Farmers' perception of the role of veterinary surgeons in vaccination strategies on British dairy farms

Would you bet on the vet? Influences on dairy farmers' vaccination choices, with a spotlight on the Veterinarian impact

Ensuring effective vaccination is crucial for epidemic control, particularly in voluntary vaccination scenarios. Though highly important for planning voluntary vaccination programs, we lack insights into the effectiveness of veterinarian communication and the impact of disease-specific traits on farmer vaccination intentions. To fill this void, our study compared five diseases affecting Israeli dairy cattle (Botulism, Bovine Ephemeral Fever (BEF), Brucellosis, Lumpy Skin Disease (LSD), and Rabies). Using questionnaires grounded in the theory of planned behavior, we surveyed 340 Israeli dairy farmers to understand their vaccination intentions for each disease.Simultaneously, veterinarians overseeing these farms provided insights into their opinions and perceived influence on vaccination decisions. Results revealed varying levels of farmer vaccination intention, with Botulism showing the highest and BEF the lowest. Social pressure significantly influenced farmers' vaccination intentions, with distinct patterns across diseases. Veterinarian opinions had the highest influence only for LSD, while other factors played crucial roles in different diseases. Intriguingly, there was no correlation between veterinarians' recommendations and farmers' perceptions of these recommendations. In conclusion, the optimization of voluntary vaccination programs necessitates tailoring interventions to the unique characteristics of each disease. Additionally, improving communication between veterinarians and farmers is essential, with an emphasis on effective risk communication training.

Vaccination protocols in Québec dairy herds

Information is needed on vaccination protocols used by veterinarians and dairy producers to prevent and control infections in dairy herds. This observational study described farm's vaccination standard operating procedures (SOP) developed by veterinarians in collaboration with dairy producers in Québec. Data pertaining to vaccination protocols and dairy producer practices were collected as part of the biosecurity component of the National Mandatory Quality Assurance Certification Program (proAction). Generalized statistical mixed-effects models were used to assess associations between dairy herd characteristics and the vaccination SOP, encompassing various vaccination types. These included any vaccination, core vaccines only (bovine respiratory syncytial virus, infectious bovine rhinotracheitis herpesvirus, parainfluenza virus type 3, bovine viral diarrhea virus type 1 and type 2) and vaccination against diarrhea, mastitis, or clostridial diseases. These models accounted for random variations related to clustering by veterinarians and veterinary clinics. Furthermore, the variance of the outcome was partitioned into producer, veterinarian, and veterinary clinic levels to explore the proportion of the total variance attributable to each group. A total of 3,759 standardized vaccination procedures completed between 2018 and 2021 were analyzed. At least one vaccination target was included in the vaccination SOP in 89% of the dairy herds. The most frequently included vaccine in the SOP was core vaccines, comprising 88%, followed by mastitis (22%), neonatal diarrhea (18%), and clostridial diseases (15%). The vaccination SOPs, particularly core, mastitis, and diarrhea vaccinations, mainly varied due to the veterinarian's characteristics, followed by the clinic's characteristics. In contrast, the decision to included clostridial vaccination primarily varied with the veterinary clinic (76%). Organic producers generally included fewer vaccinations in their SOPs, including core vaccines, than conventional producers. In addition, producers who were providing access to pasture had fewer vaccination SOP for vaccination against mastitis and neonatal diarrhea but more vaccination SOP for clostridial vaccination.

Assessment of a joint farmer-veterinarian discussion about biosecurity using novel social interaction analyses

Veterinarians are trusted by farmers and play an important role in assisting them to implement biosecurity. More research is needed that particularly focuses on the impact of joint farmer-veterinarian discussions to further understand the role of communication in altering biosecurity behaviours. The aim of this study was to analyse joint dairy cattle farmer-veterinarian discussions about the adoption of on-farm biosecurity using novel social interaction methodologies. Farmer and veterinarian stakeholders were invited to take part in a face-to-face meeting. Introductory presentations were given, followed by separate facilitated veterinarian and farmer discussions. All stakeholders were brought together for a final facilitated group discussion which was audio recorded. Corresponding transcripts from the recordings were analysed via thematic and conversation analyses. Conversation analysis assessments such as turn taking, repair, sequence organisation, overlap and asymmetry were employed to investigate the nature of the conversation. Thematic analysis identified the negative repercussions of conflicting information or ineffective communication surrounding biosecurity implementation. The type of, and importance of, the relationship farmers had with veterinarians and other stakeholders was highlighted. The need to provide personalised biosecurity protocols on farms was identified. Four key factors were identified via conversation analyses. These included: 1) how the conversation facilitated agreement, 2) how the conversation allowed the farmer and veterinarian participants to learn from one another in real time, 3) how the discussion enabled participants to expand upon points they were making, and 4) how participants were able to obtain a greater understanding of the other participants' opinions, even without total resolution. Debate around the effective implementation of biosecurity measures on farms, explored using novel techniques, demonstrated the potential for utilising a discussive approach between veterinarians and farmers to lead to solutions not previously considered. Because of the nature of the discussion, conversation analysis resulted in an informative approach to encapsulating the nuanced dialogue between stakeholders, highlighting the potential of this analysis framework.

