Educational inequalities in the impact of chronic diseases on exit from paid employment among older workers: a 7-year prospective study in the Netherlands

The Relationship of Limitations in Daily Living Activities and Other Health-Related Factors with Early Retirement

The deterioration in health and functionality in older ages, in addition to biological changes, is affected by physical changes. Therefore, early retirement may become an inevitable choice. This study aimed to evaluate the relationship between limitations in daily living activities, mobility, and other health factors with early retirement in workers aged 50-67 in the 4th wave of the SHARE study in Europe. In this prospective cohort study, the working status was examined in 4 waves. The frequency of early retirement was 16.1%; it was higher in male and low-educated people. Those with poor self-perceived health and those with more chronic diseases retired earlier. The frequency of early retirement was 16.0% for those who had no difficulty in basic daily living activities, 22.4% for those who had difficulties (p 0.019), and those who had limitations retired earlier (RR 1.50). Early retirement was higher in those with two or more chronic diseases compared to those without (RR 1.26) and was higher in those who consumed alcohol 5 days a week than those who didn't (RR 1.34). A 1-unit increase in BMI increased the risk by 1.02 times. It has been clearly revealed how important basic activities are for early retirement. This new finding is a gain for the literature and will provide new insights intervention studies. Those who had difficulty in instrumental activities and mobility retired early more often, but this wasn't statistically significant. Our findings will contribute to increasing workplace protective approaches, and maintaining a healthy working force for years.

Self-reported symptoms or activity limitations and job loss during the COVID-19 pandemic in Japan

BACKGROUND

Previous studies have reported the impact of a diagnosed disease or self-perceived poor overall health on job loss. However, evidence is lacking on which self-reported symptoms or activity limitations are related to job loss, especially during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic.

AIMS

We investigated whether self-reported symptoms or activity limitations were correlated with the occurrence of job loss within 1 year during the COVID-19 pandemic.

METHODS

In this prospective cohort study, we used questionnaires administered to Japanese workers. A baseline survey conducted in December 2020 was used to determine workers' symptoms or activity limitations. Experiencing job loss since the baseline survey was ascertained with a follow-up survey in December 2021. The odds ratios of experiencing job loss were estimated using a logistic model with adjusted covariates.

RESULTS

Men (n = 8682) accounted for 58% of the total sample (n = 14 910), and the respondent mean age was 48.2 years. Multivariate analysis showed that workers with pain-related problems; limited physical movement and mobility; fatigue, loss of strength or appetite, fever, dizziness and moodiness; mental health problems; sleep-related problems or eye-related matters had a greater probability of experiencing job loss owing to health reasons.

CONCLUSIONS

Several self-reported symptoms or activity limitations can lead to job loss after 1 year, indicating that prevention and resolution of symptoms or activity limitations are important to reduce workers' risk of losing their jobs.

Long-Term Socioeconomic and Mental Health Changes After Out-of-Hospital Cardiac Arrest in Women and Men

BACKGROUND

Long-term effects of out-of-hospital cardiac arrest (OHCA) may affect the ability to work and mental health. Our aim was to analyze 5-year changes in socioeconomic and mental health outcomes after OHCA in women and men.

METHODS

We included 259 women and 996 men from North Holland, the Netherlands, who survived 30 days after OHCA occurred between 2009 and 2015. We assessed changes in employment, income, primary earner status, and anxiety/depression (using medication proxies) from the year before the OHCA to 5 years after with generalized linear mixed models, stratified by sex. We tested differences in changes by sex with interaction terms. Additionally, we explored yearly changes. The 5-year changes after OHCA were compared with changes in a sex- and age-matched sample of people without OHCA. Differences were tested using an interaction term of time and OHCA status.

