Prevalence of mixed trematode infections in an abattoir receiving cattle from northern Portugal and north-west Spain

A Knowledge, attitude and practice (KAP) study on sheep owners regarding fasciolosis in northwest of Tunisia

Fasciolosis is a worldwide zoonotic snail-borne infection that affects ruminants, it causes high economic losses among livestock. A participatory epidemiological survey was conducted on 204 sheep owners of Sejnane region (District of Bizerte, Northwest Tunisia) to assess their knowledge, attitude and practice regarding fasciolosis. All interviewed sheep owners are aware of this parasitic infection (100%, 204/204), among them, 81% (165/204) reported history of clinical cases in their sheep flocks. According to 33.73% (113/335) of them, sheep get infected by fasciolosis mainly by grazing in wet areas, 79.9% (163/204) of these farmers think that wet climate is the most favourable for the infection. Weight loss (28.40%, 121/426) and submandibular oedema (20.42%, 87/426) are the main clinical signs of fasciolosis cited by interviewed sheep owners and the majority of them (98.53%; 201/204) confirmed that fasciolosis causes significant economic losses. Fasciolosis infection persists in Sejnane region despite the use of antiparasitic drugs, this is due mainly to the fact that animals graze in moist grass (39.88%, 132/331). Treat animals (51.47%, 193/375), prohibit grazing on moist grass (15.20%, 57/357), prohibit grazing on wet soils (14.33%, 53/357) and avoid pastures (10.93%, 41/357) are the main prevention measures cited by interviewed sheep owners. Only 18,14% (37/204) of responders knew that fascioliasis is a zoonotic disease. These results could be considered by animal health decision makers and field veterinarians when implementing control programmes in order to increase breeders' knowledge of fasciolosis.

Zoonotic Threats: The (Re)emergence of Cercarial Dermatitis, Its Dynamics, and Impact in Europe

Cercarial dermatitis (CD), or "Swimmer's itch" as it is also known, is a waterborne illness caused by a blood fluke from the family Schistosomatidae. It occurs when cercariae of trematode species that do not have humans as their definitive host accidentally penetrate human skin (in an aquatic environment) and trigger allergic symptoms at the site of contact. It is an emerging zoonosis that occurs through water and is often overlooked during differential diagnosis. Some of the factors contributing to the emergence of diseases like CD are related to global warming, which brings about climate change, water eutrophication, the colonization of ponds by snails susceptible to the parasite, and sunlight exposure in the summer, associated with migratory bird routes. Therefore, with the increase in tourism, especially at fluvial beaches, it is relevant to analyze the current epidemiological scenario of CD in European countries and the potential regions at risk.

Trematode Genomics and Proteomics

Trematode infections stand out as one of the frequently overlooked tropical diseases, despite their wide global prevalence and remarkable capacity to parasitize diverse host species and tissues. Furthermore, these parasites hold significant socio-economic, medical, veterinary and agricultural implications. Over the past decades, substantial strides have been taken to bridge the information gap concerning various "omic" tools, such as proteomics and genomics, in this field. In this edition of the book, we highlight recent progress in genomics and proteomics concerning trematodes with a particular focus on the advances made in the past 5 years. Additionally, we present insights into cutting-edge technologies employed in studying trematode biology and shed light on the available resources for exploring the molecular facets of this particular group of parasitic helminths.

Study on Cattle Trematodiasis and Related Risk Factors in Damot Sore District, Wolaita Zone, Southern Ethiopia

Trematodes are chronic, debilitating diseases in livestock, causing significant economic losses worldwide. From mid-December 2021 to May 2022, a cross-sectional study was carried out in the Damot Sore District to estimate the prevalence of trematode infections in cattle and associated risk factors. Trematode eggs were found in 100 of the 384 faecal samples tested, with an overall prevalence of 26.04% (95% CI: 21.88-30.69%). The prevalence for Fasciola, Paramphistome, and Schistosoma species were 12.50%, 5.21%, and 0, respectively. Moreover, the infection rate with two parasites was 8.33%. The data were then examined further using univariable and multivariable logistic regression analysis. As a result, age was the only potential predictor identified to influence trematode infections in cattle among the potential predictors considered. Furthermore, old cattle were more likely to be infected with trematodiasis nearly 12 times (OR = 11.5) that of young cattle, and this difference was statistically significant (p < 0.05), whereas other risk factors considered were statistically insignificant (p > 0.05). According to the findings of this study, cattle trematodiasis is a moderately common disease in the study area. As a result, additional research on the meteorological conditions of snail infection was forwarded, along with other points to reduce the disease problem in livestock production.

