Effects of dietary carbohydrate on delayed onset muscle soreness and reactive oxygen species after contraction induced muscle damage

Sitting Less, Recovering Faster: Investigating the Relationship between Daily Sitting Time and Muscle Recovery following Intense Exercise: A Pilot Study

(1) There is growing concern surrounding the adverse effects of prolonged sitting on health, yet its impact on post-exercise recovery remains relatively unexplored. This study aimed to better understand the potential influence of habitual prolonged sitting on recovery time and the unfavorable impact prolonged sitting may have on time to recovery, as assessed by muscle damage and inflammatory markers and an isokinetic dynamometer. (2) Nine college-age men (mean age ± SD = 22.1 ± 3.1 years, body mass = 80.9 ± 15.7 kg, height = 171 ± 9.0 cm, Body Mass Index (BMI) = 27.6 ± 4.9 kg·m2) participated in an exhaustive exercise protocol. Creatine Kinase (CK), Myoglobin (Mb), C-Reactive Protein (CRP), White Blood Cell Count (WBC), Peak Torque (PT), and muscle soreness were measured at baseline and 0, 24, 48, and 72 h post-exercise. Dietary and exercise logs were maintained during the 5-day testing procedure. (3) No significant differences were observed in muscle damage markers (CK [p = 0.068] and Mb [p = 0.128]), inflammatory markers (CRP [p = 0.814] and WBC [p = 0.140]), or PT [p = 0.255]) at any time point. However, a significant positive correlation was found between daily sitting time and the percent increase in CK concentration from 0 h to 72 h (r = 0.738, p = 0.023). Strong correlations were also noted between prolonged sitting and percent change in Mb concentration at 48 h (r = 0.71, p = 0.033) and 72 h (r = 0.889, p = 0.001). There was a significant two-way interaction for time × velocity (p = 0.043) for PT with a simple main effect for time at 60°·s-1 (p = 0.038). No significant associations were detected between daily carbohydrate or protein intake and recovery markers (p > 0.05). (4) The findings suggest minimizing daily sitting time may expedite and potentially aid muscle recovery after an intense exercise bout, although further research is warranted to validate these findings.

Exercise-Induced Muscle Damage and Protein Intake: A Bibliometric and Visual Analysis

Numerous studies have covered exercise-induced muscle damage (EIMD) topics, ranging from nutritional strategies to recovery methods, but few attempts have adequately explored and analyzed large volumes of scientific output. The purpose of this study was to assess the scientific output and research activity regarding EIMD and protein intake by conducting a bibliometric and visual analysis. Relevant publications from 1975-2022 were retrieved from the Web of Science Core Collection database. Quantitative and qualitative variables were collected, including the number of publications and citations, H-indexes, journals of citation reports, co-authorship, co-citation, and the co-occurrence of keywords. There were 351 total publications, with the number of annual publications steadily increasing. The United States has the highest total number of publications (26.21% of total publications, centrality 0.44). Institutional cooperation is mostly geographically limited, with few transnational cooperation links. EIMD and protein intake research is concentrated in high-quality journals in the disciplines of Sport Science, Physiology, Nutrition, and Biochemistry & Molecular Biology. The top ten journals in the number of publications are mostly high-quality printed journals, and the top ten journals in centrality have an average impact factor of 13.845. The findings of the co-citation clusters and major keyword co-occurrence reveal that the most discussed research topics are "exercise mode", "nutritional strategies", "beneficial outcomes", and "proposed mechanisms". Finally, we identified the following research frontiers and research directions: developing a comprehensive understanding of new exercise or training models, nutritional strategies, and recovery techniques to alleviate EIMD symptoms and accelerate recovery; applying the concept of hormesis in EIMD to induce muscle hypertrophy; and investigating the underlying mechanisms of muscle fiber and membrane damage.

The Comparative Effect of Different Timings of Whole Body Cryotherapy Treatment With Cold Water Immersion for Post-Exercise Recovery