Surveying UK sheep farmers' vaccination techniques and the impact of vaccination training

BACKGROUND

Vaccines are commonly used in sheep farming. However, compliance with vaccination protocols and subsequent suboptimal vaccination techniques are concerns in the industry.

METHODS

An online survey containing 31 questions encompassing vaccination storage, technique and training was distributed to UK sheep farmers. Respondents were asked to mark on a sheep diagram where they would administer intramuscular (IM), intradermal, and subcutaneous (SC) vaccines.

RESULTS

Of 370 respondents, only 26.1% identified the correct location for SC, 38.0% for intradermal, and 7.7% for IM vaccination. Almost half (45.5%) stored their vaccines in a fridge specific to veterinary medicines, only 33.9% used a temperature logger, and 6.4% checked their fridge temperature daily. Almost half (45.5%) kept their vaccines 48 hours or longer after broaching, and 11.1% kept them until the next time. Significantly more respondents who had received training correctly identified the location for IM vaccination (p < 0.01). However, training had no significant influence on the the correct identification of the other vaccination sites, vaccine storage or administration.

CONCLUSION

Suboptimal vaccination techniques are not due to unwillingness to learn; 83.8% responded that they would consider taking a course to improve their use. However, the majority (73.9%) were unaware of the training courses available. Therefore, the industry needs to respond and promote courses.

Benefits of Veterinary Herd Health Management on German Dairy Farms: Status Quo and Farmers' Perspective

Veterinary Herd Health Management plays an important role in veterinary medicine on dairy farms and has also been mandatory at the European Union level since April 21, 2021. Despite the increasing importance of VHHM, little is known about the extent of utilization of VHHM by dairy farmers and their view on this type of collaboration. Therefore, this cross-sectional study aimed to determine the status quo of the currently practiced VHHM in Germany. For this purpose, an online survey was conducted among dairy farmers in November and December 2020. From 216 analyzed questionnaires, about half (n = 106) of the surveyed dairy farmers used VHHM at different scopes. However, regardless of the group, the term “veterinary herd health management” generally was given most relative importance by the participants as a veterinary service for herd fertility improvement, rather than the actual definition of a holistic approach. In contrast to this, the actual motivation of the VHHM participants, to take part in such a program was primarily based on the desire to safeguard animal health by employing preventive measures, that is, to avoid the occurrence of diseases via improved management and to improve farm performance (and profitability). Dairy farmers who opted for VHHM tended to manage larger higher yielding herds than those who did not. Additionally, the farmers in latter farms were more likely to make joint animal health decisions with their veterinarians. Using a latent class analysis, two groups of farmers among farms that were not currently using VHHM were identified, one of which expressed great interest in using VHHM while the other did not. Since the new legal basis makes the topic even more relevant than before, dairy farmers, animals, and veterinarians might benefit from the study to exploit hidden opportunities for VHHM collaboration.

Why isn't the transition period getting the attention it deserves? Farm advisors' opinions and experiences of managing dairy cow health in the transition period

During the transition period three weeks before and after calving the dairy cow is at greater risk of developing disease, to the detriment of welfare and production. An understanding of the reasons why and how farmers and their advisors engage in efforts to control metabolic disease during the transition period is required if these diseases are to be more successfully controlled. The study reported here, based on interview research, investigates the opinions and behaviours of farm advisors on transition cow management and nutrition, their experiences of working with their respective farm clients, and interactions with other farm advisors to help manage transition cow health and productivity. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 12 veterinary advisors and 12 non-veterinary advisors (nutritionists, feed company representatives and independent consultants) in England. A key theme emerging from this qualitative data was a perceived lack of focussed transition management advice provided by advisors. Reasons for suboptimal or lack of appropriate advice included: time pressures for advisors to visit as many farms as possible; avoiding the investigation of areas of potential improvement, for fear of not meeting transition health and performance targets; financial disincentives for nutritionists, as the sales commission attributed to transition cow feeding was small relative to the main milking herd; and a lack of confidence in the subject. Other aspects included the responsibility of providing transition advice which was perceived to be high-risk, a lack of cooperation between veterinarians and nutritionists, and the perceived varying competencies of nutritionists. The findings demonstrate the importance of the varied influences of 'people factors' on transition cow health such as the nature of the advisor-farmer relationship, advisor-farmer communication and herd-level advisor collaboration on transition cow health and management.