Spatial Distribution of Dicrocoelium in the Himalayan Ranges: Potential Impacts of Ecological Niches and Climatic Variables

PURPOSE

Dicrocoeliosis can be an important cause of production loss in ruminants due to the cost of liver condemnation at slaughter. The aim of the present study was to determine the prevalence of Dicrocoelium infection and to predict the ecological niches and climatic variables that support dicrocoeliosis in the Himalayan ranges of Pakistan.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Dicrocoelium was detected in 33 of 381 liver samples and 238 of 6060 blood samples taken from sheep and goat herds in the area. The prevalence of dicrocoeliosis was higher in sheep than in goats and highest in females aged more than 3 years. An environmental risk map was created to predict active zones of transmission and showed the highest probability values in central parts of the Chitral district in the northwest of Pakistan. Climatic variables of the mean monthly diurnal temperature range (Bio2), annual precipitation (Bio12), and normalised difference vegetation index (NDVI) were found to be significantly (p < 0.05) associated with the presence of Dicrocoelium infection.

CONCLUSION

Together, the findings of this study demonstrate the most suitable ecological niches and climatic variables influencing the risk of dicrocoeliosis in the Himalayan ranges of Pakistan. The methods and results could be used as a reference to inform the control of dicrocoeliosis in the region.

Calicophoron daubneyi (Dinnik, 1962) (Digenea) in beef and dairy cattle in the Czech Republic: prevalence and drug efficacy

A total of 1,724 beef and 2,941 dairy cattle older than one year from 66 beef and 67 dairy farms in the Czech Republic were examined for the presence of rumen and liver fluke eggs in 2019-2022. Out of 227 positive animals, all were positive for paramphistome and five for fasciolid eggs. Molecular analysis of the ITS2 rDNA revealed the presence of Calicophoron daubneyi (Dinnik, 1962) and Fasciola hepatica Linnaeus, 1758. Faecal egg count (FEC) showed low infection intensity (12 EPG) in animals infected with F. hepatica and high variability in C. daubneyi infections (2-589 EPG). Efficacy of oxyclozanide, albendazole, ivermectin, and closantel against C. daubneyi infection was evaluated at eight beef cattle herds. Faecal samples were collected from all positive animals at 0 and 21days post-treatment. Based on FEC, albendazole, ivermectin and closantel reduced the number of C. daubneyi eggs shed by 0-9.9%, with no effect on the number of infected animals. The use of oxyclozanide on two beef farms showed 100% efficacy against C. daubneyi and F. hepatica. Follow-up examination 5-6 months after drug application showed reinfection of most animals with C. daubneyi, but the FEC was significantly lower. The finding of four dairy cows infected with C. daubneyi housed in a stable without pasture suggests the possibility of the infection being introduced through roughage.

Prevalence, risk factors and first record of mitochondrial cox1 gene-based molecular characterization of Paramphistomum epiclitum from Pakistan

Parasitic infestations are one of the major threats to the livestock industry in Pakistan. These have a negative impact on the production of domesticated livestock species. Paramphistomes belong to the superfamily Paramphistomoidea and are involved in infecting ruminants all over the world. To date, there was no information on mitochondrial DNA-based molecular characterization of Paramphistomum epiclitum from Pakistan. To close this research gap, this study was designed to provide insights into the epidemiology of Paramphistomum species. Paramphistomum epiclitum isolates were recovered from the rumen of small ruminants slaughtered at an abattoir located in Faisalabad city and animal demographics were recorded. DNA was extracted and mitochondrial cox1 was amplified and sequenced. Prevalence was calculated along with a 95% confidence interval in various groups. The chi-square test was applied to determine the association between different variables under investigation. A phylogenetic tree was constructed based on the Bayesian method. Population diversity indices were calculated using DnaSP 4.5 software. A total of 43 mutations were observed among 7 haplotypes. Negative values of Fu's Fs values, and Tajima's D indicated population expansion. Deworming, season, and grazing were the variables that significantly correlate (p &lt; 0.05) with the prevalence of P. epiclitum. The high prevalence of P. epiclitum demonstrates that more studies are indeed needed to further understand the prevalence and distribution of P. epiclitum in definitive and all potential intermediate hosts in addition to intraspecies variation and relationship with populations from other locations.