RESULTS

In both women and men (median age [Q1, Q3]: 51 [45, 55] and 54 [48, 57] years, respectively), decreases from before OHCA to 5 years thereafter were observed in the proportion employed (from 72.8% to 53.4% [women] and 80.9% to 63.7% [men]) and the median income. No change in primary earner status was observed in either sex. Dispensing of anxiety/depression medication increased only in women, especially after 1 year (odds ratio, 5.68 [95% CI, 2.05-15.74]) and 5 years (odds ratio, 5.73 [95% CI, 1.88-17.53]). Notable differences between women and men were observed for changes in primary earner status and anxiety/depression medication (eg, at year 1, odds ratio for women, 6.71 [95% CI, 1.96-23.01]; and for men, 0.69 [95% CI, 0.33-1.45]). However, except for anxiety/depression medication in women, similar changes were also observed in the general population.

CONCLUSIONS

OHCA survivors experience changes in employment, income, and primary earner status similar to the general population. However, women who survived OHCA more often received anxiety/depression medication in the years following OHCA.

The adequacy of workplace accommodation and the incidence of permanent employment separations after a disabling work injury or illness

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to estimate the influence of the adequacy of employer accommodations of health impairments in predicting permanent separation from the employment relationship in a cohort of workers disabled by a work-related injury or illness.

METHODS

The study used data from a retrospective, observational cohort of 1793 Ontario workers who participated in an interviewer-administered survey 18 months following a disabling injury or illness. The relative risks (RR) of a permanent employment separation associated with inadequate employer accommodations were estimated using inverse probability of treatment weights to reduce confounding.

RESULTS

Over the 18-month follow-up, the incidence of permanent separation was 30.1/100, with 49.2% of separations related to health status. Approximately 51% of participants experiencing a separation were exposed to inadequate workplace accommodations, compared to 27% of participants in continuing employment. The propensity score adjusted RR of a health-related separation associated with inadequate accommodation was substantial [RR 2.72; 95% confidence interval (CI) 2.20-3.73], greater than the RR of separations not related to health (RR 1.68; 95% CI 1.38-2.21).

CONCLUSIONS

Incidence of permanent separation in this cohort of Ontario labor force participants was approximately two times more frequent than would be expected. The adequacy of employer accommodation was a strong determinant of the risk of permanent separation. These findings emphasize the potential for strengthened workplace accommodation practices in this setting.

Quantifying the Contribution of Work Characteristics to Educational Disparities in Health-Induced Work Limitations

OBJECTIVES

To quantify how poor health and inhospitable working conditions each contribute to educational disparities in work disability in midlife and old age.

METHODS

We used the Health and Retirement Study (2006-2016) to examine educational disparities in reporting "any impairment or health problem that limits the kind or amount of paid work" in ages 51-80.

RESULTS

We found disparities to be profound and persistent over time. Blinder-Oaxaca threefold decomposition revealed that distributions of income and employer insurance made the largest contribution to explaining different rates of work limitations among respondents with versus without high school degrees, followed by work characteristics (physical job demands, insufficient hours) and health conditions (diabetes, lung disease). Comparing respondents with high school versus college degrees, distributions of health conditions mattered most (high blood pressure, lung disease, heart disease, stroke), followed by health behaviors (smoking, drinking). Health-induced work limitations are often used as a measure of health, but we found that work characteristics explained 57% of the disadvantage of those without a high school degree and 44% of the disadvantage of high school compared to college graduates.

DISCUSSION

Work environments appear to play an important role in educational disparities in mid- to late-life disability.

Midlife cardiovascular health factors as predictors of retirement age, work-loss years, and years spent in retirement among older businessmen

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is one of the leading causes of premature retirement. However, the relationship between CVD risk factors and workforce participation is not well known. We studied the relationship between midlife CVD risk, age at retirement, work-loss years, and survival in retirement. Middle-aged Finnish men (initial n = 3490, mean age = 47.8 years) were assessed for CVD risk factors and general health in the 1970s. They worked as business executives and provided information on their retirement status in the year 2000. Survival was followed up to the 9th decade of life with a follow-up of up to 44 years. Work-loss years were calculated as death or retirement occurring at age ≤ 65 years. Smoking, body mass index, and alcohol use were used as covariates, excluding models of CVD risk, which were adjusted for alcohol use only. Higher risk of 10-year fatal CVD was associated with 0.32 more years (relative risk < 1 vs. 1, covariate-adjusted β = 0.32, 95% CI = 0.13, 0.53) of work-loss. Higher risk of 5-year incident (covariate-adjusted time-constant HR = 1.32, 95% CI = 1.19, 1.47) and 10-year fatal (covariate-adjusted time-dependent HR = 1.55, 95% CI = 1.30, 1.85) CVD in midlife were associated with fewer years spent in retirement. Poorer self-rated health and physical fitness and higher levels of triglycerides were associated with increased hazard of earlier retirement, more work-loss years, and fewer years spent in retirement. Poorer health and greater midlife CVD risk may be associated with earlier exit from the workforce and fewer years spent in retirement. Management of CVD risk in midlife may support people to work longer.