Practices and opinions of New Zealand veterinarians regarding control of bovine viral diarrhoea

AIMS

To explore recommendations that New Zealand veterinarians make for diagnosing and managing bovine viral diarrhoea (BVD) in cattle herds under different clinical scenarios and their opinions towards potential barriers and opportunities for implementing BVD control programmes in New Zealand.

METHODS

A cross-sectional survey of registered veterinarians in New Zealand was conducted in 2019. Respondents were asked about the approaches they would use to manage BVD under different clinical scenarios as well as their opinions on national BVD control. A subset of veterinarians completed a more in-depth survey providing additional free-text responses on a range of different BVD topics. Descriptive statistics were provided for all quantitative study variables and the free-text responses were also analysed to generate further insights into veterinarians' perceptions towards BVD management.

RESULTS

The cross-sectional survey was completed by 101 of an estimated 870 (11.6%) cattle veterinarians. Thirty-five veterinarians completed the in-depth survey. There was wide variation in the BVD diagnostic testing and vaccination protocols that respondents recommended under different clinical scenarios. Annual bulk milk BVD testing was perceived as a valuable tool for initiating BVD discussions with dairy farmers. Respondents indicated that beef farmers were more difficult to engage in BVD control largely due to the logistical challenges of yarding cattle at the appropriate times to implement interventions, with many farmers only contacting veterinarians after experiencing a BVD outbreak Most respondents (91/101; 90%) believed it was possible to eradicate BVD from New Zealand, but cited lack of farmer awareness and poor compliance with management recommendations as significant barriers. The measure with the most support for inclusion in a compulsory national eradication programme was requiring farmers to declare the status of their animals prior to sale while the least supported measure was requiring farmers to double fence boundaries to prevent nose-to-nose contact with neighbouring stock. Although respondents highlighted the need for farmers and industry to support any national eradication programme in order for it to be successful, there was also recognition that veterinarians could be more pro-active in engaging with farmers particularly in discussions around the economics of BVD.

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE

While the survey respondents appeared to be highly supportive of BVD control, it was perceived that financial and logistical barriers existed that could impede farmer engagement. Further extension efforts may be needed to ensure that veterinarians are presenting clear and consistent recommendations about BVD management to farmers.Abbreviations: BVD: Bovine viral diarrhoea; NAIT: National Animal Identification and Tracing System; PI: Persistently infected.

Sheep farmers' attitudes towards lameness control: Qualitative exploration of factors affecting adoption of the lameness Five-Point Plan

In 2014, best-practice recommendations to treat and control lameness in sheep in the UK were consolidated into a national program, the Five-Point Plan (5PP). As recent evidence suggests that only the minority of sheep farmers are implementing all management practices listed in the 5PP, qualitative investigation is vital to ensure future promotion is aligned with psychological and contextual factors affecting farmers’ decision-making. This qualitative study sought to explore farmers’ attitudes and the factors affecting uptake of best-practice measures listed in the 5PP. Semi-structured interviews were conducted in 2019 with 12 sheep farmers from England and Wales. In accordance with Thematic Analysis and the principles of Grounded Theory, data collection and analysis were performed iteratively. Two overarching themes, delineated by subthemes, emerged during analysis; (1) Barriers to adoption of 5PP measures and (2) Motivation to adopt 5PP measures. Various farmer-centric factors and physical resources were identified as key barriers or obstacles that limited farmers’ ability to implement 5PP measures outright, or restricted their ability to make changes to facilitate future adoption. Conversely, internal and external influences were identified to increase farmers’ willingness and motivation to implement practices listed on the 5PP. Heterogeneity in farmer perceptions, attitudes, experiences and circumstances identified in this study highlights the difficulty in promoting a one-size-fits-all lameness control plan, where a unique combination of intrinsic factors, social influences, and physical restrictions affect implementation. Future initiatives should focus on removing barriers by changing farmers’ perceptions and mindset towards lameness control, and building farmers’ confidence in their ability to implement practices. Furthermore, farmers’ social licence to farm and their desire to improve their reputation within society, presents an important opportunity to further engage farmers in implementing control practices. Increasing peer-to-peer knowledge transfer opportunities and effective farmer-veterinarian communication and rapport could help establish 5PP measures as normative behaviours.

Farmers' and veterinary surgeons' knowledge, perceptions and attitudes towards cattle abortion investigations in the UK

BACKGROUND

Cattle abortion can significantly affect farm productivity and be an important cause of economic loss on beef and dairy farms.

METHOD

A questionnaire-based survey, completed by 379 farmers and 134 veterinary surgeons from the UK and Ireland, investigated motivators and barriers towards abortion investigations and perceptions of cattle abortion. Participants were recruited using convenience sampling.

