drug), while the ibogaine's antidepressant-like effect was significant at 3 h. At this time point, both ibogaine and noribogaine were present in rat brain at concentrations that cannot produce the same behavioral outcome on their own (ibogaine ∼0.5 μM, noribogaine ∼2.5 μM). Our data suggests a polypharmacological mechanism underpinning the antidepressant-like effects of ibogaine and noribogaine.

Sevoflurane Induces Hippocampal Neuronal Apoptosis by Altering the Level of Neuropeptide Y in Neonatal Rats

Numerous studies have shown that the inhaled general anesthetic sevoflurane imposes toxicity on the central nervous system during the developmental period but the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. Neuropeptide Y (NPY) was reported to have important neuroprotective effects, which can attenuate neuronal loss under pathological conditions. However, the effects of NPY on sevoflurane-induced hippocampal neuronal apoptosis have not been investigated. In this study, postnatal day 7 (PND7) Sprague-Dawley rats and primary cultured cells separated from hippocampi were exposed to sevoflurane (2.4% for 4 h) and the NPY expression levels after treatment were analyzed. Furthermore, neuronal apoptosis assay was conducted via immunofluorescence staining of cleaved caspase-3 and flow cytometry after exogenous NPY administration to PND7 rats as well as cultured hippocampal neurons to elucidate the role of NPY in sevoflurane-induced neurotoxicity. Our results showed the level of NPY gradually decreased within 24 h after sevoflurane exposure in both the hippocampus of PND7 rats and cultured hippocampal neurons, but not in cultured astrocytes. In the exogenous NPY pretreatment study, the proportion of cleaved caspase-3 positive cells in the CA1 region of the hippocampus was increased significantly at 24 h after sevoflurane treatment, while NPY pretreatment could reduce it. Similarly, NPY could also reverse the apoptogenic effect of sevoflurane on cultured neurons. Herein, our results showed that sevoflurane caused a significant decrease in NPY expression, whereas exogenous NPY supplementation could reduce sevoflurane-induced hippocampal neuronal apoptosis both in vivo and in vitro.