Despite several established benefits of Whole Body Cryotherapy (WBC) for post-exercise recovery, there is a scarcity of research which has identified the optimum WBC protocol for this purpose. This study investigated the influence of WBC treatment timing on physiological and functional responses following a downhill running bout. An additional purpose was to compare such responses with those following cold water immersion (CWI), since there is no clear consensus as to which cold modality is more effective for supporting athletic recovery. Thirty-three male participants (mean ± SD age 37.0 ± 13.3 years, height 1.76 ± 0.07 m, body mass 79.5 ± 13.7 kg) completed a 30 min downhill run (15% gradient) at 60% VO₂ max and were then allocated into one of four recovery groups: WBC1 (n = 9) and WBC4 (n = 8) underwent cryotherapy (3 min, −120°C) 1 and 4 h post-run, respectively; CWI (n = 8) participants were immersed in cold water (10 min, 15°C) up to the waist 1 h post-run and control (CON, n = 8) participants passively recovered in a controlled environment (20°C). Maximal isometric leg muscle torque was assessed pre and 24 h post-run. Blood creatine kinase (CK), muscle soreness, femoral artery blood flow, plasma IL-6 and sleep were also assessed pre and post-treatment. There were significant decreases in muscle torque for WBC4 (10.9%, p = 0.04) and CON (11.3% p = 0.00) and no significant decreases for WBC1 (5.6%, p = 0.06) and CWI (5.1%, p = 0.15). There were no significant differences between groups in muscle soreness, CK, IL-6 or sleep. Femoral artery blood flow significantly decreased in CWI (p = 0.02), but did not differ in other groups. WBC treatments within an hour may be preferable for muscle strength recovery compared to delayed treatments; however WBC appears to be no more effective than CWI. Neither cold intervention had an impact on inflammation or sleep.

From skeletal muscle damage and regeneration to the hypertrophy induced by exercise: What is the role of different macrophages subsets?

Macrophages are one of the top players when considering immune cells involved with tissue homeostasis. Recently, increasing evidence has demonstrated that these macrophages could also present two major subsets during tissue healing; proliferative macrophages (M1-like), which are responsible for increasing myogenic cell proliferation, and restorative macrophages (M2-like), which are accountable for the end of the mature muscle myogenesis. The participation and characterization of these macrophage subsets is critical during myogenesis, not only to understand the inflammatory role of macrophages during muscle recovery but also to create supportive strategies that can improve mass muscle maintenance. Indeed, most of our knowledge about macrophage subsets comes from skeletal muscle damage protocols, and we still do not know how these subsets can contribute to skeletal muscle adaptation. This narrative review aims to collect and discuss studies demonstrating the involvement of different macrophage subsets during the skeletal muscle damage/regeneration process, showcasing an essential role of these macrophage subsets during muscle adaptation induced by acute and chronic exercise programs.

The Effects of Age and Body Fat Content on Post-Downhill Run Recovery Following Whole Body Cryotherapy

This study explored the effects of age and body fat content on responses to whole body cryotherapy (WBC) following a downhill running bout. Forty-one male participants (mean ± SD age 42.0 ± 13.7 years, body mass 75.2 ± 10.8 kg) were allocated into WBC (n = 26) and control (CON, n = 15) groups. WBC participants were divided into old (OLD, ≥45 years, n = 10) and young (YNG, <40 years, n = 13), as well as high fat (HFAT, ≥20%, n = 10) and low fat (LFAT ≤ 15%, n = 8) groups. Participants completed a 30 min downhill run (15% gradient) at 60% VO2 max. The WBC group underwent cryotherapy (3 min, -120 °C) 1 h post-run and CON participants passively recovered in a controlled environment (20 °C). Maximal isometric leg muscle torque was assessed pre and 24 h post-run. Blood creatine kinase (CK) and muscle soreness were assessed pre, post, one hour and 24 h post-run. Muscle torque significantly decreased in both groups post-downhill run (WBC: 220.6 ± 61.4 Nm vs. 208.3 ± 67.6 Nm, p = 0.02; CON: 239.7 ± 51.1 Nm vs. 212.1 ± 46.3 Nm, p = 0.00). The mean decrease in WBC was significantly less than in CON (p = 0.04). Soreness and CK increased 24 h post for WBC and CON (p < 0.01) with no difference between groups. Muscle torque significantly decreased in OLD participants (p = 0.04) but not in YNG (p = 0.55). There were no differences between HFAT and LFAT (all p values > 0.05). WBC may attenuate muscle damage and benefit muscle strength recovery following eccentrically biased exercises, particularly for young males.

Muscle strength and inflammatory response to the training load in rowers

Background

Regular exercise leads to changes in muscle metabolism. The consequence of this is the adaptation to higher training loads.The aim of this study was to evaluate biomechanical and biochemical parameters describing the functions of skeletal muscles in periods when changes in training forms were introduced.

Methods

Seventeen male sweep-oar rowers, members of the Polish national rowing team, participated. The study was carried out at the beginning and at the end of the preparatory period. In the first and second examination measurements of torques of selected muscle groups and blood biochemical analysis were performed.

Results

There was observed a statistically significant decrease in the relative global force of the right lower limb between both terms of examination. A statistically significant increase in maximum torque was found for torso flexors. In the case of muscles responsible for torso rotation, a statistically significant decrease in the torque values of right torso rotators was observed. A significant difference was found with respect to creatine kinase activity, total testosterone concentration, total testosterone to cortisol ratio and total phenolics concentration (p < 0.05).