RESULTS

Veterinary surgeons underestimated farmers' willingness to pay for an abortion investigation; 54 per cent of veterinary surgeons expected farmers to pay under 100£/€, compared with 46 per cent of farmers. Most farmers (27 per cent) were willing to pay 101-250£/€ and 12 per cent above 500£/€. The incidence threshold warranting abortion investigation was 4 per cent for veterinary surgeons and lower for farmers at 2 per cent, especially beef farmers, where 48 per cent indicated a 1 per cent incidence required attention. Seventy-five per cent of dairy farmers used more than 2 per cent as their threshold. Eighty-four per cent of veterinary surgeons and 95 per cent of farmers agreed on the same abortion definition.

CONCLUSION

Veterinary surgeons and farmers agree on the definition of abortion; however, veterinary surgeons underestimate the willingness of farmers to engage with and pay for abortion investigations. A more proactive approach from veterinary surgeons, including improved communication and transparency around costs, expectations and clients' goals can improve abortion investigation outcomes.

"They've got to be testing and doing something about it": Farmer and veterinarian views on drivers for Johne's disease control in dairy herds in England

There needs to be an understanding of the reasons why key stakeholders engage in disease control efforts if disease is to be successfully and sustainably controlled. It is increasingly recognised within veterinary epidemiology and policy making in animal health that these 'people factors' are important influences on the success or otherwise of animal disease control programmes. Research methodologies adopted from the social sciences offer ways to understand this important dimension through investigating the attitudes and opinions of the key actors involved. The study reported in this paper, based on qualitative interview research, investigates the views of dairy farmers and cattle veterinarians on the drivers and incentives for controlling Johne's disease in English dairy herds. Twenty semi-structured interviews involving 17 dairy farmers and seven veterinarians were conducted in two dairy-intensive regions of England. The findings demonstrate the varied influences of veterinary advice and encouragement; appreciation of the economic cost of the disease at herd level; a voluntary national control plan; and fear of a future consumer food scare as the main reasons to engage in Johne's disease control on dairy farms. The study demonstrates how a combination of a voluntary industry-led control scheme, compulsory participation through retailer and processor contractual requirements, and threats of reputational harm and market loss have strongly influenced farmer and veterinary behaviour in relation to Johne's control without statutory involvement. The findings illustrate the importance of considering the political economy and societal impact of animal disease.

Information delivery and the veterinarian-horse owner relationship in the context of Hendra virus in Australia

Hendra virus (HeV) is an emerging bat-borne virus endemic in Australia that can be transmitted from horses to humans and has a high fatality rate for horses and people. Controversy surrounding HeV risk mitigation measures have strained the veterinarian-horse owner relationship. This study aimed to characterise the veterinarian-horse owner relationship in general and also in the context of HeV by analysing data derived from the 'Horse Owners and Hendra Virus: A Longitudinal Study to Evaluate Risk' (HHALTER) study. Australian horse owners were recruited via emails, social media and word-of-mouth for a series of five surveys that were administered online at six-monthly intervals over a two-year period to capture baseline knowledge, attitudes and practices of horse owners regarding HeV and any changes over time. In the current study, descriptive analyses of information sources were performed to understand the use of veterinarians as a HeV information source (Surveys 1 and 5; n = 1195 and n = 617). Ordinal logistic regression analyses were conducted to determine factors associated with the frequency of horse owner contact with a veterinarian (Survey 3; n = 636). This study found a relative increase over the study period in the proportion of horse owners who had used veterinarians as HeV information source in the last 12 months (from 51.9% to 88.3%). Owning more horses, being older, having a 'duty of care' for other people working with horses and deriving the main income from horse related business were factors associated with more frequent veterinary contact. Results suggest that traditional information sources such as workshops, information packs and risk training are likely to be used by horse owners. Smart phone applications should be considered for use in the future and require further investigation for horse health communication. The findings of this study may be helpful in optimising strategies for horse health information delivery.

Preference of veterinarians to select an udder health programme for milk producers

Background

This investigation was carried out to gain more insight about the preference of veterinarians on the implementation of an udder health programme (UHP) in a dairy farm.

Methods

A choice experiment was designed to elicit the preferences of the participants. The study population consisted of 36 veterinarians from Argentina specialised on milk quality. The choice experiment offered several UHPs, which were combinations of some of the interventions included in the so-called five-point plan. To reduce bias among the participants, the UHPs offered were unlabelled and considered two farm contexts: one was on a pasture system and the other was on a dry-lot with pasture access system. The basic criteria (the so-called attribute) to describe veterinarians’ preferences for each UHP proposed were efficacy on clinical mastitis (CM) and bulk milk somatic cell count (BMSCC) reduction, cost and technical support. The data collected were analysed using conjoint analysis.

Results

UHP cost and UHP efficacy on BMSCC and CM had a significant influence on veterinarians’ ranking decisions under both dairy production contexts. The efficacy on CM was the most important attribute to prefer a particular UHP, while technical assistance was the least important attribute considered. The attributes related to efficacy on both BMSCC and CM explained over 60 per cent of the total importance of all attributes.

