Influence of Mechanical Loading on the Process of Tribochemical Action on Physicochemical and Biopharmaceutical Properties of Substances, Using Lacosamide as an Example: From Micronisation to Mechanical Activation

Many physical and chemical properties of solids, such as strength, plasticity, dispersibility, solubility and dissolution are determined by defects in the crystal structure. The aim of this work is to study in situ dynamic, dispersion, chemical, biological and surface properties of lacosamide powder after a complete cycle of mechanical loading by laser scattering, electron microscopy, FR-IR and biopharmaceutical approaches. The SLS method demonstrated the spontaneous tendency toward surface-energy reduction due to aggregation during micronisation. DLS analysis showed conformational changes of colloidal particles as supramolecular complexes depending on the loading time on the solid. SEM analysis demonstrated the conglomeration of needle-like lacosamide particles after 60 min of milling time and the transition to a glassy state with isotropy of properties by the end of the tribochemistry cycle. The following dynamic properties of lacosamide were established: elastic and plastic deformation boundaries, region of inhomogeneous deformation and fracture point. The ratio of dissolution-rate constants in water of samples before and after a full cycle of loading was 2.4. The lacosamide sample, which underwent a full cycle of mechanical loading, showed improved kinetics of API release via analysis of dissolution profiles in 0.1 M HCl medium. The observed activation-energy values of the cell-death biosensor process in aqueous solutions of the lacosamide samples before and after the complete tribochemical cycle were 207 kJmol-1 and 145 kJmol-1, respectively. The equilibrium time of dissolution and activation of cell-biosensor death corresponding to 20 min of mechanical loading on a solid was determined. The current study may have important practical significance for the transformation and management of the properties of drug substances in solid form and in solutions and for increasing the strength of drug matrices by pre-strain hardening via structural rearrangements during mechanical loading.

Mechanochemical ignition of self-propagating reactions in equimolar Al-Ni powder mixtures and multilayers

This work addresses a long standing question in the field of mechanochemistry, namely the role of mesostructure in the initiation of self-propagating high-temperature reactions in exothermic chemical systems, commonly referred to as ignition. In an attempt to find robust evidence in this regard, we compare the ignition behaviour of equimolar Al-Ni powder mixtures and equimolar Al-Ni multilayers. To achieve the best possible control of experimental conditions and allowing high reproducibility, we used elemental powders sieved in the range between 20 μm and 44 μm, and multilayers with bi-layer thickness between 10 nm and 800 nm. We carried out systematic ball milling experiments involving pristine powder mixtures and multilayers as well as a mix of pristine material and material prone to ignition suitably prepared. Experimental findings suggest that pristine powder mixtures and multilayers with bi-layer thickness of 240 nm have analogous ignition behaviour. Along the same lines, data suggest that pristine powder mixtures undergo ignition when they attain a mesostructure similar to that of multilayers with bi-layer thickness of 10 nm.

Removal of heavy metals in water-extracted solution through adsorption by palygorskite and stabilization by comilling

Removing water-soluble chlorides (WSCs) through water extraction is a common pretreatment technology for recycling municipal solid waste incineration (MSWI) fly ash (FA). However, the extracted solution often contains heavy metals, the concentrations of which exceed standards for effluent. This study aims to investigate the adsorption of heavy metals by palygorskite in water-extracted solution and explore the feasibility of stabilizing heavy metals through comilling palygorskite-adsorbed heavy metals (PAHMs) with water-extracted fly ash (WFA). The experimental parameters include: two-stage water extraction with a liquid-to-solid ratio of 5, adding 0, 0.125, 0.25, 0.5, 1, 2 or 3 g of palygorskite to 100 mL of water-extracted solution, and comilling the mixture of PAHMs and WFA for 0, 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 8, 12, 24 or 96 hours. The experimental results revealed that 3 g of palygorskite in 100 mL of extracted solution could absorb Pb, Cd, Cr, Cu and Zn, meeting the effluent standards. The total amount of Pb, Cd, Cr, Cu and Zn removal rate reached 99.7%. Moreover, 98.44% of the WSCs were not adsorbed, the water extraction process for removing WSCs was not compromised. After the comilling of PAHMs and WFA, the distribution of the heavy metals in the milled blended powder was greater than 99.44%; moreover, toxicity characteristic leaching procedure concentrations were determined to conform to regulatory standards, and the sequential extraction procedure revealed that the heavy metals tended to be in stable fractions. This achieves the goal of preventing secondary pollution from heavy metals during the MSWI FA recycling process.