Rumen fluke infections (Paramphistomidae) in diarrhoeal cattle in western France and association with production parameters

This study was conducted to assess the impact of rumen flukes (RFs) (Paramphistomatidae) on various production parameters of cattle in Normandy. Faecal and blood samples were taken between 1 January 2010 and 31 December 2019 as part of the routine diagnostic activity for diarrhoea in weaned cattle, including a quantitative parasitological analysis coupled with a search for Johne's disease (paratuberculosis). Information on slaughter and carcass weight, inter-farm movements and mortality was obtained from the French national registration database (BDNI). The study was conducted at two levels using adapted categorical RF variables: 1) at the cattle level (>12 months), an estimation of presence of adult parasites using egg count in faecal samples (negative vs. positive) and 2) at the herd level, an estimation of 6-24 months of the dairy heifers exposure to larval forms on the basis of the proportion of dairy cattle shedding eggs in the herd (three classes). At the cattle level, the outcome variables were carcass weight (model 1), case-control status for mortality within 30 days of diagnosis (model 2) and case-control status for slaughter within 365 days of diagnosis (model 3). At the herd level, the outcome variable was the mortality ratio for dairy heifers aged 6-24 months (Model 4). Other important covariates were used to improve model fit. Multivariate analyses were performed using a linear mixed model (model 1), generalised estimating equations (GEE) (models 2 and 3) and a multinomial logistic model (model 4). Overall, 1291 out of 4315 cattle (29.9%) were found to excrete RF eggs and 19.6% of the positives had an excretion score of >200 eggs/g. The prevalence increased steadily with age class and was higher in beef cattle than dairy cattle (42.7% vs. 26.9%) in the years 2015-2019 compared to 2010-2014 (33.3% vs. 26.5%) and in November-February (33.2%) compared to March-June (28.9%) and July-October (27.3%). Rumen fluke variables were not found to be explanatory factors of outcome variables at both animal and herd levels. In contrast, significant negative associations were observed between outcome variables and other health covariates, such as Johne's disease, GI nematode, bovine viral diarrhoea and coccidia statuses. In conclusion, RFs are prevalent in cattle reared in Normandy but this does not result in significant production losses. Therefore, the value to farmers of oxyclozanide treatment at an effective dose for paramphistomosis after simple identification of RF eggs in the faeces seems limited.

The winner takes it all: dominance of Calicophoron daubneyi (Digenea: Paramphistomidae) among flukes in Central European beef cattle

In Europe, paramphistomosis caused by Paramphistomum spp. was historically regarded as being of minor importance. However, Calicophoron daubneyi has recently been recognized as an emerging pathogen in Europe due to its increasing prevalence and negative impact on livestock production. In search for paramphistomid flukes, 5573 beef cattle fecal samples from 115 farms across the whole Czech Republic were examined from March 2019 to June 2021. The eggs of paramphistomid flukes were identified in 29.9% of samples. Internal transcribed spacer 2 sequences from 90 adult flukes and 125 fecal samples collected across Czech Republic confirmed C. daubneyi infection in the Czech beef cattle. Ninety mitochondrial DNA sequences obtained from adult C. daubneyi specimens revealed 13 individual haplotypes, two of them recorded for the first time. Although C. daubneyi is a new parasite in beef cattle herds in the Czechia, it clearly dominates the parasitological findings in the country's beef cattle. The common occurrence of C. daubneyi in most of the beef cattle herds indicates environmental conditions suitable also for the life cycle of Fasciola hepatica and risk of its emergence.