Conclusion

To the authors’ knowledge, this is the first research in South America focused on studying veterinarians’ preferences to suggest a UHP. The cost and efficacy attributes were the veterinarians’ top priority attributes to decide the best UHP.

A review of paratuberculosis in dairy herds - Part 2: On-farm control

Bovine paratuberculosis is a chronic infectious disease of cattle, caused by Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis (MAP). This is the second in a two-part review of the epidemiology and control of paratuberculosis in dairy herds. Several negative production effects associated with MAP infection have been described, but perhaps the most significant concern in relation to the importance of paratuberculosis as a disease of dairy cattle is the potential link with Crohn's disease in humans. Milk is considered a potential transmission route to humans and it is recognised that pasteurisation does not necessarily eliminate the bacterium. Therefore, control must also include reduction of the levels of MAP in bulk milk supplied from dairy farms. There is little field evidence in support of specific control measures, although several studies seem to show a decreased prevalence associated with the implementation of a combined management and test-and-cull programme. Improvements in vaccination efficacy and reduced tuberculosis (TB) test interference may increase uptake of vaccination as a control option. Farmer adoption of best practice recommendations at farm level for the control of endemic diseases can be challenging. Improved understanding of farmer behaviour and decision making will help in developing improved communication strategies which may be more efficacious in affecting behavioural change on farm.

Farmer Behavior and Gastrointestinal Nematodes in Ruminant Livestock-Uptake of Sustainable Control Approaches

Gastrointestinal nematode (GIN) infections are a common constraint in pasture-based herds and cause a decrease in animal health, productivity and farm profitability. Current control practices to prevent production losses of GIN infections in livestock depend largely on the use of anthelmintic drugs. However, due to the continued use of these drugs over more than three decades, the industry is now increasingly confronted with nematode populations resistant to the available anthelmintics. This emerging anthelmintic resistance (AR) in cattle nematodes emphasizes the need for a change toward more sustainable control approaches that limit, prevent or reverse the development of AR. The uptake of diagnostic methods for sustainable control could enable more informed treatment decisions and reduce excessive anthelmintic use. Different diagnostic and targeted or targeted selective anthelmintic control approaches that slow down the selection pressure for anthelmintic resistance have been developed and evaluated recently. Now it is time to transform these insights into guidelines for sustainable control and communicate them across the farmer community. This article reviews the current uptake of such sustainable practices with a focus on farmer's socio-psychological factors affecting this uptake. We investigate communication as a possible tool to change current behavior and successfully implement more sustainable anthelmintic treatment strategies.

Why do veterinarians ask for antimicrobial susceptibility testing? A qualitative study exploring determinants and evaluating the impact of antibiotic reduction policy

For public health reasons, increasing attention has focused on more rational use of antimicrobials in farm animals. Guidance concerning the prescription of antibiotics and antimicrobial susceptibility testing (antibiograms in this case) are beneficial tools to help control the development of antimicrobial resistance. Nevertheless, even though there are already several qualitative studies analysing the determinants of antimicrobial prescription and use in veterinary medicine, little is known about decision-making concerning the use of antibiograms. The aim of this study was to provide a better understanding of veterinarians' motivations and role-players' influence concerning the choice of whether to ask for an antibiogram in the bovine, porcine, poultry and equine sectors in France. We concurrently evaluated the impact of a new French decree (2016) requiring an antibiogram before certain critically important antimicrobial agents can be used in veterinary medicine. Semi-structured interviews with veterinarians were conducted in France. Thematic analysis was used to analyse transcripts. In all, we surveyed 66 veterinarians. Use of antibiograms in veterinary medicine was multifactorial - 46 factors grouped into 11 categories were identified - and differed between animal sectors: use was almost systematic in poultry, frequent in pigs and rare in both the bovine and equine sectors. The decree has not increased the use of antibiograms but has induced a change in prescriptions due to field constraints and the time needed to obtain the results of antibiograms. Respondents see the decree as an aid in promoting responsible and rational use of antibiotics, fostering the use of alternatives. Our findings provide the basis of veterinarians' position regarding antibiogram use and antimicrobial resistance, pointing out levers to facilitate the use of antibiograms in veterinary medicine (for example communication on the benefits of this test and external financial support). Furthermore, the evaluation of the impact of the decree aimed at reducing the use of critically important antibiotic highlights key factors for a successful change in regulations, such as advance planning, precise and adapted communication, and demonstration of the measure's legitimacy. These results will be useful in guiding representative veterinary bodies and regulatory authorities during their decision-making, communication, and policy and regulation choices to combat antimicrobial resistance.