Conclusion

The study shows that the rowers’ training should be more focused on building the strength of lower limbs to prevent the overload of lumbar spine and that the amount of force developed may be significantly affected by the antioxidant potential of rowers.

Downhill Running: What Are The Effects and How Can We Adapt? A Narrative Review

Downhill running (DR) is a whole-body exercise model that is used to investigate the physiological consequences of eccentric muscle actions and/or exercise-induced muscle damage (EIMD). In a sporting context, DR sections can be part of running disciplines (off-road and road running) and can accentuate EIMD, leading to a reduction in performance. The purpose of this narrative review is to: (1) better inform on the acute and delayed physiological effects of DR; (2) identify and discuss, using a comprehensive approach, the DR characteristics that affect the physiological responses to DR and their potential interactions; (3) provide the current state of evidence on preventive and in-situ strategies to better adapt to DR. Key findings of this review show that DR may have an impact on exercise performance by altering muscle structure and function due to EIMD. In the majority of studies, EIMD are assessed through isometric maximal voluntary contraction, blood creatine kinase and delayed onset muscle soreness, with DR characteristics (slope, exercise duration, and running speed) acting as the main influencing factors. In previous studies, the median (25th percentile, Q1; 75th percentile, Q3) slope, exercise duration, and running speed were - 12% (- 15%; - 10%), 40 min (30 min; 45 min) and 11.3 km h-1 (9.8 km h-1; 12.9 km h-1), respectively. Regardless of DR characteristics, people the least accustomed to DR generally experienced the most EIMD. There is growing evidence to suggest that preventive strategies that consist of prior exposure to DR are the most effective to better tolerate DR. The effectiveness of in-situ strategies such as lower limb compression garments and specific footwear remains to be confirmed. Our review finally highlights important discrepancies between studies in the assessment of EIMD, DR protocols and populations, which prevent drawing firm conclusions on factors that most influence the response to DR, and adaptive strategies to DR.

Whole-Body Vibration as a Warm-up Before Exercise-Induced Muscle Damage on Symptoms of Delayed-Onset Muscle Soreness in Trained Subjects

Magoffin, RD, Parcell, AC, Hyldahl, RD, Fellingham, GW, Hopkins, JT, and Feland, JB. Whole-body vibration as a warm-up before exercise-induced muscle damage on symptoms of delayed-onset muscle soreness in trained subjects. J Strength Cond Res 34(4): 1123-1132, 2020-There is no clear scientific evidence that whole-body vibration (WBV) used as a warm-up before performing eccentric exercise mitigates delayed-onset muscle soreness (DOMS) and speeds strength loss recovery. These benefits were observed primarily in nonresistance-trained individuals. The aim of this study was to determine whether WBV could mitigate soreness and expedite strength recovery for resistance-trained individuals when used as a warm-up before eccentric exercise. Thirty resistance-trained males completed 300 maximal eccentric contractions of the quadriceps after warming up with (WBV) or without (CON) WBV. Both CON and WBV experienced significant isometric (26.3 and 30.2%, respectively) and dynamic (50.9 and 46.4%, respectively) strength loss immediately after exercise. Isometric strength was significantly depressed after 24 hours in the CON group (8.2% p < 0.02), but not in the WBV group (5.9% p = 0.7). Isometric strength was no longer significantly depressed after 48 hours in the CON group (6.1% p < 0.07) or the WBV group (4.1% p = 0.20). Dynamic strength was significantly decreased in both the CON and WBV groups at 24 hours (17.7% p < 0.001 and 15.5% p < 0.001, respectively) and 48 hours (17.1% p < 0.01 and 13.6% p < 0.002), but only significant for the CON at 1 week after exercise (8.6% p = 0.05). Pain as measured by a visual analog scale was significant in both groups at 24 and 48 hours after exercise, but WBV experienced significantly less soreness than the CON group after 24 hours (28 vs. 46 mm p < 0.01, respectively) and 48 hours (38 vs. 50 mm p < 0.01). Pain pressure threshold increased significantly in both groups, but there was no difference between groups. These results suggest the use of WBV before eccentric exercise mildly mitigates DOMS in trained individuals. Application of WBV can function as a quick mode of warm-up before resistance training and can decrease pain perception from DOMS. This may be beneficial to athletes undergoing a heavy strength training phase where DOMS is likely.

Jakyakgamcho-tang in the relief of delayed-onset muscle soreness in healthy adults: study protocol for a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover design clinical trial

Background

Muscle soreness after exercise, called delayed-onset muscle soreness (DOMS), may cause significant changes in muscle function and may increase the risk of sports injuries. Therefore, various therapeutic strategies have been studied to help recovery after exercise. Jakyakgamcho-tang (JGT) is a widely prescribed herbal medicine to treat muscle pain and cramps in traditional Eastern medicine. The aim of this study is to evaluate the effect of JGT for reducing pain and improving muscle damage after exercise.

