Antenatal iron/folic acid supplements, but not postnatal care, prevents neonatal deaths in Indonesia: analysis of Indonesia Demographic and Health Surveys 2002/2003-2007 (a retrospective cohort study)

Does oral iron and folate supplementation during pregnancy protect against adverse birth outcomes and reduced neonatal and infant mortality in Africa: A protocol for a systematic review and meta-analysis?

BACKGROUND

Globally, one-third of pregnant women are at risk of iron deficiency, particularly in the African region. While recent findings show that iron and folate supplementation can lower the risk of adverse birth outcomes and childhood mortality, our understanding of its impact in Africa remains incomplete due to insufficient evidence. This protocol outlines the systematic review steps to investigate the impact of oral iron and folate supplementation during pregnancy on adverse birth outcomes, neonatal mortality and infant mortality in Africa.

METHODS AND ANALYSIS

MEDLINE, PsycINFO, Embase, Scopus, CINAHL, Web of Science, and Cochrane databases were searched for published articles. Google Scholar and Advanced Google Search were used for gray literature and nonindexed articles. Oral iron and/or folate supplementation during pregnancy is the primary exposure. The review will focus on adverse birth outcomes, neonatal mortality and infant mortality. Both Cochrane Effective Practice and Organization of Care and Newcastle-Ottawa Scale risk of bias assessment tools will be used. Meta-analysis will be conducted if design and data analysis methodologies permit. This systematic review and meta-analysis will provide up-to-date evidence about iron and folate supplementation's role in adverse birth outcomes, neonatal mortality and infant mortality in the African region.

ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION

This review will provide insights that help policymakers, program planners, researchers, and public health practitioners interested in working in the region.

PROSPERO REGISTRATION NUMBER

CRD42023452588.

Effectiveness of public health education on the uptake of iron and folic acid supplements among pregnant women: a stepped wedge cluster randomised trial

INTRODUCTION

Iron deficiency is the most prevalent micronutrient deficiency in pregnancy globally responsible for nearly 120 000 maternal deaths per year and a fifth of maternal mortality. Over 46% of pregnant women in Africa and 62% of pregnant women in Kenya are anaemic. Anaemia has severe economic and health consequences. Daily iron and folic acid supplementation (IFAS) is an efficacious strategy recommended in pregnancy to reduce the risk of anaemia and improve maternal and neonatal survival. However, most pregnant women do not consume IFAS as recommended. Limited knowledge on IFAS, its benefits and its connection with anaemia, and mitigation of its side effects lead to poor consumption. The main objective of this trial is to determine the effectiveness of public health education on uptake of antenatal IFAS.

METHODS AND ANALYSIS

A stepped wedge cluster randomised trial with antenatal clinics as units of randomisation. Twelve clusters will be randomised to receive the intervention and levels of IFAS uptake compared with preintervention period. The 9-month trial will enrol 1205 pregnant women. The primary outcome will be the proportion of pregnant women effectively taking up IFAS measured through self-reports, residual pill count and inspection of pill reminder cards. Routine clinical data on haemoglobin counts and fetal growth monitoring will also be used. Descriptive and bivariate analysis will be conducted in Stata using Pearson's χ2 test for association, and multivariate logistic regression to identify determinants of uptake. The potential public health benefits will be estimated using the number needed to treat and the preventable fraction.

ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION

Ethical approval was granted by Kenyatta University Ethics Review Committee (PKU/2443/11575). The research permit is obtained from Kenya National Commission for Science, Technology and Innovation (NACOSTI/P/22/16168). Findings will be disseminated through peer-reviewed publications and public health conferences.

TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER

PACTR202202775997127.

Individual and community-level determinants of Iron-Folic Acid Intake for the recommended period among pregnant women in Ethiopia: A multilevel analysis

Background

Iron-folic acid (IFA) intake for the recommended period during pregnancy reduces the risk of anemia and congenital anomalies. However, IFA intake for the recommended period is still very low in low-income countries including Ethiopia. Thus, the aim of this study was to assess both individual-and community-level determinants of IFA intake for the recommended period among pregnant women in Ethiopia.

Methods

Data were retrieved from the Demographic and Health Survey program's official database website (http://dhsprogram.com). A two-stage stratified cluster sampling technique was employed to conduct the 2016 Ethiopian Demographic and Health Survey. A sample of 3088 pregnant women who had received at least one dose of IFA in Ethiopia were included in this study. A multivariable multilevel logistic regression analysis model was fitted to identify the determinants of IFA intake below the recommended period [< 90 days] during pregnancy. Akaike's Information Criterion (AIC) was used during the model selection procedure.