Work-limiting musculoskeletal pain and its association with loss of paid employment among senior workers: prospective cohort study with register follow-up

BACKGROUND

A growing population of elderly necessitates a sharpened focus on sustainable employment through aging. Physically demanding work can be challenging, especially for senior workers. Establishing determinants of labor market participation could guide policy development and preventive efforts at the workplaces aiming at keeping senior workers longer in the labor market.

METHODS

We used data from SeniorWorkingLife, a comprehensive questionnaire survey among a representative sample of Danish +50-year workers, and investigated the prospective association between self-reported work limitations due to musculoskeletal pain ('work-limiting pain') in 2018 and register-based loss of paid employment before state pension age at 2-year follow-up among +50-year Danish workers with physically demanding work (n = 3050).

RESULTS

Results showed that work-limiting pain increased the risk of loss of paid employment before the state pension age in a progressive manner, i.e. the higher degree of work-limiting pain, the higher risk of loss of paid employment (P < 0.001). Experiencing a low degree of work-limiting pain was associated with an 18% increased risk of loss of paid employment [risk ratio (RR): 1.18, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.14-1.21], whereas experiencing a very high degree of work-limiting pain increased the risk of loss of paid employment by 155% (RR: 2.55, 95% CI: 2.43-2.69) compared to no work-limiting pain.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, work-limiting pain constitutes an important risk factor for loss of paid employment among senior workers with physically demanding work, and effective preventive efforts at both policy and workplace levels should be documented and implemented.

The role of physical and cognitive/emotional functioning in the associations between common health conditions and working

The degree to which functional abilities explain the negative associations between chronic disease and employment is not well understood. If functional limitations play an important role, then increasing access to accommodations and rehabilitation could facilitate employment among people with chronic illness. If not, other barriers related to living with chronic illness may be at play, calling for other interventions. The goal of this study was to 1) assess how health conditions were associated with employment for adults ages 30-69, and 2) test how much of these illness-employment associations was explained by physical and cognitive/emotional functioning. We fielded the state-of-the-art Work Disability Functional Assessment Battery (WD-FAB) in the nationally-representative RAND American Life Panel (N = 1774) in 2020, stratifying the sample by age and educational attainment. We found that mental health conditions, nervous system/sensory conditions, and cardiovascular conditions were significantly associated with large reductions in the probability of working, at -8, -10, and -19 percentage points (pp) respectively, while there were no significant associations for other conditions. Functional abilities were positively associated with employment to different degrees depending on education. Among those without college degrees, physical functioning (+16 pp) but not cognitive/emotional functioning was significantly associated with working. Among those with college degrees, both physical (+6 pp) and cognitive/emotional (+4 pp) functioning were associated with working. Older workers (ages 51-69) showed a larger association between physical functioning and work with no association between cognitive/emotional functioning and work. Importantly, accounting for functioning reduced the negative associations with employment for mental health and nervous system/sensory conditions but not for cardiovascular conditions. This implies that, for the former conditions, accommodating functional limitations could promote greater employment. However, broader accommodations, such as paid sick leave, increased control over work schedules, and other improvements to working conditions may be necessary to reduce work exits due to cardiovascular conditions.

Associations between existing and newly diagnosed chronic health conditions and change in subjective life expectancy: Results from a panel study

Background

Subjective life expectancy (SLE) is a vital predictor of mortality, health and retirement. Nevertheless, we have sparse knowledge about what drives changes in SLE. Having a chronic health condition (CHC) is probably associated with a change SLE. However, how CHCs are associated with changes in SLE may depend on whether the CHC was newly diagnosed and the type of CHC.