Methods

This study is a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover design clinical trial. A total of 30 healthy male adults will be recruited. Subjects who voluntarily wish to participate in this study will be hospitalized for 4 days. On the first day, the subjects will perform a standardized treadmill exercise for 1 h to induce DOMS. After the exercise, the subjects will take either JGT or a placebo for 3 days. After a more than 1 week wash-out period, the subjects will repeat the same process with the other drug. Pain intensity, calf circumference, and pain threshold will be measured as outcome measures. Blood tests and blood pressure will be measured as safety assessments. In addition, blood tests for muscle damage and inflammation markers, such as creatine kinase, interleukin-6, and C-reactive protein, will be analyzed.

Discussion

This will be the first trial to assess the effect of JGT on exercise-induced muscle soreness. Our findings will provide valuable data to determine the clinical effects of JGT on DOMS.

Trial registration

Clinical Research Information Sevice, KCT0003457. Registered on 29 January 2019.

Muscle glycogen utilisation during Rugby match play: Effects of pre-game carbohydrate

OBJECTIVES

Although the physical demands of Rugby League (RL) match-play are well-known, the fuel sources supporting energy-production are poorly understood. We therefore assessed muscle glycogen utilisation and plasma metabolite responses to RL match-play after a relatively high (HCHO) or relatively low CHO (LCHO) diet.

DESIGN

Sixteen (mean±SD age; 18±1 years, body-mass; 88±12kg, height 180±8cm) professional players completed a RL match after 36-h consuming a non-isocaloric high carbohydrate (n=8; 6gkgday^-1) or low carbohydrate (n=8; 3gkgday^-1) diet.

METHODS

Muscle biopsies and blood samples were obtained pre- and post-match, alongside external and internal loads quantified using Global Positioning System technology and heart rate, respectively. Data were analysed using effects sizes ±90% CI and magnitude-based inferences.

RESULTS

Differences in pre-match muscle glycogen between high and low carbohydrate conditions (449±51 and 444±81mmolkg^-1d.w.) were unclear. High (243±43mmolkg^-1d.w.) and low carbohydrate groups (298±130mmolkg^-1d.w.) were most and very likely reduced post-match, respectively. For both groups, differences in pre-match NEFA and glycerol were unclear, with a most likely increase in NEFA and glycerol post-match. NEFA was likely lower in the high compared with low carbohydrate group post-match (0.95±0.39mmoll^-1 and 1.45±0.51mmoll^-1, respectively), whereas differences between the 2 groups for glycerol were unclear (98.1±33.6mmoll^-1 and 123.1±39.6mmoll^-1) in the high and low carbohydrate groups, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

Professional RL players can utilise ∼40% of their muscle glycogen during a competitive match regardless of their carbohydrate consumption in the preceding 36-h.

Effect of ThermaCare HeatWraps and Icy Hot Cream/Patches on Skin and Quadriceps Muscle Temperature and Blood Flow

OBJECTIVES

The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of over-the-counter treatments-ThermaCare HeatWraps (chemical reaction to produce heat above the skin), Icy Hot Patch, and Icy Hot Cream (topically applied menthol)-on skin and deep tissue temperature.

METHODS

This was a longitudinal crossover study. On each of 3 days, a ThermaCare HeatWrap, Icy Hot Cream, or Icy Hot Patch was applied randomly over the quadriceps muscle in 15 healthy volunteers with normal body mass. Skin and muscle temperature and blood flow were measured by laser flowmetry every 15 minutes for 2 hours.

RESULTS

After 2 hours, mean temperature decreased by 2.1°C (7.0%; P = .02) in skin and 1.0°C (2.9%; P = .01) in muscle with Icy Hot Cream. Icy Hot Patch decreased skin and muscle temperature by 1.7°C (5.4%; P = .03) and 1.3°C (3.8%; P = .01), respectively. In contrast, ThermaCare raised skin and muscle temperature by 7.8°C (25.8%; P = .001) and 2.7°C (7.7%; P = .002), respectively; both were significantly warmer with ThermaCare vs either Icy Hot product (all P < .007). Icy Hot products produced a net decrease in skin blood flow (Cream: 56.7 flux [39.3%; P = .003]; Patch: 19.1 flux [16.7%; P = .045]). Muscle blood flow decreased with the Patch (6.7 flux [7.0%; P = .02]). After a period of fluctuations, Icy Hot Cream produced a net increase vs baseline of 7.0 flux (16.9%; P = .02). ThermaCare more than doubled blood flow in skin (83.3 flux [109.7%; P = .0003]) and muscle (25.1 flux [148.5%; P = .004]).