Results

This study revealed that 87.6% [95% CI; 86.3%, 88.6%] of the women took IFA below the recommended period during the index pregnancy. After adjusting for the covariates: living in rural areas [AOR = 1.74: 95% CI 1.37, 2.50], and women's illiterate proportion [AOR = 1.43: 95% CI 1.06, 1.70] were community level factors. Whereas, primary education level [AOR = 0.63: 95% CI 0.40, 0.78], poorer wealth index [AOR = 1.53: 95% CI 1.08, 3.09], 4 + antenatal care visits [AOR = 0.43: 95% CI 0.31, 0.69], and receive nutritional counseling during pregnancy [AOR = 0.63: 95% CI 0.37, 0.84] were the individual-level factors of IFA intake below the recommended period during pregnancy.

Conclusions

In this study, nearly nine out of ten pregnant women did not take IFA for the recommended period. Thus, promoting recommended ANC visits, enhancing the quality of nutritional counseling, strengthening the expansion of media, and educate rural women towards the importance of optimal intake of IFA during pregnancy. Besides, the policymakers should design essential strategies based on identified barriers to improve the IFA intake for the recommended period.

Intervention fidelity and its determinants of focused antenatal care package implementation, in south Wollo zone, Northeast Ethiopia

Background

Focused antenatal care is directed at sustaining maternal health and improving fetal wellbeing to ensure birth of a healthy neonate. Failure to implement focused antenatal care can result in inability to reduce maternal and perinatal morbidity and mortality in low income countries. Due to evidence-practice gaps, however, thousands of maternal, fetal and neonatal lives are still lost every day, mostly from preventable causes. This study aimed to assess focused antenatal care package’s intervention fidelity and its determinant factors in South Wollo Zone, Northeast Ethiopia.

Methods

A cross-sectional study design was employed and a total of 898 women who gave birth in the last 6 months prior to data collection were included. Also 16 health extension workers, working in ten selected health posts, were included. Interviews and self-administered questionnaires were used to collect data from mothers and health extension workers. Ten [10] health posts were audited to assess availability and functionality of drugs and supplies to provide focused antenatal care. Mothers were asked whether or not the required level of care was provided. Health extension workers were provided with self-administered questionnaires to assess socio-demographic characteristics, reception of training, facilitation strategies for the implementation of focused antenatal care and ability to classify danger signs. Multilevel linear regression analysis was performed to identify individual and organizational level’s factors influencing focused antenatal care package intervention fidelity.

Results

Overall weighted average focused antenatal care package intervention fidelity (implemented as intended/planned) was 49.8% (95% CI: 47.7–51.8), which means the average number of focused antenatal care package interventions women received is 49.8%. Health extension workers implemented 55.1% and skilled providers (nurses, midwives, health officers or medical doctors) 44.9% of focused antenatal care package interventions. Overall antenatal care coverage, irrespective of frequency (at least one visit), was 752/898 women (83.7%; 95% CI: 81.3–86.1); 263/752 women (35.0%; 95% CI: 31.6–38.4) received at least four antenatal visits and only 46/752 women (6.1%; 95% CI: 4.4–7.8) received all recommended components of focused antenatal care. Previous pregnancy-related problems, paternal education and implementation of facilitation strategies were found to be significant factors enhancing focused antenatal care package intervention fidelity.

Conclusion

Focused antenatal care package intervention fidelity in the study area was low; this may imply that the current level of maternal, perinatal and neonatal mortality might be partly due to the low level of focused antenatal care intervention fidelity. Improving implementation of facilitation strategies is highly required to contribute to the reduction of those mortalities.

The effect of antenatal care on perinatal outcomes in Ethiopia: A systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

The estimated annual global perinatal and neonatal death is four million. Stillbirths are almost equivalent to neonatal mortality, yet they have not received the same attention. Antenatal care is generally thought to be an effective method of improving pregnancy outcomes, but its effectiveness as a means of reducing perinatal mortality has not been evaluated in Ethiopia. Therefore, we will identify the pooled effect of antenatal care on perinatal outcomes in Ethiopia.