Phase Formation during the Synthesis of the MAB Phase from Mo-Al-B Mixtures in the Thermal Explosion Mode

This work focused on the production of the MoAlB MAB phase through self-propagating, high-temperature synthesis in the thermal explosion mode. The influence of the method of a Mo-Al-B-powder reaction mixture preparation on the combustion temperature, mechanism, and stages of the MAB phase formation in the combustion process was investigated. The combustion temperatures of the mixtures obtained in the rotary ball mill and high-speed planetary ball mill were 1234 and 992 °C, respectively. The formation of intermediate compounds Mo3Al8 and α-MoB in the combustion front, along with MoAlB, was established using the time-resolved X-ray diffraction method. In the case of the mixture prepared in a ball mill, the primary interaction in the combustion front occurred through the Al melt, and in the case of using a planetary mill, solid-phase reactions played an important role. The mechanical activation of the mixture in a planetary mill also accelerated the processes of phase formation. The method of a reaction mixture preparation has virtually no effect on the MoAlB MAB phase content in combustion products (92-94%), but it does affect their structure. The synthesis products have a lamellar structure composed of MAB grains with a thickness of ~0.4 μm and a length of ~2-10 μm.

Opportunities and Challenges in Applying Solid-State NMR Spectroscopy in Organic Mechanochemistry

In recent years it is shown that mechanochemical strategies can be beneficial in directed conversions of organic compounds. Finding new reactions proved difficult, and due to the lack of mechanistic understanding of mechanochemical reaction events, respective efforts have mostly remained empirical. Spectroscopic techniques are crucial in shedding light on these questions. In this overview, the opportunities and challenges of solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy in the field of organic mechanochemistry are discussed. After a brief discussion of the basics of high-resolution solid-state NMR under magic-angle spinning (MAS) conditions, seven opportunities for solid-state NMR in the field of organic mechanochemistry are presented, ranging from ex situ approaches to structurally elucidated reaction products obtained by milling to the potential and limitations of in situ solid-state NMR approaches. Particular strengths of solid-state NMR, for instance in differentiating polymorphs, in NMR-crystallographic structure-determination protocols, or in detecting weak noncovalent interactions in molecular-recognition events employing proton-detected solid-state NMR experiments at fast MAS frequencies, are discussed.

Spiers Memorial Lecture: Mechanochemistry, tribochemistry, mechanical alloying - retrospect, achievements and challenges

The paper presents a view on the achievements, challenges and prospects of mechanochemistry. The extensive reference list can serve as a good entry point to a plethora of mechanochemical literature.

Advancing mechanochemical synthesis by combining milling with different energy sources

Owing to its efficiency and unique reactivity, mechanochemical processing of bulk solids has developed into a powerful tool for the synthesis and transformation of various classes of materials. Nevertheless, mechanochemistry is primarily based on simple techniques, such as milling in comminution devices. Recently, mechanochemical reactivity has started being combined with other energy sources commonly used in solution-based chemistry. Milling under controlled temperature, light irradiation, sound agitation or electrical impulses in newly developed experimental setups has led to reactions not achievable by conventional mechanochemical processing. This Perspective describes these unique reactivities and the advances in equipment tailored to synthetic mechanochemistry. These techniques - thermo-mechanochemistry, sono-mechanochemistry, electro-mechanochemistry and photo-mechanochemistry - represent a notable advance in modern mechanochemistry and herald a new level of solid-state reactivity: mechanochemistry 2.0.

Direct Dry Synthesis of Supported Bimetallic Catalysts: A Study on Comminution and Alloying of Metal Nanoparticles

Ball milling is growing increasingly important as an alternative synthetic tool to prepare catalytic materials. It was recently observed that supported metal catalysts could be directly obtained upon ball milling from the coarse powders of metal and oxide support. Moreover, when two compatible metal sources are simultaneously subjected to the mechanochemical treatment, bimetallic nanoparticles are obtained. A systematic investigation was extended to different metals and supports to understand better the mechanisms involved in the comminution and alloying of metal nanoparticles. Based on this, a model describing the role of metal-support interactions in the synthesis was developed. The findings will be helpful for the future rational design of supported metal catalysts via dry ball milling.

Chemical effects induced by the mechanical processing of granite powder

Starting from 1970s, the use of mechanical forces to induce chemical transformations has radically changed vast areas of metallurgy and materials science. More recently, mechanochemistry has expanded to core sectors of chemistry, showing the promise to deeply innovate chemical industry while enhancing its sustainability and competitiveness. We are still far, however, from unveiling the full potential of mechanical activation. This study marks a step forward in this direction focusing on the chemical effects induced on the surrounding gaseous phase by the mechanical processing of granite. We show that fracturing granite blocks in oxygen can result in the generation of ozone. The refinement of coarse granite particles and the friction between fine ones are also effective in this regard. Combining experimental evidence related to the crushing of large granite samples by uniaxial compression and the ball milling of coarse and fine granite powders, we develop a model that relates mechanochemical ozone generation to the surface area effectively affected by fracture and frictional events taking place during individual impacts. We also extend the investigation to gaseous phases involving methane, oxygen, benzene and water, revealing that chemical transformations occur as well.