CONCLUSIONS

In this group of 15 healthy volunteers, ThermaCare HeatWraps provided the greatest degree of tissue warming and increase in tissue blood flow.

Reduced inflammatory and muscle damage biomarkers following oral supplementation with bioavailable curcumin

Background

Exercise-Induced Muscle Damage (EIMD) and delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS) impact subsequent training sessions and activities of daily living (ADL) even in active individuals. In sedentary or diseased individuals, EIMD and DOMS may be even more pronounced and present even in the absence of structured exercise.

Methods

The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of oral curcumin supplementation (Longvida® 400 mg/days) on muscle & ADL soreness, creatine kinase (CK), and inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10) following EMID (eccentric-only dual-leg press exercise). Subjects (N = 28) were randomly assigned to either curcumin (400 mg/day) or placebo (rice flour) and supplemented 2 days before to 4 days after EMID. Blood samples were collected prior to (PRE), and 1, 2, 3, and 4 days after EIMD to measure CK and inflammatory cytokines. Data were analyzed by ANOVA with P < 0.05.

Results

Curcumin supplementation resulted in significantly smaller increases in CK (− 48%), TNF-α (− 25%), and IL-8 (− 21%) following EIMD compared to placebo. We observed no significant differences in IL-6, IL-10, or quadriceps muscle soreness between conditions for this sample size.

Conclusions

Collectively, the findings demonstrated that consumption of curcumin reduced biological inflammation, but not quadriceps muscle soreness, during recovery after EIMD. The observed improvements in biological inflammation may translate to faster recovery and improved functional capacity during subsequent exercise sessions.

General significance

These findings support the use of oral curcumin supplementation to reduce the symptoms of EIMD. The next logical step is to evaluate further the efficacy of an inflammatory clinical disease model.

•

Oral optimized curcumin supplementation reduced biological indices of muscle inflammation following exercise-induced muscle damage.

•

Oral optimized curcumin supplementation did not significantly reduced subjective quadriceps muscle soreness for this sample size following exercise induced muscle damage.

•

These findings support the use of oral, optimized curcumin supplementation to reduce the biological symptoms associated with exercise induced muscle damage.

•

The next logical step is to evaluated oral, optimized curcumin supplementation in an inflammatory clinical disease model.

Supplementation with a polyphenolic blend improves post-exercise strength recovery and muscle soreness

Background

Exercise can initiate a cascade of inflammatory and oxidative stress–related events leading to delayed onset muscle soreness. Polyphenols possess antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties.

Objective

The current study examined the effects of a proprietary polyphenolic blend (PB), containing catechins and theaflavins, on exercise performance and recovery following an eccentric exercise challenge.

Design

Male participants (18–35 years of age) received placebo or PB at a low dose (PB-L, 1,000 mg/d) or high dose (PB-H, 2,000 mg/d) for 13 weeks. During the 13th week of supplementation, participants completed an eccentric exercise (40 min downhill treadmill run) followed by a strength assessment (peak torque on isokinetic leg extensions) pre-exercise, and 24, 48, and 96 h post-exercise. Muscle soreness (subjective questionnaire), markers of muscle stress (cortisol and creatine phosphokinase [CK]), and antioxidant capacity (ferric reducing ability of plasma [FRAP]) were also assessed.

Results

PB-H attenuated the decrease in peak torque observed in the placebo group from pre-exercise to 48 h (p=0.012) and 96 h (p=0.003) post-exercise. At 48 h post-exercise, PB-H reduced whole body and hamstring soreness (p=0.029) versus placebo. Chronic consumption of PB improved serum FRAP (p=0.039). As expected, serum cortisol and CK increased from pre- to post-exercise in all groups; however, by 96 h, cortisol and CK levels returned to pre-exercise levels following PB supplementation. At 96 h, the change in cortisol from pre- to post-exercise was significantly greater in placebo versus PB-H (p=0.039).

Conclusion

These findings show that chronic consumption of PB improved antioxidant status, reduced markers of muscle stress, and promoted strength recovery post-exercise.

Exercise-induced immunodepression in endurance athletes and nutritional intervention with carbohydrate, protein and fat-what is possible, what is not?