METHODS

Medline, Embase, Cinahl, African journal online and Google Scholar was searched for articles published in English language between January 1990 and May 2020. Two independent assessors selected studies and extracted data from eligible articles. The Risk of Bias Assessment tool for Non-Randomized Studies was used to assess the quality of each included study. Data analysis was performed using RevMan 5.3. Heterogeneity and publication bias were assessed using I2 test statistical significance and Egger's test for small-study effects respectively. The random effect model was employed, and forest plot was used to present the risk ratio (RR) with 95% confidence interval (CI).

RESULTS

Thirteen out of seventeen included studies revealed antenatal care utilization had a significant association with perinatal outcomes. The pooled risk ratio by the random-effects model for perinatal death was 0.42 (95% CI: 0.34, 0.52); stillbirth 0.34 (95% CI: 0.25, 0.46); early neonatal death 0.85 (95% CI: 0.21. 3.49).

CONCLUSION

Women who attended at least one antenatal care visit were more likely to give birth to an alive neonate that survives compared to their counterpart. Therefore, the Ethiopian Ministry of health and other stakeholders should design tailored interventions to increase antenatal care utilization since it has been shown to reduce perinatal mortality.

Attitude and practices related to coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic among pregnant women attending family welfare clinic amid Phase-2 lock down

BACKGROUND

The antenatal period is an important landmark where the services provided to mothers through antenatal care (ANC) checkups also act as a way for additional interventions influencing maternal and child health. This study aimed to know about the perception and practice among the patients of ANC checkups (ANCs) regarding COVID-19 and what are the implications of it on their routine check-ups.

METHODS

We conducted this study from 15 April, 2020 to 03 May, 2020, Phase 2 {Country wide lockdown in India}, which was imposed for over 19 days. The sample size was kept open and we used convenient type of sampling and included all those pregnant women who attended the clinic for ANC checkup amid the countrywide lock down. Each patient of ANC checkup was interviewed by the treating doctor using a predesigned structured questionnaire containing questions based on demographic information and the perception and practices regarding corona virus infection.

RESULTS

The majority, 66 (79.5%) were in the age group of 26-35 years, 63 (75.9%) were in the second and third trimester of their pregnancy, 72 (86.7%) were from urban areas, 26 (31.3%) and 17 (20.5%) were having education level of bachelor's and higher, respectively. The majority 39 (47%) reported that they are worried that someone they know may have the coronavirus infection and they are unaware about it, 57 (68.7%) feel the nature of the disease as fatal, all ANCs reported that their families are taking initiatives to prevent corona virus infection and they should take extra precautions for corona virus infection, 6 (7.2%) reported that any member of their family has been quarantined during the period, 81 (97.6%) feel that primary precautions like hand washing, social distancing, wearing a face mask, and isolation and quarantine will help in the reduction of infection, 69 (83.1%) choose to report to hospital if any of their close relatives are down with symptoms of corona virus.

CONCLUSION

Our study showed that the respondents had a good attitude, perception, and were following sensible positive practices regarding COVID-19 prevention.

The impact of antenatal care on neonatal mortality in sub-Saharan Africa: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Background

Newborns are at greatest risk of dying at and shortly after the time of birth. Newborn mortality remains an urgent concern and is an important indicator of child health, development and well-being. Studies examining the effectiveness of antenatal care on maternal and newborn health outcomes have provided conflicting results. The aim of this review and meta-analysis was to determine the pooled effect of antenatal care on neonatal mortality in sub-Saharan Africa.

Methods

We searched PubMed, Medline, EMBASE, CINAHL and Google Scholar from September to November 2016 and then updated our search on April 13, 2019. Two independent reviewers extracted data from eligible studies. The quality of each included study was assessed using the Risk of Bias Assessment tool for Non-Randomized Studies (RoBANS). The results were reported based on risk ratio (RR) with 95% confidence intervals (CI) using a random-effects model.

Results

Eight hundred and ninety eight studies were initially identified. During screening, 23 studies were found to be relevant for data extraction. Of these, only twelve studies fulfilled the inclusion criteria and were included in the analysis. In five of the twelve studies included in the analysis, antenatal care service utilization had a significant association with neonatal mortality. The pooled risk ratio by the random-effects model was 0.61 (95% CI: 0.43, 0.86) for neonates born to women who received at least one antenatal care visit by a skilled provider as compared to neonates born to women who did not receive antenatal care.