Application of multiple behaviour change models to identify determinants of farmers' biosecurity attitudes and behaviours

It has been recognised that few cattle farmers undertake biosecurity practices on their farms. Approaches that take into consideration individuals' preparedness for change, alongside beliefs thought to motivate the enactment of certain behaviours, may provide a framework for actuating tangible change. The aim of this study was to use a combination of behaviour change models to link beliefs with behaviour and identify possible key interventions to improve the uptake of biosecurity measures by dairy cattle farmers in Great Britain (GB). This is the first study to explore farmers' practices and attitudes in relation to the prevention of direct (animal to animal contact); indirect (via fomites); and other biosecurity measures using a multitheory approach. A cross-sectional study was carried out, with postal questionnaires sent to 2505 dairy cattle farmers. Questions were asked about the extent to which a host of biosecurity measures were used, the influence of various stakeholders (e.g. veterinarians, industry bodies) in informing biosecurity choices, and the perceived control farmers felt they had over biosecurity on their farms. Farmer attitudes towards biosecurity were also explored. Two behaviour change models, the Transtheoretical Model, and the Theory of Planned Behaviour, were utilised. A variety of analysis methods were used to interrogate the data, including multivariable logistic regression. A total of 908/2505 (36.2%) farmers responded, with 757 responses (30.2%) deemed eligible for inclusion. Farmers generally fell into one of two categories: those that reported not applying biosecurity measures with no intention of doing so in the future, and those that reported undertaking biosecurity measures for some time. Farmers felt that biosecurity improved cattle health and welfare, but also felt that disease was inevitable. More farmers agreed with statements relating to their ability to control, rather than prevent disease. Analysis suggested a difference between influencing beliefs and whether specific types of measure were more likely to be undertaken. For example, farmers' beliefs about other stakeholders appeared to play a role in influencing the utilisation of measures preventing direct contact (e.g. nose to nose contact), rather than indirect contact (e.g. fomite transmission). The use of a combination of behaviour change models has identified key variables to use for interventional approaches targeted towards the different type of biosecurity measure (preventing direct or indirect transmission) to improve the uptake of biosecurity on dairy cattle farms in GB. Other industry stakeholders should be aware of these variables when working with farmers to achieve optimal cattle herd health.

Motivators and barriers for dog and cat owners and veterinary surgeons in the United Kingdom to using preventative medicines

Routine use of preventative medicines is advocated as part of responsible dog and cat ownership. However, it has been suggested that the number of owners in the United Kingdom (UK) using preventative medicines to protect their pets is in decline. The aim of this novel study was to use a qualitative methodology to explore the attitudes of pet owners and veterinary surgeons in the UK to using preventative medicine products in dogs and cats. Preventative medicine was defined as "a drug or any other preparation used to prevent disease, illness or injury." Semi-structured interviews were conducted by telephone with owners and veterinary surgeons who had recently participated in a preventative healthcare consultation. Thematic analysis of transcribed recordings of these interviews identified four themes. This paper reports the theme related to motivators and barriers to using preventative medicines. Owners' understanding varied widely about the importance of preventative medicines for pets, as did their confidence in the safety of prescription products. A good relationship with their veterinary surgeon or practice, seeing adverts on the television about specific diseases, advice from a breeder and having personally seen infected animals appeared to be motivators for owners to use preventative medicines. Concern about adverse events and uncertainty about the necessity of using preventative medicines were barriers. Owners who trusted their veterinary surgeons to advise them on preventative medicine products described little use of alternative information sources when making preventative medicine choices. However, owners who preferred to do their own research described reading online opinions, particular in relation to the safety of preventative medicines, which they found confusing. In contrast, veterinary surgeons described broad confidence in the safety and efficacy of prescription preventative medicines and described protection of pet health as a strong motivator for their use. Several expressed some concern about being seen to "sell" products, which may present a barrier to their advocacy. Veterinary surgeons were unsure about owners' level of understanding of the necessity of preventative medicines, particularly in relation to vaccinations, and few recalled instigating conversations with owners about product safety. Owner uncertainties about preventative medicine products may not be adequately addressed in the consulting room. This first qualitative study to investigate dog and cat preventative medicines suggests strategies are needed to increase discussion between pet owners and veterinary surgeons in the UK about the necessity, safety, efficacy and cost of preventative medicines.

A systemic integrative framework to describe comprehensively a swine health system, Flanders as an example