Changes in the Prevalence of Natural Paramphistomum Cercariae Infection in Indoplanorbis and Lymnaea Intermediate Hosts Influenced by Meteorological Factors

Paramphistomosis is a neglected ruminant parasitic disease caused by trematodes known as Paramphistomum, which has a diheteroxenic life cycle involving freshwater snail genera, i.e., Planorbis and Lymnaea as the intermediate host and mammals as the definitive host. Snail vector distribution, infection with Paramphistomum spp. cercariae, preferred habitat, and their relationship with certain meteorological factors were not investigated in the province Khyber Pakhtunkhwa of Pakistan. Therefore, this study is designed to evaluate the effects of meteorological factors on the occurrence and severity of Paramphistomum spp. cercariae in Indoplanorbis and Lymnaea intermediate snail hosts. For this purpose, a cross-sectional survey was conducted from October 2018 to September 2019, and snails were collected and then identified using snail shell morphology; their infection with Paramphistomum spp. cercariae was determined through microscopy; and descriptive statistics were used to estimate the prevalence of infection and evaluate their occurrence relationship with a certain meteorological factors including temperature, humidity, rainfall, and pan evaporation in different districts of the above-mentioned province of Pakistan, i.e., adjacent areas of Bara and Kabul rivers in district Nowshehra, Kabul River (Sardaryab) of district Charsadda, Kalpani River of district Mardan, and Indus River (Hund) of district Swabi. A total of 2,706 Indoplanorbis (1539) and Lymnaea (1167) snails were collected, in which overall 10.30% shed Paramphistomum spp. cercariae. The highest infection rate was found in the river of district Swabi (13.20%), while the lowest in adjacent rivers of district Nowshehra (8.19%). Meteorological factors play an essential role in the causation of Paramphistomum spp. infection, parasitic reproduction, vector growth, and survival. Due to these factors, high significant prevalence was found in the summer season (11.83), followed by autumn (11.25), which might be due to optimum temperature, relative humidity, and rainfall (p < 0.05). It was concluded from the study that meteorological factors contribute to the prevalence of Paramphistomum species in the Indoplanorbis and Lymnaea, which act as vectors for the disease paramphistomosis, which may lead to the increased intensity of infection outbreaks of the parasite population in humans and domestic animals.

Exploration of factors associated with spatial-temporal veterinary surveillance diagnoses of rumen fluke (Calicophoron daubneyi) infections in ruminants using zero-inflated mixed modelling

Rumen fluke (Calicophoron daubneyi) has emerged as a prominent parasite of ruminants in Europe over the past decades. Epidemiological questions remain regarding this observed increase in prevalence as well as the prospect for future paramphistomosis risk. This study aimed to identify factors associated with the temporal−spatial prevalence of rumen fluke as measured by veterinary surveillance in a temperate region using zero-inflated negative binomial mixed modelling. Modelling revealed that summer rainfall, raindays and sunshine hours and mean winter temperature as significant positively associated climate variables for rumen fluke prevalence over space and time (P < 0.05). Rumen fluke prevalence was also higher in counties with higher cattle/sheep densities and was positively associated with rumen fluke case rates in the previous years (P < 0.05). Equivalent models for fasciolosis prevalence revealed no significant association with winter temperature and sunshine hours, (P > 0.05). These results confirm a strong association between rainfall and the prevalence of both fluke species in a temperate environment, likely due to the role of Galba truncatula as their intermediate snail host. It also highlights the potential added importance of winter temperature and sunshine hours in rumen fluke epidemiology when compared to liver fluke.

Assessment of anthelmintic effectiveness to control Fasciola hepatica and paramphistome mixed infection in cattle in the humid tropics of Mexico

The objective of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of the main anthelmintics used for the control of trematodes in cattle in an endemic area in the humid Mexican tropics. A diagnostic study was carried out in nine cattle farms to determine the prevalence of flukes through faecal examination. Only three farms with more than 20 cows positive to trematodes were chosen to determine the effectiveness of commercial anthelmintics (triclabendazole, TCBZ; ivermectin + closantel, (IVM + CLOS); IVM + clorsulon, (CLORS); nitroxynil, NITROX). The prevalence of Fasciola hepatica was 27.1% and 29.6% of paramphistomes. The faecal egg count of trematodes ranged from 0.0 to 12.2 eggs per gram of faeces. The highest effectiveness against F. hepatica was 96.7%, and 92.7% against paramphistomes. NITROX was the most effective in the control of trematodes, while other products, such as IVM + CLORS and TCBZ obtained values lower than 90%, which puts sustainable trematode control at risk. The presence of trematodes was observed on most farms, although the prevalence per herd was highly variable, which indicates that the trematodes F. hepatica and paramphistomes are endemic to the region and a suitable management programme is suggested to control infections caused by these parasites.