Conclusion

This review indicates that utilization of at least one antenatal care visit by a skilled provider during pregnancy reduces the risk of neonatal mortality by 39% in sub-Saharan African countries. Thus, in order to accelerate progress towards the reduction of newborn deaths, all pregnant women should receive antenatal care during pregnancy.

New evidence on the impact of the quality of prenatal care on neonatal and infant mortality in India

Evidence on the impact of the quality of prenatal care on childhood mortality is limited in developing countries, including India. Therefore, using nationally representative data from the latest round of the National Family Health Survey (2015–16), this study examined the impact of the quality of prenatal care on neonatal and infant mortality in India using a multivariable binary logistic regression model. The effect of the essential components of prenatal care services on neonatal and infant mortality were also investigated. The results indicate that improvement in the quality of prenatal care is associated with a decrease in neonatal (OR: 0.93, 95% CI: 0.91–0.97) and infant (OR: 0.94, 95% CI: 0.92–0.96) mortality in India. Tetanus toxoid vaccination, consumption of iron–folic acid tablets during pregnancy and having been weighed during pregnancy were statistically associated with a lower risk of neonatal and infant mortality. Educating women on pregnancy complications was also associated with a lower risk of neonatal mortality. No effect of blood pressure examination, blood test and examination of the abdomen during pregnancy were found on either of the two indicators of childhood mortality. Although the coverage of prenatal care has increased dramatically in India, the quality of prenatal care is still an area of concern. There is therefore a need to ensure high-quality prenatal care in India.

Outcomes by birth setting and caregiver for low risk women in Indonesia: a systematic literature review

BACKGROUND

Care for women during pregnancy, labour, birth and the postpartum period is essential to reducing maternal and neonatal mortality and morbidity, however the ideal place and organisation of care provision has not been established. The World Health Organization recommends a two-tier maternity care system involving first-level care in community facilities, with backup obstetric hospital care. However, evidence from high-income countries is increasingly showing benefits for low risk women birthing outside of hospital with skilled birth assistance and access to backup care, including lower rates of intervention. Indonesia is a lower middle-income country with a network of village based midwives who attend births at homes, clinics and hospitals, and has reduced mortality rates in recent decades while maintaining largely low rates of intervention. However, the country has not met its neonatal or maternal mortality reduction goals, and it is unclear whether greater improvements could be made if all women birthed in hospital. BODY: This paper reviewed the literature on birth outcomes by place of birth and/or caregiver for women considering their risk of complications in Indonesia. A systematic literature search of Pubmed, CINAHL, CENTRAL, Web of Science, Popline, WHOLIS and clinical trials registers in 2016 and updated in 2018 resulted in screening 2211 studies after removing duplicates. Twenty four studies were found to present outcomes by place of birth or caregiver and were included. The studies were varied in their findings with respect of the outcomes for women birthing at home and in hospital, with and without skilled care. The quality of most studies was rated as poor or moderate using the Effective Public Health Practice Project Quality Assessment Tool. Only one study gave an overall assessment of the risk status of the women included, making it impossible to draw conclusions about outcomes for low risk women specifically; other studies adjusted for various individual risk factors.

CONCLUSION

From the studies in this review, it is impossible to assess the outcomes for low risk women birthing with health professionals within and outside of Indonesian hospitals. This finding is supported by reviews from other countries with developing maternity systems. Better evidence and information is needed before determinations can be made about whether attended birth outside of hospitals is a safe option for low risk women outside of high income countries.

Iron and folic acid supplementation adherence among pregnant women attending antenatal care in North Wollo Zone northern Ethiopia: institution based cross-sectional study

Objectives

The main aim of this study was to assess iron and folic acid supplementation adherence among pregnant mothers attending antenatal care in public health facilities of North Wollo Zone northern Ethiopia. An institution based quantitative cross-sectional study design was employed, on 422 pregnant women in North Wollo Zone, northern Ethiopia. Systematic random sampling and purposive sampling methods were used to select study participants for the quantitative and qualitative studies respectively.