The Influence of Physical Activation of Portland Cement in the Electromagnetic Vortex Layer on the Structure Formation of Cement Stone: The Effect of Extended Storage Period and Carbon Nanotubes Modification

The article presents research of the influence of the electromagnetic vortex layer on the structure formation of cement stone during the activation of portland cement, both without additives and with carbon nanotubes modification. It has been shown that the storage of portland cement powders in open air for 60 days after activation in the electromagnetic mill leads to partial carbonization, wherein the role in absorption reducing of the super plasticizer additive is increased since there is more uniformly localization of the additive on the surface of the portland cement particles. The processing of portland cement in the electromagnetic mill leads to the physical activation of portland cement, which is accompanied by an increase in the amount of heat generated by the hydration of portland cement and the rate of hydration. Thus, the rate of hydration of compositions activated in the electromagnetic mill isincreased 1.615 times at the temperature of the thermostat 22 °C; 1.85 times at 40 °C; 2.71 times at 60 °C; 2.3 times at 80 °C. The modification of cement stonewith carbon nanotubes, which was obtained from portland cement activated in an electromagnetic mill, leads to a higher quantity of silicate phase of portland cement (by 12–39%), as confirmed by a decrease in the number of portlandite in these compositions by 8% in comparison with control composition.

Time-Resolved In Situ Monitoring of Mechanochemical Reactions

Mechanochemical transformations offer environmentally benign synthesis routes, whilst enhancing both the speed and selectivity of reactions. In this regard, mechanochemistry promises to transform the way in which chemistry is done in both academia and industry but is greatly hindered by a current lack of mechanistic understanding. The continued development and use of time-resolved in situ (TRIS) approaches to monitor mechanochemical reactions provides a new dimension to elucidate these fascinating transformations. We here discuss recent trends in method development that have pushed the boundaries of mechanochemical research. New features of mechanochemical reactions obtained by TRIS techniques are subsequently discussed, which sheds light on how different TRIS approaches have been used. Emphasis is placed on the strength of combining complementary techniques. Finally, we outline our views on the potential of TRIS methods in mechanochemical research, towards establishing a new, environmentally benign paradigm in the chemical sciences.

Hydride Intercalation of Lithium into Ni3GaTe2

Abstract

In order to expand the methods of lithium intercalation into layered multicomponent matrices, the reaction of lithium hydride with layered telluride Ni3GaTe2 through the stage of formation of mechanocomposites has been studied. Intercalation compounds LixNi3GaTe2 (0 ≤ x ≤ 0.3) have been shown to form when annealing mechanocomposites of the matrix and intercalating agent (LiH) in argon. The channels of hydride ion conversion have been studied and transformations involving the matrix have been described at various temperatures and molar ratios of the matrix and intercalating agent.

A Unique Mechanochemical Redox Reaction Yielding Nanostructured Double Perovskite Sr2FeMoO6 With an Extraordinarily High Degree of Anti-Site Disorder

Strontium ferromolybdate, Sr₂FeMoO₆, is an important member of the family of double perovskites with the possible technological applications in the field of spintronics and solid oxide fuel cells. Its preparation via a multi-step ceramic route or various wet chemistry-based routes is notoriously difficult. The present work demonstrates that Sr₂FeMoO₆ can be mechanosynthesized at ambient temperature in air directly from its precursors (SrO, α-Fe, MoO₃) in the form of nanostructured powders, without the need for solvents and/or calcination under controlled oxygen fugacity. The mechanically induced evolution of the Sr₂FeMoO₆ phase and the far-from-equilibrium structural state of the reaction product are systematically monitored with XRD and a variety of spectroscopic techniques including Raman spectroscopy, ⁵⁷Fe Mössbauer spectroscopy, and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. The unique extensive oxidation of iron species (Fe⁰ → Fe³⁺) with simultaneous reduction of Mo cations (Mo⁶⁺ → Mo⁵⁺), occuring during the mechanosynthesis of Sr₂FeMoO₆, is attributed to the mechanically triggered formation of tiny metallic iron nanoparticles in superparamagnetic state with a large reaction surface and a high oxidation affinity, whose steady presence in the reaction mixture of the milled educts initiates/promotes the swift redox reaction. High-resolution transmission electron microscopy observations reveal that the mechanosynthesized Sr₂FeMoO₆, even after its moderate thermal treatment at 923 K for 30 min in air, exhibits the nanostructured nature with the average particle size of 21(4) nm. At the short-range scale, the nanostructure of the as-prepared Sr₂FeMoO₆ is characterized by both, the strongly distorted geometry of the constituent FeO₆ octahedra and the extraordinarily high degree of anti-site disorder. The degree of anti-site disorder ASD = 0.5, derived independently from the present experimental XRD, Mössbauer, and SQUID magnetization data, corresponds to the completely random distribution of Fe³⁺ and Mo⁵⁺ cations over the sites of octahedral coordination provided by the double perovskite structure. Moreover, the fully anti-site disordered Sr₂FeMoO₆ nanoparticles exhibit superparamagnetism with the blocking temperature T_B = 240 K and the deteriorated effective magnetic moment μ = 0.055 μ_B per formula unit.