Aim

We hypothesize that newly diagnosed CHCs will be strongly negatively associated with changes in SLE than existing CHCs. As CHCs vary in their presentation and prognosis, we differentiate associations between five CHCs - arthritis, cardiovascular diseases, sleep disorders, psychological disorders and life-threatening conditions - and changes in SLE.

Method

Data from two waves of a Dutch pension panel survey, collected 3 years apart in 2015 and 2018, were used. The analytical sample included 4824 older workers between the ages of 60-65 years at wave 1. Data were analysed longitudinally using a conditional change ordered logistic regression model.

Results

In general, newly diagnosed CHCs were strongly negatively associated with changes in SLE, relative to having no CHCs. Existing CHCs were also negatively associated with changes in SLE, but to a weaker strength. Interestingly, associations between CHCs and the change in SLE differed based on the CHC in question.

Conclusion

Newly diagnosed life-threatening conditions, psychological disorders and cardiovascular diseases are strongly negatively associated with changes in SLE. These results provide insight into the differences in how older workers with CHCs experience late career work and how these experiences influence their SLE.

Do chronic diseases moderate the association between psychosocial working conditions and work exit? Longitudinal results from 55 950 Dutch workers

BACKGROUND

This study aims to examine whether the presence of chronic diseases or multimorbidity moderates the associations between psychosocial working conditions and work exit through unemployment, work disability or early retirement.

METHODS

Data from Lifelines (n=55 950), a prospective population-based cohort study, were enriched with monthly information on employment status from Statistics Netherlands. Working conditions were measured with the Copenhagen Psychosocial Questionnaire. Work exit was defined as unemployment, work disability and early retirement. Participants were classified as having no chronic disease, one chronic disease or multimorbidity. Cause-specific Cox proportional hazard regression models, adjusted for age, gender, education and partnership status, were used to analyse associations between working conditions and work exit. Interaction terms were used to examine moderation by chronic disease status.

RESULTS

Higher social support decreased the risk for unemployment, work disability and early retirement. Higher meaning of work decreased the risk of unemployment, and more possibilities for development decreased the risk for work disability. Chronic disease status did generally not moderate associations between working conditions and work exit. Only among workers without a chronic disease, more possibilities for development was associated with a lower risk for unemployment (HR: 0.89; 95% CI: 0.85 to 0.94).

CONCLUSION

While efforts to retain workers with chronic diseases in the labour market should continue, favourable psychosocial working conditions are important for all workers.

Development and validation of a prediction model for unemployment and work disability among 55 950 Dutch workers

Background

This study developed prediction models for involuntary exit from paid employment through unemployment and disability benefits and examined if predictors and discriminative ability of these models differ between five common chronic diseases.

Methods

Data from workers in the Lifelines Cohort Study (n = 55 950) were enriched with monthly information on employment status from Statistics Netherlands. Potential predictors included sociodemographic factors, chronic diseases, unhealthy behaviours and working conditions. Data were analyzed using cause-specific Cox regression analyses. Models were evaluated with the C-index and the positive and negative predictive values (PPV and NPV, respectively). The developed models were externally validated using data from the Study on Transitions in Employment, Ability and Motivation.

Results

Being female, low education, depression, smoking, obesity, low development possibilities and low social support were predictors of unemployment and disability. Low meaning of work and low physical activity increased the risk for unemployment, while all chronic diseases increased the risk of disability benefits. The discriminative ability of the models of the development and validation cohort were low for unemployment (c = 0.62; c = 0.60) and disability benefits (c = 0.68; c = 0.75). After stratification for specific chronic diseases, the discriminative ability of models predicting disability benefits improved for cardiovascular disease (c = 0.81), chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (c = 0.74) and diabetes mellitus type 2 (c = 0.74). The PPV was low while the NPV was high for all models.

Conclusion

Taking workers’ particular disease into account may contribute to an improved prediction of disability benefits, yet risk factors are better examined at the population level rather than at the individual level.