Results

The overall adherence status of pregnant women attending antenatal clinic was found to be 43.1% (95% CI, 38.6%–48.1%). Obtained counseling about iron and folic acid supplementation (AOR = 2.93, 95% CI 1.43–6.03), having four or more antenatal care visit (AOR = 2.94, 95% CI 1.39–6.21), early registration time (AOR = 3.04, 95% CI 1.85–5.01), good knowledge of anemia (AOR = 2.25, 95% CI 1.32–3.82) and good knowledge of IFAS (AOR = 2.47, 95% CI 1.47–4.16) were statistically and positively associated with pregnant mothers adherence to iron and folic acid supplementation.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s13104-019-4142-2) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Antenatal care services and its implications for vital and health outcomes of children: evidence from 193 surveys in 69 low-income and middle-income countries

OBJECTIVES

Antenatal care (ANC) is an essential part of primary healthcare and its provision has expanded worldwide. There is limited evidence of large-scale cross-country studies on the impact of ANC offered to pregnant women on child health outcomes. We investigate the association of ANC in low-income and middle-income countries with short- and long-term mortality and nutritional child outcomes.

SETTING

We used nationally representative health and welfare data from 193 Demographic and Health Surveys conducted between 1990 and 2013 from 69 low-income and middle-income countries for women of reproductive age (15-49 years), their children and their respective household.

PARTICIPANTS

The analytical sample consisted of 752 635 observations for neonatal mortality, 574 675 observations for infant mortality, 400 426 observations for low birth weight, 501 484 observations for stunting and 512 424 observations for underweight.

MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES

Outcome variables are neonatal and infant mortality, low birth weight, stunting and underweight.

RESULTS

At least one ANC visit was associated with a 1.04% points reduced probability of neonatal mortality and a 1.07% points lower probability of infant mortality. Having at least four ANC visits and having at least once seen a skilled provider reduced the probability by an additional 0.56% and 0.42% points, respectively. At least one ANC visit is associated with a 3.82% points reduced probability of giving birth to a low birth weight baby and a 4.11 and 3.26% points reduced stunting and underweight probability. Having at least four ANC visits and at least once seen a skilled provider reduced the probability by an additional 2.83%, 1.41% and 1.90% points, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

The currently existing and accessed ANC services in low-income and middle-income countries are directly associated with improved birth outcomes and longer-term reductions of child mortality and malnourishment.

Compliance with the consumption of iron and folate supplements by pregnant women in Mafikeng local municipality, North West province, South Africa

BACKGROUND

Anaemia due to iron deficiency is recognized as one of the major nutritional deficiencies in women and children in developing countries. Daily iron supplementation for pregnant women is recommended in many countries. The aim of the study was to investigate the factors that contribute to compliance to the consumption of iron and folate supplements by pregnant woman in Mafikeng local municipality, North West Province, South Africa.

RESEARCH METHODS

A mixed method of descriptive, exploratory and cross-sectional design was used. Ten clinics were used as a sample frame where 57 pregnant women and 10 health workers were purposefully and conveniently selected. Quantitative techniques were used to collect data on attendance, consumption and nutrition knowledge using the self-reported questionnaire by pregnant women, and structured interview for health workers. Qualitative design was used to conduct in - depth focus-group discussions to gather information on compliance to the consumption of supplements by pregnant women.

FINDINGS

The findings of the study revealed good antenatal clinic attendance, availability of supplements and 93% compliance to the consumption of iron and folate supplements.

RECOMMENDATIONS

High compliance to the consumption of iron and folate supplements by pregnant women was reported, and this should be reinforced.

What impact does antenatal and postnatal care have on neonatal deaths in low- and lower-middle-income countries? Evidence from Bangladesh

We investigated the contribution of antenatal and postnatal care in reducing the risk of neonatal deaths in Bangladesh. The effects of these services were examined using adjusted Cox regression models and secondary data with 7,314 live-born infants. We observed that neonatal mortality was significantly decreased for newborns whose mothers' attended antenatal care services but postnatal care did not show any effect. Health promotion programs offering antenatal care in Bangladesh and other low- and lower-middle-income countries may build awareness about these practices. Further research is required to examine the reasons for the lack of impact of postnatal care on mortality.

Increased Duration of Paid Maternity Leave Lowers Infant Mortality in Low- and Middle-Income Countries: A Quasi-Experimental Study

BACKGROUND

Maternity leave reduces neonatal and infant mortality rates in high-income countries. However, the impact of maternity leave on infant health has not been rigorously evaluated in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). In this study, we utilized a difference-in-differences approach to evaluate whether paid maternity leave policies affect infant mortality in LMICs.