Heavily exercising endurance athletes experience extreme physiologic stress, which is associated with temporary immunodepression and higher risk of infection, particularly upper respiratory tract infections (URTI). The aim of this review is to provide a critical up-to-date review of existing evidence on the immunomodulatory potential of selected macronutrients and to evaluate their efficacy. The results of 66 placebo-controlled and/or crossover trials were compared and analysed. Among macronutrients, the most effective approach to maintain immune function in athletes is to consume ≥6% carbohydrate during prolonged exercise. Because inadequate nutrition affects almost all aspects of the immune system, a well-balanced diet is also important. Evidence of beneficial effects from other macronutrients is scarce and results are often inconsistent. Using a single nutrient may not be as effective as a mixture of several nutritional supplements. Due to limited research evidence, with the exception of carbohydrate, no explicit recommendations to reduce post-exercise URTI symptoms with single macronutrients can be derived.

Carbohydrate supplementation delays DNA damage in elite runners during intensive microcycle training

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of carbohydrate supplementation on free plasma DNA and conventional markers of training and tissue damage in long-distance runners undergoing an overload training program. Twenty-four male runners were randomly assigned to two groups (CHO group and control group). The participants were submitted to an overload training program (days 1-8), followed by a high-intensity intermittent running protocol (10 × 800 m) on day 9. The runners received maltodextrin solution (CHO group) or zero energy placebo solution as the control equivalent before, during, and after this protocol. After 8 days of intensive training, baseline LDH levels remained constant in the CHO group (before: 449.1 ± 18.2, after: 474.3 ± 22.8 U/L) and increased in the control group (from 413.5 ± 23.0 to 501.8 ± 24.1 U/L, p < 0.05). On day 9, LDH concentrations were lower in the CHO group (509.2 ± 23.1 U/L) than in the control group (643.3 ± 32.9 U/L, p < 0.01) post-intermittent running. Carbohydrate ingestion attenuated the increase of free plasma DNA post-intermittent running (48,240.3 ± 5,431.8 alleles/mL) when compared to the control group (73,751.8 ± 11,546.6 alleles/mL, p < 0.01). Leukocyte counts were lower in the CHO group than in the control group post-intermittent running (9.1 ± 0.1 vs. 12.2 ± 0.7 cells/µL; p < 0.01) and at 80 min of recovery (10.6 ± 0.1 vs. 13.9 ± 1.1 cells/µL; p < 0.01). Cortisol levels were positively correlated with free plasma DNA, leukocytes, and LDH (all r > 0.4 and p < 0.001). The results showed that ingestion of a carbohydrate beverage resulted in less DNA damage and attenuated the acute post-exercise inflammation response, providing better recovery during intense training.

Regulation of exercise-induced fiber type transformation, mitochondrial biogenesis, and angiogenesis in skeletal muscle

Skeletal muscle exhibits superb plasticity in response to changes in functional demands. Chronic increases of skeletal muscle contractile activity, such as endurance exercise, lead to a variety of physiological and biochemical adaptations in skeletal muscle, including mitochondrial biogenesis, angiogenesis, and fiber type transformation. These adaptive changes are the basis for the improvement of physical performance and other health benefits. This review focuses on recent findings in genetically engineered animal models designed to elucidate the mechanisms and functions of various signal transduction pathways and gene expression programs in exercise-induced skeletal muscle adaptations.

Cell damage, antioxidant status, and cortisol levels related to nutrition in ski mountaineering during a two-day race

The aim of this study was to measure the effect of nutrition on cell damage, antioxidant enzymes, and cortisol during a two-day ski mountaineering competition. Twenty-one male skiers participated in the study. Creatine kinase (CK), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), γ-glutamyl transpeptidase (GGT), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), alkaline phosphatase (AP), cortisol and C-reactive protein (CRP), glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and reductase activities (GR) and C-reactive protein (CRP) levels, total antioxidant status, and cortisol levels were measured in serum the day before and immediately after the race. Their diet was also analysed during the competition. Enzymes and cortisol levels significantly increased after the competition. CK and LDH and cortisol levels were negatively correlated to total energy, protein, and fat intake. Intake of vitamin A, B1, B2, B6 and niacin was negatively correlated to LDH and AP. A negative correlation was also found between CK activity and Na, Fe, and Zn intake. Cortisol levels were negatively correlated to the intake of vitamins C, B1 and B2, and niacin. A positive correlation was found between serum GPx and intake of energy, carbohydrates, proteins, A and B vitamins, and folic acid. Skiers with the lowest nutrient intake during the competition were the ones who showed greater cell damage and lower antioxidant enzyme activity and cortisol levels, which may impair performance and also cause injuries and accidents. Particularly, skiers should have high intakes of total energy, macronutrients, vitamins A and B, Na, Zn, and Fe in order to decrease the deleterious effect of strenuous exercise. Key pointsA two-day ski mountaineering race produced muscle cell damage and oxidative stress and an increase in cortisol levels.There was a marked insufficient intake of carbohydrates which has been shown to affect performanceThose skiers with lowest nutrient intake showed greater cell damage, lower antioxidant activity and higher cortisol levels.Nutrition should be carefully monitored and assessed in order to minimize the mentioned blood changes to avoid fatigue, injuries and also accidents in this type of sport; particularly when skiers must carry their own food.