Multimorbidity and exit from paid employment: the effect of specific combinations of chronic health conditions

Background

This study aimed to assess the association between multimorbidity and exit from paid employment, and which combinations of chronic health conditions (CHCs) have the strongest association with exit from paid employment.

Methods

Data from 111 208 workers aged 18–64 years from Lifelines were enriched with monthly employment data from Statistics Netherlands. Exit from paid employment during follow-up was defined as a change from paid employment to unemployment, disability benefits, economic inactivity or early retirement. CHCs included cardiovascular diseases (CVD), chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), rheumatoid arthritis (RA), type 2 diabetes (T2DM) and depression. Cox-proportional hazards models were used to examine the impact of multimorbidity and combinations of CHCs on exit from paid employment.

Results

Multimorbidity increased the risk of exiting paid employment compared with workers without CHCs (hazard ratio (HR): 1.52; 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.35–1.71) or one CHC (HR: 1.14; 95% CI: 1.01–1.28). The risk for exit from paid employment increased among workers with COPD if they additionally had CVD (HR: 1.39; 95% CI: 1.03–1.88), depression (HR: 1.46; 95% CI: 1.10–1.93) or RA (HR: 1.44; 95% CI: 1.08–1.91), for workers with T2DM if they additionally had CVD (HR: 1.43; 95% CI: 1.07–1.91) or depression (HR: 2.09; 95% CI: 1.51–2.91) and for workers with depression who also had T2DM (HR: 1.68; 95% CI: 1.21–2.32).

Conclusion

This study showed that workers with multimorbidity, especially having a combination of COPD and depression or T2DM and depression, have a higher risk for early exit from paid employment and, therefore, may need tailored support at the workplace.

Chronic conditions and self-perceived health among older employees in relation to indicators of labour participation and retirement over time

BACKGROUND:

A significant proportion of older employees leave the labour market early, amongst others via unemployment or disability benefits, implying that health might affect possibilities to extend working life.

OBJECTIVE:

This study 1) examined associations between chronic conditions (subtypes) and self-perceived health (SPH), independently, and indicators of labour participation and retirement over six-year follow-up among older employees, and 2) explored the impact of differences between prevalent and incident presence of chronic condition(s) in this relation.

METHODS:

Older workers (aged > 45 years) included in the Maastricht Cohort Study were studied (n = 1,763). The Health and Work Performance Questionnaire assessed chronic conditions and one item from the Short Form health survey-36 assessed SPH. Cox regression analyses assessed associations between chronic conditions and SPH, independently, and retirement intentions, employment status, decreasing working hours, and changes in work over time.

RESULTS:

Employees with coexistent physical-mental chronic conditions showed higher risks to lose employment and to receive a disability benefit (HR 1.85, 95% CI 1.23–2.78; HR 8.63, 95% CI 2.47–30.11) over time compared to healthy employees. No statistically significant associations were found between SPH and indicators of labour participation and retirement over time. Having chronic condition(s) was cross-sectionally associated with lower SPH scores and larger proportion of part-timers –compared to healthy employees.

CONCLUSIONS:

Chronic condition(s) among older employees were substantially associated with indicators of labour participation and retirement over time. The role of SPH was mainly instantaneous. Findings provide valuable input for preventive measures aiming to prevent an early labour market exit of older employees.

Inability to Work Fulltime, Prevalence and Associated Factors Among Applicants for Work Disability Benefit