METHODS AND FINDINGS

We used birth history data collected via the Demographic and Health Surveys to assemble a panel of approximately 300,000 live births in 20 countries from 2000 to 2008; these observational data were merged with longitudinal information on the duration of paid maternity leave provided by each country. We estimated the effect of an increase in maternity leave in the prior year on the probability of infant (<1 y), neonatal (<28 d), and post-neonatal (between 28 d and 1 y after birth) mortality. Fixed effects for country and year were included to control for, respectively, unobserved time-invariant confounders that varied across countries and temporal trends in mortality that were shared across countries. Average rates of infant, neonatal, and post-neonatal mortality over the study period were 55.2, 30.7, and 23.0 per 1,000 live births, respectively. Each additional month of paid maternity was associated with 7.9 fewer infant deaths per 1,000 live births (95% CI 3.7, 12.0), reflecting a 13% relative reduction. Reductions in infant mortality associated with increases in the duration of paid maternity leave were concentrated in the post-neonatal period. Estimates were robust to adjustment for individual, household, and country-level characteristics, although there may be residual confounding by unmeasured time-varying confounders, such as coincident policy changes.

CONCLUSIONS

More generous paid maternity leave policies represent a potential instrument for facilitating early-life interventions and reducing infant mortality in LMICs and warrant further discussion in the post-2015 sustainable development agenda. From a policy planning perspective, further work is needed to elucidate the mechanisms that explain the benefits of paid maternity leave for infant mortality.

Iron/folic acid supplementation during pregnancy prevents neonatal and under-five mortality in Pakistan: propensity score matched sample from two Pakistan Demographic and Health Surveys

BACKGROUND

Several epidemiological studies from low- and middle-income countries have reported a protective effect of maternal antenatal iron/folic acid (IFA) on childhood mortality.

OBJECTIVE

The current study aimed to evaluate the effect of maternal antenatal IFA supplementation on childhood mortality in Pakistan.

DESIGN

A propensity score-matched sample of 8,512 infants live-born within the 5 years prior to interview was selected from the pooled data of two Pakistan Demographic and Health Surveys (2006/07 and 2012/13). The primary outcomes were childhood mortality indicators and the main exposure variable was maternal antenatal IFA supplementation. Post-matched analyses used Cox proportional hazards regression and adjusted for 16 potential confounders.

RESULTS

Maternal antenatal IFA supplementation significantly reduced the adjusted risk of death on day 0 by 33% [adjusted hazard ratio (aHR)=0.67, 95% confidence interval (95% CI) 0.48-0.94], during the neonatal period by 29% (aHR=0.71, 95% CI 0.57-0.88), and for under-fives by 27% (aHR=0.73, 95% CI 0.60-0.89). When IFA was initiated in the first 4 months of pregnancy, the adjusted risk of neonatal and under-five deaths was significantly reduced by 35 and 33%, respectively. Twenty percent of under-five deaths were attributable to non-initiation of IFA in the first 4 months of pregnancy. With universal initiation of IFA in the first 4 months of pregnancy, 80,300 under-five deaths could be prevented annually in Pakistan.

CONCLUSIONS

Maternal antenatal IFA supplementation significantly reduced neonatal and under-five deaths in Pakistan. Earlier initiation of supplements in pregnancy was associated with a greater prevention of neonatal and under-five deaths.

Factors associated with compliance with the recommended frequency of postnatal care services in three rural districts of Tanzania

Background

High neonatal mortality persists in Tanzania. Rates of decline are slow, in part because postnatal care (PNC) services for addressing this problem remain severely underutilized. This study assesses factors associated with utilization of PNC among mothers in rural Tanzania.

Methods

This study analyzed household survey data collected in 2011 to understand health service utilization patterns among women of reproductive age and children less than 5 years of age in the Rufiji, Kilombero, and Ulanga districts of Tanzania. A total of 889 mothers were eligible for the current analysis. Multinomial logistic regression was used to determine factors associated with the likelihood of mothers seeking the WHO recommended PNC visits.

Results

The percent of newborns and their mothers with full PNC was low (10.4 %). Factors explaining PNC completion were district of residence, ethnic group, pregnancy wantedness, ANC attendance, place of delivery, and any incidence of newborn. Mothers of unwanted pregnancies were less likely to attend PNC services compared to mothers of wanted pregnancies [for at least two PNC: aRRR = 0.57, 95 % CI 0.35–0.94]. Sick newborns were more likely to receive PNC than newborns who were not sick during the first month after childbirth [for at least two PNC, aRRR = 3.52, 95 % CI 2.12–5.86]. Mothers who attended ANC services more frequently were more likely to receive PNC services compared to those who had attended fewer than 2 ANC services [for 1 PNC, aRRR = 1.89, 95 % CI 1.23–2.90]. Mothers who delivered at a health facility were less likely to attend PNC services compared to mothers who delivered outside a facility [for at least 2 PNC: aRRR = 0.42, 95 % CI 0.26–0.76]. Model with interactions between ANC attendance and place of delivery shown that only ANC attendance had a positive and statistically significant effect on PNC visit.