Pilot study on the effect of grounding on delayed-onset muscle soreness

OBJECTIVES

The purpose of this pilot study was to determine whether there are markers that can be used to study the effects of grounding on delayed-onset muscle soreness (DOMS).

DESIGN AND SUBJECTS

Eight (8) healthy subjects were exposed to an eccentric exercise that caused DOMS in gastrocnemius muscles of both legs. Four (4) subjects were grounded with electrode patches and patented conductive sheets connected to the earth. Four (4) control subjects were treated identically, except that the grounding systems were not connected to the earth.

OUTCOME MEASURES

Complete blood counts, blood chemistry, enzyme chemistry, serum and saliva cortisols, magnetic resonance imaging and spectroscopy and pain levels were taken at the same time of day before the eccentric exercise and 24, 48, and 72 hours afterwards. Parameters consistently differing by 10% or more, normalized to baseline, were considered worthy of further study.

RESULTS

Parameters that differed by these criteria included white blood cell counts, bilirubin, creatine kinase, phosphocreatine/inorganic phosphate ratios, glycerolphosphorylcholine, phosphorylcholine, the visual analogue pain scale, and pressure measurements on the right gastrocnemius.

CONCLUSIONS

In a pilot study, grounding the body to the earth alters measures of immune system activity and pain. Since this is the first intervention that appears to speed recovery from DOMS, the pilot provides a basis for a larger study.

The effect of muscle-damaging exercise on blood and skeletal muscle oxidative stress: magnitude and time-course considerations

The aim of this article is to present the effects of acute muscle-damaging exercise on oxidative stress/damage of animal and human tissues using a quantitative approach and focusing on the time-course of exercise effects. The reviewed studies employed eccentric contractions on a dynamometer or downhill running. The statistical power of each study to detect a 20% or 40% post-exercise change compared with pre-exercise value in each oxidative stress/damage biomarker was calculated. Muscle-damaging exercise can increase free radical levels and augment oxidation of lipids, proteins, glutathione and possibly DNA in the blood. In contrast, the effect of muscle-damaging exercise on concentration of antioxidants in the blood, except for glutathione, was little. Muscle-damaging exercise induces oxidative stress/damage in skeletal muscle, even though this is not fully supported by the original statistical analysis of some studies. In contrast, muscle-damaging exercise does not appear to affect--at least to similar extent as the oxidative stress/damage markers--the levels of antioxidants in skeletal muscle. Based on the rather limited data available, the oxidative stress response of skeletal muscle to exercise was generally independent of muscle fibre type. Most of the changes in oxidative stress/damage appeared and were sustained for days after muscle-damaging exercise. The major part of the delayed oxidative stress/damage production that follows muscle-damaging exercise probably comes from phagocytic cells that are activated and recruited to the site of the initial damage. A point that emerged and potentially explains much of the lack of consensus among studies is the low statistical power of many of them. In summary, muscle-damaging exercise can increase oxidative stress/damage in blood and skeletal muscle of rats and humans that may persist for and/or appear several days after exercise.

The prevention and treatment of exercise-induced muscle damage

Exercise-induced muscle damage (EIMD) can be caused by novel or unaccustomed exercise and results in a temporary decrease in muscle force production, a rise in passive tension, increased muscle soreness and swelling, and an increase in intramuscular proteins in blood. Consequently, EIMD can have a profound effect on the ability to perform subsequent bouts of exercise and therefore adhere to an exercise training programme. A variety of interventions have been used prophylactically and/or therapeutically in an attempt to reduce the negative effects associated with EIMD. This article focuses on some of the most commonly used strategies, including nutritional and pharmacological strategies, electrical and manual therapies and exercise. Long-term supplementation with antioxidants or beta-hydroxy-beta-methylbutyrate appears to provide a prophylactic effect in reducing EIMD, as does the ingestion of protein before and following exercise. Although the administration of high-dose NSAIDs may reduce EIMD and muscle soreness, it also attenuates the adaptive processes and should therefore not be prescribed for long-term treatment of EIMD. Whilst there is some evidence that stretching and massage may reduce muscle soreness, there is little evidence indicating any performance benefits. Electrical therapies and cryotherapy offer limited effect in the treatment of EIMD; however, inconsistencies in the dose and frequency of these and other interventions may account for the lack of consensus regarding their efficacy. Both as a cause and a consequence of this, there are very few evidence-based guidelines for the application of many of these interventions. Conversely, there is unequivocal evidence that prior bouts of eccentric exercise provide a protective effect against subsequent bouts of potentially damaging exercise. Further research is warranted to elucidate the most appropriate dose and frequency of interventions to attenuate EIMD and if these interventions attenuate the adaptation process. This will both clarify the efficacy of such strategies and provide guidelines for evidence-based practice.