Purpose Inability to work fulltime is an important outcome in the assessment of workers applying for a disability benefit. However, limited knowledge is available about the prevalence and degree of the inability to work fulltime, the associations between disease-related and socio-demographic factors with inability to work fulltime and whether the prevalence and the associations differ across disease groups. Methods Anonymized register data on assessments of workers with residual work capacity (n = 30,177, age 48.8 ± 11.0, 53.9% female) applying for a work disability benefit in 2016 were used. Inability to work fulltime was defined as being able to work less than 8 h per day. Results The prevalence of inability to work fulltime was 39.4%, of these 62.5% could work up to 4 h per day. Higher age (OR 1.01, 95% CI 1.01-1.01), female gender (OR 1.45, 95% CI 1.37-1.52), higher education (OR 1.44, 95% CI 1.33-1.55) and multimorbidity (OR 1.06, 95% CI 1.01-1.11) showed higher odds for inability to work fulltime. Highest odds for inability to work fulltime were found for diseases of the blood, neoplasms and diseases of the respiratory system. Within specific disease groups, different associations were identified between disease-related and socio-demographic factors. Conclusion The prevalence and degree of inability to work fulltime in work disability benefit assessments is high. Specific chronic diseases are found to have higher odds for inability to work fulltime, and associated factors differ per disease group.

Cardiovascular disease subtypes, physical disability and workforce participation: A cross-sectional study of 163,562 middle-aged Australians

Background

Workforce participation is reduced among people with cardiovascular disease (CVD). However, detailed quantitative evidence on this is limited. We examined the relationship of CVD to workforce participation in older working-age people, by CVD subtype, within population subgroups and considering the role of physical disability.

Methods

Questionnaire data (2006–2009) for participants aged 45–64 years (n = 163,562) from the population-based 45 and Up Study (n = 267,153) were linked to hospitalisation data through the Centre for Health Record Linkage. Prior CVD was from self-report or hospitalisation. Modified Poisson regression estimated adjusted prevalence ratios (PRs) for non-participation in the workforce in people with versus without CVD, adjusting for sociodemographic factors.

Results

There were 19,161 participants with CVD and 144,401 without. Compared to people without CVD, workforce non-participation was greater for those with CVD (40.0% vs 23.5%, PR = 1.36, 95%CI = 1.33–1.39). The outcome varied by CVD subtype: myocardial infarction (PR = 1.46, 95%CI = 1.36–1.55); cerebrovascular disease (PR = 1.92, 95%CI = 1.80–2.06); heart failure (PR = 1.83, 95%CI = 1.68–1.98) and peripheral vascular disease (PR = 1.76, 95%CI = 1.65–1.88). Workforce non-participation in those with CVD versus those without was at least 21% higher in all population subgroups examined, with PRs ranging from 1.75 (95%CI = 1.65–1.85) in people aged 50–55 years to 1.21 (95%CI = 1.19–1.24) among those aged 60–64. Compared to people with neither CVD nor physical functioning limitations, those with physical functional limitations were around three times as likely to be out of the workforce regardless of CVD diagnosis; participants with CVD but without physical functional limitations were 13% more likely to be out of the workforce (PR = 1.13, 95%CI = 1.07–1.20).

Conclusions

While many people with CVD participate in the workforce, participation is substantially lower, especially for people with cerebrovascular disease, than for people without CVD, highlighting priority areas for research and support, particularly for people experiencing physical functioning limitations.

Indicators and determinants of the years of working life lost: a narrative review

Objective:

This narrative review summarizes the available indicators for working life expectancy and years of working life lost (YWLL) and their determinants.

Methods:

We searched PubMed and Embase databases from their inception until August 2020 and screened all studies proposing an indicator for working life expectancy or YWLL. We also reviewed studies focusing on sociodemographic, lifestyle and work-related determinants of working life expectancy and YWLL. The results were synthesized narratively.

Results:

We identified 13 different indicators for the length of working life or YWLL. The most frequently used indicators were ‘working life expectancy’, ‘healthy working life expectancy’, and YWLL. Working life expectancy and healthy working life expectancy are longer for men than women. Working life expectancy at the age of 50 has been increasing since the mid-90s, and the increase has been larger for women, reducing the sex difference. Working life is shorter for people with a low level of education, in lower occupational classes, for people exposed to high physical work demands, those living in the most socioeconomically deprived areas, people with overweight or obesity, smokers, people who are inactive during leisure time and in people with a chronic health problem.

Conclusions:

Despite increasing interest in understanding the determinants of YWLL, only a few studies have simultaneously considered multiple exit routes from the labour market. We propose a new measure for total YWLL considering all relevant exit routes from employment. This comprehensive measure can be used to assess the effect of given policy changes on prolonging working life.