In Situ Analytical Methods for the Characterization of Mechanochemical Reactions

The interest in mechanochemical reactions and their fields of application have increased enormously in recent times. Mechanically activated reactions offer the advantage of cost-efficiency as well as environmentally friendly syntheses routes. In contrast to thermally induced processes, the energy transfer via the milling media takes place on a local scale. This leads to unique reaction pathways, which often also result in the formation of metastable phases. For the understanding of reaction pathways on a mechanistic level, it is very important to follow the processes taking place in the grinding jar during milling. Besides the measurement of pressure and temperature changes during a mechanochemical reaction, in situ high energy synchrotron X-ray powder diffraction and Raman spectroscopy experiments have been successfully implemented over the last 10 years. This review will highlight the developments which were achieved in the field of in situ monitoring of mechanochemical reactions and their input to the understanding of mechanochemistry.

Using Solid Catalysts in Disulfide-Based Dynamic Combinatorial Solution- and Mechanochemistry

It was shown for the first time that solid amines can act as catalysts for disulfide-based dynamic combinatorial chemistry (DCC) by ball mill grinding. The mechanochemical equilibrium for the two disulfide reactions studied was reached within 1-3 h using ten different amine catalysts. This contrasts with the weeks to months to achieve solution equilibrium for most solid amine catalysts at 2 %mol mol^-1 concentration in a 2 mMolar disulfide dynamic combinatorial library in a suitable solvent. The final mechanochemical equilibrium was independent of the catalyst used but varied with other ball mill grinding factors such as the presence of traces of solvent. The different efficiencies of the amines tested were discussed.

Solid-state molecular oxygen activation using ball milling and a piezoelectric material for aerobic oxidation of thiols

The agitation of BaTiO₃via ball milling converts mechanical energy into electrical energy, leading to the reduction of molecular oxygen via a single electron transfer pathway analogous to the photocatalytic reaction. This mechanoredox strategy for the oxidative coupling of thiols could eliminate waste and develop a recyclable methodology to accomplish organic transformations in a greener fashion, exhibiting promising potential for large-scale chemical manufacturing.

The agitation of BaTiO₃via ball milling converts mechanical energy into electrical energy, leading to the reduction of molecular oxygen via a single electron transfer pathway analogous to the photocatalytic reaction.

Tribochemistry, Mechanical Alloying, Mechanochemistry: What is in a Name?

Over the decades, the application of mechanical force to influence chemical reactions has been called by various names: mechanochemistry, tribochemistry, mechanical alloying, to name but a few. The evolution of these terms has largely mirrored the understanding of the field. But what is meant by these terms, why have they evolved, and does it really matter how a process is called? Which parameters should be defined to describe unambiguously the experimental conditions such that others can reproduce the results, or to allow a meaningful comparison between processes explored under different conditions? Can the information on the process be encoded in a clear, concise, and self-explanatory way? We address these questions in this Opinion contribution, which we hope will spark timely and constructive discussion across the international mechanochemical community.

A phenomenological kinetic equation for mechanochemical reactions involving highly deformable molecular solids

With its ability to enable solvent-free chemical reactions, mechanochemistry promises to open new and greener synthetic routes to chemical products of industrial interest. Its practical exploitation requires understanding the relationships between processing variables, powders' mechanical behaviour, and chemical reactivity. To this aim, rationalizing experimental kinetics is of paramount importance. In this work, we propose a phenomenological kinetic model that could help experimentalists to disentangle the mechanical, chemical, and statistical factors underlying mechanochemical reactions. The model takes into account the statistical nature of ball milling and relates the global kinetic curve that can be obtained experimentally to the deformation and chemical processes that occur on the mesoscopic and microscopic scales during individual impacts. We show that our model equations can satisfactorily best fit experimental datasets, providing information on the underlying mechanochemistry.