Rumen (Calicophoron/Paramphistomum spp.) and Liver Flukes (Fasciola hepatica) in Cattle-Prevalence, Distribution, and Impact of Management Factors in Germany

Simple Summary

Paramphistomidosis is a parasitic disease of ruminants caused by so-called rumen flukes. To determine the current prevalence in German cattle, faecal samples from 614 herds were examined for parasite eggs. In addition, the occurring rumen fluke species were determined, resulting in Calicophoron daubneyi and Paramphistomum leydeni. In the course of the work, the occurrence of the common liver fluke, causing fasciolosis, was also documented. Rumen fluke eggs could be detected in 5.5% of German cattle farms, liver flukes in 9.5%. In 2.1% of the farms, both fluke types occurred. Regional differences between northern and southern Germany were detected. Cattle grazing and fed with fresh grass were more likely to be infected with rumen and liver flukes than cattle without such access. Cattle from organic farms were also more likely to have fluke infections than those from conventional farms, in suckler cows, however, this association only applied to rumen flukes.

Abstract

This study was carried out to determine the prevalence of rumen flukes on German cattle farms via the sedimentation technique, and to identify the rumen fluke species occurring in Germany. Additionally, the prevalence of patent Fasciola hepatica infections was determined. Furthermore, a short questionnaire was answered by the farmers. A prevalence of 5.5% and 9.5% was detected for rumen flukes and liver flukes, respectively. Coinfections occurred on 2.1% of farms. In northern Germany, the rumen fluke prevalence was higher than in southern Germany, while for liver fluke the distribution was reversed. Rumen flukes were mostly identified as Calicophoron daubneyi, but in four cases, sequencing revealed Paramphistomum leydeni for the first time in Germany. Grazing and feeding of fresh grass, as well as organic farming, were significantly associated with rumen and liver fluke occurrence. In contrast, suckler cow husbandry only had an influence on the occurrence of rumen flukes, but not liver flukes. Trematode eggs could be detected in both, farms with and without deworming. Since there were only a few studies about Paramphistomidosis in Germany, more attention should be paid to these parasitic diseases for animal welfare and animal health reasons.

Prevalence and seasonal variation of Fasciola hepatica in slaughtered cattle: the role of climate and environmental factors in Mexico

The objective of this study is to determine the prevalence of Fasciola hepatica infection in cattle slaughterhouses, as well as its association with climatic/environmental factors (derived from satellite data), seasonality and climate regions in two states in Mexico. Condemned livers from slaughtered animals were obtained from three abattoirs in the states of Puebla and Veracruz. The overall prevalence of the parasite in cattle between January and December of 2017 was 20.6% (1407 out of 6834); the highest rate of condemnation was observed in Veracruz (26.3%; tropical climate), and the lowest rate was found in Puebla (15.5%; temperate climate). The seasonal prevalence of fluke infection was 18.6%, 14.8% and 28.4% during the wet season, and 17.1%, 12.4% and 22.8% during the dry season in the three abattoir sites, located in the districts of Zacatlán, Teziutlán and Ciudad Alemán, respectively. Liver condemnations due to bovine fasciolosis were prevalent in the Zacatlán, Teziutlán and Ciudad Alemán districts during summer, autumn and summer, respectively. Using generalized estimating equations analysis, we determined six variables - rainfall (wet/dry), land surface temperature day, land surface temperature night, normalized difference vegetation index, seasonality and climate regions (temperate/tropical) - to be significantly associated with the prevalence of condemned livers. Climate region was the variable most strongly associated with F. hepatica infection (odds ratio (OR) 266.59; 95% confidence interval (CI): 241.90-353.34), followed by wet and dry seasons (OR 25.56; 95% CI: 20.56-55.67).