Conclusion

To achieve the WHO recommended number of PNC in rural Tanzania, our findings suggest the need to provide PNC through the community-based primary health care. Efforts to improve coverage of PNC should include expanding health education and counseling during childbirth and neonatal period to more effectively advocate PNC for newborns perceived to be healthy.

A population-based study of neonatal mortality and maternal care utilization in the Indian state of Bihar

Background

A substantial reduction in neonatal deaths is required in India to meet the Millennium Development Goal of a two-thirds reduction in child mortality by 2015. We report neonatal mortality estimates and utilisation of maternal care in the Indian state of Bihar.

Methods

A representative population-based sample of 14,293 women who had a live birth in the last 12 months based on multistage sampling from all 38 districts of Bihar was selected for interview in early 2012. We estimated neonatal mortality rate and its associations using multiple logistic regression, assessed maternal care coverage and its inequality by wealth index, and retention of mothers in the health system for the full sequence of maternal care services.

Results

Neonatal mortality rate for Bihar was 32.2 (95% confidence interval [CI] 27.6-36.8) per 1,000 live births. Postnatal care related variables were significantly associated with neonatal deaths – no delayed bathing of new born (odds ratio [OR] 3.45, 95% CI 2.47-4.81) and no kangaroo care immediately after birth (OR 2.20, 95% CI 1.49-3.25). History of maternal complications and delivery in a private sector health facility had nearly twice the odds of neonatal death; the latter was driven by the very high neonatal mortality associated with private facility delivery in the lower two wealth index quartiles. A pattern of mass deprivation was seen for coverage of 4 or more ANC visits, health facility delivery and postnatal care for the same woman, with only 5.2% of women receiving this overall; this coverage was low for the highest wealth index quartile as well at 12.2%. Coverage of 4 or more ANC visits was 7.4% and 27.7% in the lowest and the highest wealth quartiles, respectively. Giving birth in a health facility was reported by 49.5% of women in the lowest wealth index quartile and by 77.7% in the highest quartile. Only 21.2% women reported post-natal care within 2 weeks of delivery in the lowest wealth index quartile, and 42.2% in the highest quartile.

Conclusions

Neonatal mortality continues to be relatively high in Bihar, and the utilization of maternal care very low and inequitable. Interventions need to address these deficiencies.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/1471-2393-14-357) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Do antenatal care interventions improve neonatal survival in India?

Although antenatal care (ANC) interventions have been in place for a long time, there is hardly any systematic evidence on the association between ANC interventions and neonatal mortality in India. The present study attempts to investigate the association between ANC interventions and neonatal mortality in India using data from the District Level Household Survey conducted in India during 2007-8. The ANC interventions included in the analysis are at least four antenatal visits, consumption of 90 or more iron-folic acid (IFA) tablets, and uptake of two or more tetanus toxoid (TT) injections. We have used discrete-time logistic regression models to investigate the association between ANC interventions and neonatal mortality. Risk of neonatal mortality was significantly lower for infants of mothers who availed four or more antenatal visits [odds ratio (OR): 0.69; 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.60-0.81], consumed 90 or more IFA tablets (OR: 0.85; 95% CI: 0.73-0.99), received two or more TT injections (OR: 0.73; 95% CI: 0.63-0.83). When we analysed different combinations of antenatal visits, IFA supplementation and TT injections, TT injections provided the main protective effect-the risk of neonatal mortality was significantly lower in newborns of women who received two or more TT injections but did not consume 90 or more IFA tablets (OR: 0.69; 95% CI: 0.60-0.78), or who received two or more TT injections but did not avail four or more antenatal visits (OR: 0.75; 95% CI: 0.66-0.86). In the statistical model, 6% (95% CI: 4-8%) of the neonatal deaths in India could be attributed to a lack of at least two TT injections during pregnancy. Indian public health programmes must ensure that every pregnant woman receives two or more TT injections during antenatal visits.