Reducing exercise-induced muscular injury in kendo athletes with supplementation of coenzyme Q10

Intensive physical exercise may cause muscular injury and increase oxidative stress. The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of an antioxidant, coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10), on muscular injury and oxidative stress during exercise training. Eighteen male students, all elite Japanese kendo athletes, were randomly assigned to either a CoQ10 group (n 10) or a placebo group (n 8) in a double-blind manner. Subjects in the CoQ10 group took 300 mg CoQ10 per d for 20 d, while subjects in the placebo group took the same dosage of a placebo. All subjects practised kendo 5·5 h per d for 6 d during the experimental period. Blood samples were taken 2 weeks before, during (1 d, 3 d, 5 d) and 1 week after the training. Serum creatine kinase (CK) activity and myoglobin (Mb) concentration significantly increased in both groups (at 3 d and 5 d). Serum CK (at 3 d), Mb (at 3 d) and lipid peroxide (at 3 d and 5 d) of the CoQ10 group were lower than those of the placebo group. The leucocyte counts in the placebo group significantly increased (at 3 d) and neutrophils significantly increased in both groups (at 3 d and 5 d). Serum scavenging activity against superoxide anion did not change in either group. These results indicate that CoQ10 supplementation reduced exercise-induced muscular injury in athletes.

A single protein meal increases recovery of muscle function following an acute eccentric exercise bout

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of acute protein ingestion on the recovery of muscle function and markers of muscle damage in the 72 h post eccentric-exercise. Nine recreationally active males recorded quadriceps maximum isometric voluntary contraction (MVC), peak 5 s power output (PPO), and perceived muscle soreness. Plasma creatine kinase (CK) and protein carbonyl (PC) content were measured prior to exercise. Delayed-onset muscle soreness (DOMS) was induced by a 30 min downhill run (–10°) at a target intensity of 75% age-predicted heart rate maximum, immediately followed by ingestion of 100 g protein (containing 40 g essential amino acids; PRO) or placebo (CON) solution. The pre-exercise measures were re-taken in the subsequent 24, 48, and 72 h. CK, PC, and perceived muscle soreness increased significantly following exercise and with each supplement at 24 h. PC and muscle soreness remained elevated at 48 and 72 h (p < 0.05), whereas CK returned to baseline values. No difference between conditions was observed for these measures. Peak MVC significantly declined in CON to –7.9% at 24 h, reaching a nadir of –10% at 48 h (p < 0.05). In the PRO group, MVC remained within pre-exercise values at all time points. PPO followed a similar trend, reaching its nadir of –8.7% at 48 h in CON (p < 0.05), but had recovered in the PRO trial. Ingestion of a single post-exercise protein mixture increases the rate of force and power restoration at 48 h, suggesting potential for protein as an ergogenic aid during the DOMS period.

Decreased blood oxidative stress after repeated muscle-damaging exercise

PURPOSE

To examine the effect of repeated muscle-damaging exercise on the time-course changes in several indices of muscle damage, and to compare them with changes in blood oxidative stress indices.

METHODS

Twelve females underwent an isokinetic exercise session consisting of 75 lengthening knee flexions, which was repeated after 3 wk. Isometric torque, range of movement (ROM), delayed-onset muscle soreness (DOMS), creatine kinase (CK), reduced glutathione (GSH), oxidized glutathione (GSSG), thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances (TBARS), protein carbonyls, catalase, uric acid, bilirubin, and total antioxidant capacity (TAC) in blood were measured before, immediately after, and 1, 2, 3, 4, and 7 d after lengthening contractions.

RESULTS

All muscle damage indices (torque, ROM, DOMS, and CK) changed significantly after exercise. The concentration of all oxidative stress indices changed significantly in a way indicating increased oxidative stress in the blood (GSH and GSH/GSSG decreased, whereas GSSG, TBARS, protein carbonyls, catalase, uric acid, bilirubin, and TAC increased), peaking in all but bilirubin at 3 d and returning to baseline values by 7 d after exercise. The repeated bout of lengthening contractions induced significantly less changes in indices of muscle damage and blood oxidative stress than the first bout. In general, from the increasing or decreasing area under the curve calculated for each oxidative stress index, the second bout produced 1.8- to 6.1-fold less changes in oxidative stress than after the first bout.

CONCLUSION

A repeated bout of lengthening contractions attenuated muscle damage and blood oxidative stress compared with the first bout.