Molecular confirmation of Dicrocoelium dendriticum in the Himalayan ranges of Pakistan

Lancet liver flukes of the genus Dicrocoelium (Trematoda: Digenea) are recognised parasites of domestic and wild herbivores. The aim of the present study was to confirm the species identity of Dicrocoeliid flukes collected from the Chitral valley in the Himalayan ranges of Pakistan. The morphology of 48 flukes belonging to eight host populations was examined; but overlapping traits prevented accurate species designation. Phylogenetic comparison of published D. dendriticum ribosomal cistron DNA, and cytochrome oxidase-1 (COX-1) mitochondrial DNA sequences with those from D. chinensis was performed to assess within and between species variation and re-affirm the use of species-specific single nucleotide polymorphism markers. PCR and sequencing of 34 corresponding fragments of ribosomal DNA and 14 corresponding fragments of mitochondrial DNA from the Chitral valley flukes, revealed 10 and 4 unique haplotypes, respectively. These confirmed for the first time the molecular species identity of Pakistani lancet liver flukes as D. dendriticum. This work provides a preliminary illustration of a phylogenetic approach that could be developed to study the ecology, biological diversity, and epidemiology of Dicrocoeliid lancet flukes when they are identified in new settings.

Efficacy of Oxyclozanide and Closantel against Rumen Flukes (Paramphistomidae) in Naturally Infected Sheep

Simple Summary

Paramphistomosis, caused by ruminal trematodes, is currently considered an emergent disease in Europe due to the progressive increase of prevalence and reports of acute cases in ruminants. Thus, finding effective control methods such as efficient drugs against paramphistomids is currently a priority. Although some drugs have been found effective for treating paramphistomid infections in cattle, data in sheep are currently limited. A single administration of oxyclozanide (15 mg/kg) or closantel (10 mg/kg) has been proven efficient in cattle, but it has not been tested in sheep; thus, the aim of the present study was to assess the effectiveness of these treatment protocols against paramphistomids in naturally infected sheep. The treatment with oxyclozanide was very efficient since it significantly reduced the paramphistomid egg output in more than 90% during 11 weeks after treatment. In contrast, closantel showed low efficacies throughout the study. The results of this study support the use of a single oral dose of oxyclozanide at 15 mg/kg for treating paramphistomid infections in sheep, whereas a single oral dose of closantel at 10 mg/kg is not effective.

Abstract

Paramphistomosis is considered an emergent disease of ruminants in Europe. Some drugs have been found effective for treating paramphistomid infections in cattle, but data in sheep are currently limited. Thus, faecal samples from 25 adult sheep naturally infected with paramphistomids were collected weekly to test the efficacy of oxyclozanide and closantel. Three groups were performed: nine animals orally treated with a single dose of oxyclozanide (15 mg/kg bodyweight (BW) integrated the G-OXI group, whereas eight sheep orally treated with a single dose of closantel (10 mg/kg BW) were placed in a group called G-CLS. Eight untreated controls constituted the group G-CON. Oxyclozanide showed efficacies up to 90% until week 11 post-treatment, with a maximum efficacy of 98.3%, and significant differences were found between G-OXI and G-CON until the 26th week post-treatment. Closantel was insufficiently active (0–81%) throughout the study and differences compared to G-CON were never found. The present study reveals that oxyclozanide given at a single oral dose of 15 mg/kg BW is highly effective against adult rumen flukes in sheep. In addition, the use of a single oral dose of closantel at 10 mg/kg BW is not recommended for treating paramphistomid infections in sheep.

Fasciola hepatica seroprevalence in Northern German dairy herds and associations with milk production parameters and milk ketone bodies

Infections with the liver fluke Fasciola hepatica remain a serious problem in dairy herds causing significant production losses. In sheep, a strong relationship between F. hepatica infections and an increase in serum ketone bodies due to reduced feed intake and liver damage was demonstrated. We hypothesized that F. hepatica infections might contribute to an increase in milk ketone bodies in dairy herds. Thus, the objective of the study was to estimate the association between F. hepatica bulk tank milk (BTM) antibodies and milk production parameters (milk yield, milk protein, fat yield), somatic cell count (SCC) and the milk ketone bodies ß-hydroxybutyrate (BHB) and acetone, inferred from Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectrometry, via linear mixed model analysis. A further aim was to follow up the F. hepatica seroprevalence in dairy herds in the northern German region East Frisia. We collected BTM samples between October and December from 1022 herds in 2017 and 1318 herds in 2018. Overall, 33.1 % of the herds tested positive in 2017 and 37.0 % in 2018, showing decreased F. hepatica seroprevalences compared to prior seroprevalence studies in the same region in 2010, 2008 and 2006 (> 45 % positive herds). We estimated a significant negative association (P < 0.001) between herd F. hepatica infection category and average milk yield with a loss of -1.62 kg per cow per day in strongly infected herds compared to BTM ELISA negative herds. Moreover, F. hepatica infection category had a significant effect on herd average milk protein and fat yield (P < 0.001), showing a decrease of 0.06 kg for both parameters from BTM ELISA negative herds to strongly infected herds. No significant association with milk SCC was found (P = 0.664). Regarding ketone bodies, we estimated significant higher average BHB values in strongly infected herds compared to the other three infection categories in the model analysis (P = 0.002). The association between F. hepatica infection category and acetone values was not significant (P = 0.079). Besides primary ketosis, fasciolosis should be considered as differential diagnosis in dairy herds with increased BHB values.