A well-functioning swine health system is crucial to ensure a sustainable pig production. Yet, little attention has been paid to understand it. The objective of this study was to unravel the complexity of a swine health system by using a systems-thinking approach for the case of Flanders (Northern part of Belgium). To that end, qualitative interviews were held with 33 relevant stakeholders. A hybrid thematic analysis was conducted which consisted of two phases. First, an inductive thematic analysis was conducted and second, the resulting themes were classified into the building blocks of a systemic framework. This framework combined a structural and a functional analysis that allowed to identify the key actors and their functions. Additionally, a transformational analysis was performed to evaluate how structures and the entire swine health system enable or disable functions. Findings revealed that the Flemish swine health system presents several merits such as the synchronization of policies and sector's agreements to reduce the antimicrobial use in the pig sector and the presence of a rich network of universities and research institutes that contribute to the education of health professionals. Nevertheless, several systemic failures were observed at different levels such as the lack of a good professional body representing the swine veterinarians, the tradition that veterinary advice is provided for 'free' by feed mill companies, and the shortage of reliable farm productivity data. Both latter failures may hinder swine practitioners to provide integrative advice. While few veterinarians are remunerated per hour or per visit by farmers, the most common business model used by veterinarians is largely based on the sale of medicines. Thus, veterinarians encounter often a conflict of interest when advising on preventive vaccinations and, in turn, farmers distrust their advice. On a positive note, alternatives to the traditional business model were suggested by both veterinarians and farmers which may indicate that there is intention to change; however, the broader institutional and socio-cultural environment does not enable this evolution. The results of this study can aid policy makers to anticipate the effects of proposed interventions and regulations so that they can be fine-tuned before they are enforced.

The importance of communication in promoting voluntary participation in an experimental trial: A qualitative study based on the assessment of the gamma-interferon test for the diagnosis of bovine tuberculosis in France

Understanding the factors leading each stakeholder to participate in an experimental trial is a key element for improving trial set-up and for identifying selection bias in statistical analyses. An experimental protocol, validated by the European Commission, was developed in France to assess the ability of the gamma-interferon test in terms of accuracy to replace the second intradermal skin test in cases of suspected bovine tuberculosis. Implemented between 2013 and 2015, this experimental trial was based on voluntary participation. To determine and understand the motivation or reluctance of farmers to take part in this trial, we carried out a sociological survey in France. Our study was based on semi-structured interviews with the farmers and other stakeholders involved. The analysis of findings demonstrated that shortening the lock-up period during tuberculosis suspicion, following the use of a gamma-interferon test, was an important aim and a genuine challenge for the animal health stakeholders. However, some farmers did not wish to continue the trial because it could potentially have drastic consequences for them. Moreover, misunderstandings and confusion concerning the objectives and consequences of the trial led stakeholders to reject it forcefully. Based on our results, we offer some recommendations: clear and appropriate communication tools should be prepared to explain the protocol and its aims. In addition, these types of animal health trials should be designed with the stakeholders’ interests in mind. This study provides a better understanding of farmer motivations and stakeholder influences on trial participation and outcomes. The findings can be used to help design trials so that they promote participation by farmers and by all animal health stakeholders in general.

Engaging veterinarians and farmers in eradicating bovine viral diarrhoea: a systematic review of economic impact

Bovine viral diarrhoea (BVD) is a significant drain on efficient and successful cattle production in both dairy and beef systems around the world. Several countries have achieved eradication of this disease, but always through the motivation of stakeholders who accept the benefits of eradication. These include increased cattle welfare and fitness of cattle to withstand other diseases, and decreased costs of production, the latter resulting from both decreased costs spent on managing the disease and decreased losses. This paper provides a systematic review of 31 papers, published between 1991 and 2015, that address the economic impact of BVD. Each paper takes a different approach, in either beef or dairy production or both. However with the breadth of work collated, a stakeholder engaged in BVD eradication should find an economic figure of most relevance to them. The reported economic impact ranges from £0 to £552 per cow per year (£2370 including outliers). This range represents endemic or subclinical disease situations seen in herds with stable BVD virus infection, and epidemic or severe acute situations, most often seen in naïve herds. The outcome of infection is therefore dependent on the immune status of the animal and severity of the strain. The variations in figures for the economic impact of BVD relate to these immune and pathogenicity factors, along with the variety of impacts monitored.

Playing with fire - What is influencing horse owners' decisions to not vaccinate their horses against deadly Hendra virus infection?

Hendra virus is a zoonotic paramyxovirus, which causes severe respiratory and neurological disease in horses and humans. Since 2012, the Hendra virus sub-unit G vaccine has been available for horse vaccination in Australia. Uptake of the vaccine has been limited and spill-over events of Hendra virus infection in horses continue to occur. We conducted an online, questionnaire-based cross-sectional study of 376 horse owners belonging to a variety of different equestrian clubs in Queensland, Australia, to identify risk factors for non-vaccination against Hendra virus. A total of 43.1% (N = 162) of horse owners indicated that they currently did not vaccinate against Hendra virus infection, while 56.9% (N = 214) currently vaccinated against Hendra virus infection. A total of 52 risk factors were evaluated relating to equestrian activities, horse management, perceived risk and severity of horse and human infection with Hendra virus, side effects of Hendra vaccination, other vaccinations conducted by horse owners and horse owners’ attitudes towards veterinarians. The final multivariable logistics regression model identified the following risk factors associated with increased odds of non-vaccination against Hendra virus: 1) perceived low risk (compared to high) of Hendra virus infection to horses (considering the horse owners’ location and management practices) or horse owners were unsure about the risk of infection, 2) perceived moderate severity (compared to very severe or severe) of Hendra virus infection in humans, 3) horse owners non-vaccination of their pets, 4) horse owners non-vaccination against strangles disease in horses, 5) handling of more than three horses per week (compared to one horse only) and 6) perceived attitude that veterinarians had a high motivation of making money from Hendra virus vaccination (compared to veterinarians having a low motivation of making money from Hendra virus vaccination). Horse owners were more likely to vaccinate against Hendra virus if horses were used for dressage, show jumping or eventing. The study also identified horse owners’ concerns about side-effects and about the lack of evidence on vaccine efficacy.