Effects of changes in early retirement policies on labor force participation: the differential effects for vulnerable groups

Objectives:

This study investigated the effects of a national early retirement reform, which was implemented in 2006 and penalized early retirement, on paid employment and different exit pathways and examined whether these effects differ by gender, income level and health status.

Methods:

This study included all Dutch individuals in paid employment born six months before (control group) and six months after (intervention group) the cut-off date of the reform (1 January 1950) that fiscally penalized early retirement. A regression discontinuity design combined with restricted mean survival time analysis was applied to evaluate the effect of penalizing early retirement on labor force participation from age 60 until workers reached the retirement age of 65 years, while accounting for secular trends around the threshold.

Results:

The intervention group postponed early retirement by 7.41 months [95% confidence interval (CI) 6.11–8.72], and partly replaced this by remaining 4.87 months (95% CI 3.60–6.24) longer in paid employment. Workers born after the threshold, annually earning €25 000–40 000, spent 1.24 months (95% CI 0.31–2.18) more in economic inactivity than those born before. The working months lost to unemployment increased by 1.50 months (95% CI 0.30–2.71) for female workers and 1.99 months (95% CI 0.06–3.92) for workers reporting multiple chronic diseases.

Conclusions:

The national reform successfully prolonged working lives of older workers. However, workers with a middle income, female workers, and workers with chronic diseases were more vulnerable to premature exit from the labor market through unemployment or being without any income or benefit.

The influence of unhealthy behaviours on early exit from paid employment among workers with a chronic disease: A prospective study using the Lifelines cohort

OBJECTIVES

This study examined the risk of unhealthy behaviours and the additive effects of multiple unhealthy behaviours on exit from paid employment among workers with a chronic disease and investigated effect modification by gender and educational level.

METHODS

Data from the Lifelines cohort, collected between 2006 and 2013, were enriched with registry data from Statistics Netherlands with up to 11 years follow-up. Workers with a chronic disease were selected (n = 11,467). The influence of unhealthy behaviours (physical inactivity, smoking, unhealthy diet, high alcohol intake, and obesity) on exit from paid employment (unemployment, disability benefits, early retirement, and economic inactivity) was examined using competing risk models. To examine effect modification by gender and educational level, interaction terms were added.

RESULTS

Smoking and low fruit intake increased the risk to exit paid employment through unemployment and disability benefits. Low vegetable intake increased the risk of unemployment, obesity the risk of receiving disability benefits, and high alcohol intake the risk of early retirement. Physical inactivity was not associated with any exit from paid employment. Having multiple unhealthy behaviours increased the risk of both unemployment and of receiving disability. No consistent effect modification for gender or educational level was found.

CONCLUSIONS

Unhealthy behaviours increased the risk to exit paid employment through unemployment and disability benefits among workers with a chronic disease, and this risk increased when having multiple unhealthy behaviours. Health promotion to support workers with chronic diseases to make healthier choices may help to extend their working life.

Influence of changing working conditions on exit from paid employment among workers with a chronic disease

Objectives

To investigate the relation between changes in working conditions and exit from paid employment among workers with a chronic disease.

Methods

Six waves from the longitudinal Study on Transitions in Employment, Ability and Motivation (2010–2016), enriched with tax-based employment information from Statistics Netherlands (2011–2017), were available for 4820 chronically ill workers aged 45–63 years (mean 55.3 years, SD 5.1). A change in working conditions (physical workload, psychological job demands, job autonomy, emotional job demands and social support) was defined as an increase or decrease between two consecutive waves of at least one SD. Discrete-time survival models with repeated measurements were used to estimate the relative risk (RR) of a change in working conditions on exiting paid employment in the following year compared with no change and consecutive favourable working conditions.

Results

A favourable change in physical workload lowered the risk to exit paid employment (RR 0.46, 95% CI 0.22 to 0.94). An adverse change in psychosocial working conditions, especially a decrease in social support (RR 2.07, 95% CI 1.52 to 2.81), increased the likelihood to exit paid employment. In contrast, a favourable change in psychological job demands increased the risk to exit paid employment (RR 1.57, 95% CI 1.09 to 2.24). Multiple adverse changes increased the risk to exit paid employment up to six times (RR 6.06, 95% CI 2.83 to 12.98).

Conclusions

Changes in working conditions among workers with chronic diseases influence exit from paid employment. Ensuring that working conditions can be adapted to the needs of workers with a chronic disease may help to extend working life.

Educational differences in the influence of health on early work exit among older workers

Objectives

Previous research has shown that poor physical and mental health are important risk factors for early work exit. We examined potential differences in this association in older workers (50+) across educational levels.

Methods

Coordinated analyses were carried out in longitudinal data sets from four European countries: the Netherlands (Longitudinal Aging Study Amsterdam), Denmark (Danish Longitudinal Study of Ageing), England (English Longitudinal Study of Ageing) and Germany (German Ageing Survey). The effect of poor self-rated health (SRH), functional limitations and depression on different types of early work exit (early retirement, economic inactivity, disability and unemployment) was examined using Cox regression analysis. We examined educational differences in these effects by testing interaction terms.

Results

Poor physical and mental health were more common among the lower educated. Poor SRH, functional limitations, and depression were all associated with a higher risk of early work exit. These health effects were strongest for the disability exit routes (poor SRH: HRs 5.77 to 8.14; functional limitations: HRs 6.65 to 10.42; depression: HRs 3.30 to 5.56). In the Netherlands (functional limitations) and England (functional limitations and SRH), effects were stronger in the lower educated.

Conclusions

The prevalence of health problems, that is, poor SRH, functional limitations and depression, was higher in the lower educated workers. All three health indicators increase the risk of early work exit. In some countries, health effects on early exit were stronger in the lower educated. Thus, lower educated older workers are an important target group for health policy and intervention.

The impact of longstanding illness and common mental disorder on competing employment exits routes in older working age: A longitudinal data-linkage study in Sweden

Objectives

Comorbidity is prevalent in older working ages and might affect employment exits. This study aimed to 1) assess the associations between comorbidity and different employment exit routes, and 2) examine such associations by gender.

Methods

We used data from employed adults aged 50–62 in the Stockholm Public Health Survey 2002 and 2006, linked to longitudinal administrative income records (N = 10,416). The morbidity measure combined Limiting Longstanding Illness and Common Mental Disorder—captured by the General Health Questionnaire-12 (≥4)—into a categorical variable: 1) No Limiting Longstanding Illness, no Common Mental Disorder, 2) Limiting Longstanding Illness only, 3) Common Mental Disorder only, and 4) comorbid Limiting Longstanding Illness+Common Mental Disorder. Employment status was followed up until 2010, treating early retirement, disability pension and unemployment as employment exits. Competing risk regression analysed the associations between morbidity and employment exit routes, stratifying by gender.

Results

Compared to No Limiting Longstanding Illness, no Common Mental Disorder, comorbid Limiting Longstanding Illness+Common Mental Disorder was associated with early retirement in men (subdistribution hazard ratio = 1.73, 95% confidence intervals: 1.08–2.76), but not in women. For men and women, strong associations for disability pension were observed with Limiting Longstanding Illness only (subdistribution hazard ratio = 11.43, 95% confidence intervals: 9.40–13.89) and Limiting Longstanding Illness+Common Mental Disorder (subdistribution hazard ratio = 14.25, 95% confidence intervals: 10.91–18.61), and to a lesser extent Common Mental Disorder only (subdistribution hazard ratio = 2.00, 95% confidence intervals: 1.31–3.05). Women were more likely to exit through disability pension than men (subdistribution hazard ratio = 1.96, 95% confidence intervals: 1.60–2.39). Common Mental Disorder only was the only morbidity category associated with unemployment (subdistribution hazard ratio = 1.70, 95% confidence intervals: 1.36–2.15).

Conclusions

Strong associations were observed between specific morbidity categories with different employment exit routes, which differed by gender. Initiatives to extend working lives should consider older workers’ varied health needs to prevent inequalities in older age.