Exploring Attitudes and Beliefs towards Implementing Cattle Disease Prevention and Control Measures: A Qualitative Study with Dairy Farmers in Great Britain

Simple Summary

Further understanding of why dairy farmers do not engage in disease prevention and control strategies (biosecurity) is required. Using semi-structured interviews informed by a health psychology approach with 25 dairy farmers, a number of barriers, such as disease testing inaccuracies, types of disease transmission, perceived lack of risk and effectiveness of measures, were identified. Motivators included being advised to undertake measures by veterinarians, and the increased threat and severity of the disease in focus. These results suggest there is an advantage to farm advisors and herd health professionals understanding and working with the beliefs of individual dairy farmers to target appropriate communication and advice strategies relating to biosecurity recommendations.

Abstract

Disease prevention and control practices are frequently highlighted as important to ensure the health and welfare of farmed animals, although little is known as to why not many practices are carried out. The aim of this study was to identify the motivators and barriers of dairy cattle farmers towards the use of biosecurity measures on dairy farms using a health psychology approach. Twenty-five farmers on 24 farms in Great Britain (GB) were interviewed using the Theory of Planned Behaviour framework. Results indicated that farmers perceived they had the ability to control what happened on their farms in terms of preventing and controlling disease, and described benefits from being proactive and vigilant. However, barriers were cited in relation to testing inaccuracies, effectiveness and time-efficiency of practices, and disease transmission route (e.g., airborne transmission). Farmers reported they were positively influenced by veterinarians and negatively influenced by the government (Department for Environment Food & Rural Affairs (DEFRA)) and the general public. Decisions to implement practices were influenced by the perceived severity of the disease in question, if disease was diagnosed on the farm already, or was occurring on other farms. Farmers described undertaking a form of personal risk assessment when deciding if practices were worth doing, which did not always involve building in disease specific factors or opinions from veterinarians or other advisors. These results indicate that further guidance about the intricacies of control and prevention principles in relation to specific animal diseases may be required, with an obvious role for veterinarians. There appears to be an opportunity for farm advisors and herd health professionals to further understand farmer beliefs behind certain attitudes and target communication and advice accordingly to further enhance dairy cattle health and welfare.

Biosecurity and the management of emergency animal disease among commercial beef producers in New South Wales and Queensland (Australia)

Australia places great importance on the prevention and management of emergency animal diseases (EAD), with strict quarantine measures offshore and at the border. Livestock producers are crucial for disease control onshore; however, limited information is available on commercial livestock producers' practices in relation to the management of disease risks. The aims of this paper are to investigate how commercial beef producers in Australia's Northern and Southern beef zones manage EADs and to identify drivers for effective biosecurity and EAD prevention. This paper forms part of a broader mixed methods research project involving an analysis of literature and current policies, qualitative semi-structured interviews with government and industry stakeholders and a cross-sectional study among beef producers. The cross-sectional study used a postal survey (n=182) and face-to-face interviews (n=34) to gather data on beef producers' knowledge and practices on biosecurity and EADs and their communication networks. Findings indicate that producers are uncertain about the roles and responsibilities of stakeholders involved in biosecurity and EAD management. This uncertainty may create confusion about EAD management and impact upon producers' willingness to report animal disease, with over 20% reporting the last veterinary contact more than five years ago and an additional 8.5% who had never contacted a veterinarian. Producers had a generally high awareness of the key sources of animal disease risk and they prioritise herd health planning as part of their everyday practices. Over 40% of producers had limited knowledge of the meaning of EAD; and EAD and biosecurity planning was given a low priority, primarily due to the perceived limited likelihood of an EAD event in Australia and the belief that EAD prevention is primarily the role of government. Only a moderate implementation of biosecurity practices, such as isolating incoming animals, having a single property entry point or keeping visitors' records was reported. If faced with an unusual disease event, most producers would contact their private or government veterinarian; however, in some instances most would also treat themselves and over a third would do nothing. Findings from this study suggest that there is a need for better coordination between stakeholders to encourage a shared biosecurity and EAD understanding and to communicate a consistent message to all stakeholders including producers. Further, there is a need for improving producer awareness of the importance of EAD prevention and biosecurity practices as well as the stakeholders' roles within the broader animal health system.