An in vitro confirmation of the ethonopharmacological use of Senna plants as anthelmintic against rumen fluke Paramphistomum gracile

BACKGROUND

Paramphistomosis is a pathogenic disease of domesticated ruminants, causing great economic loss in dairy industry and meat production. It is considered as a neglected tropical disease with highest prevalence throughout tropical and subtropical regions, particularly in Africa, Asia, Europe, and Australia. There are few trematocidal drugs available in the market. Most are resistant and have elevated side effects. Therefore, alternative trematocidal drugs need to discover. This study was conducted to evaluate three plants leaf extracts (from Senna alata, S. alexandrina, and S. occidentalis) as effective remedies against gastrointestinal trematode parasite (Paramphistomum gracile) of ruminants. Live adult parasites were collected in 0.1 M phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) from fresh autopsied goat's rumen. Parasites were incubated in leaf extracts of S. alata, S. alexandrina and, S. occidentalis individually and in combination (1:1) ratio at 37 ± 1°C. Treatment media contain extracts at different concentrations (10, 20 and 40 mg/mL) in 10 mL of 0.1 M PBS with 1% dimethylsulphoxide (DMSO). Parasites in control group were incubated in PBS without extract. The efficacy of three Senna extracts was evaluated on the basis of dose-dependent motility and mortality of the trematode. Immediately after paralysis, all treated parasites were collected for histology, SEM and biochemical study.

RESULTS

Dose-dependent efficacy was observed in terms of motility and time of mortality in all treated parasites after exposure in various concentrations of the Senna plant extracts. S. occidentalis and S. alexandrina showed better efficacy in combination than comparing with individual treatment groups. Histological study and scanning electron microscopic observations revealed conspicuous deformity of surface architecture in all treated parasites. Scanning electron micrographs also revealed shrinkage, vacuolization, infoldings and blebbings on the body surface of treated worms. Activities of tegumental enzymes were inhibited in all treatment groups compared to control.

CONCLUSION

The overall findings from this study revealed that all three Senna leaf extracts individually and in combination showed potential antitrematocidal activity against Paramphistomum gracile by damaging body tegument and neural propagation. Thus, this study confirmed that all three Senna extracts can be considered as a potential drug-like candidate in indigenous system of traditional medicine against trematode infections in livestock.

Dicrocoeliosis in extensive sheep farms: a survey

Background

This study investigated the epidemiological and molecular aspects of dicrocoeliosis in extensive sheep farms.

Methods

From 2013 to 2014, copromicroscopical analyses in 190 dairy sheep farms and anatomo-pathological inspections in six slaughterhouses were carried in Sardinia, Italy. Rectal faecal samples were analyzed using the FLOTAC® method, and anatomo-pathological examinations were based on detecting thickened terminal bile ducts (TTBDs). In addition, genetic analyses were conducted on representative DNA samples of adult Dicrocoelium spp.

Results

Ninety-seven (51.1%) out of 190 sheep farms were coprologically positive for Dicrocoelium spp. In the liver, on the surface and cut surface, TTBDs were reported in 40.1% (309/770) and 15.3% (118/770) of the animals examined, respectively, with an overall prevalence of 25.5% (196/770). No intraspecific genetic variation was observed among the Dicrocoelium dendriticum isolates.

Conclusions

Our survey reveals the widespread presence of D. dendriticum in Sardinia, although seasonal, geographical and climatic conditions might be key factors in modulating the infection prevalence. Examining typical lesions due to D. dendriticum in the liver in abattoirs can be used as a marker for tracking chronic dicrocoeliosis infection.

A post-mortem study of bovine fasciolosis in the Mitidja (north center of Algeria): prevalence, risk factors, and comparison of diagnostic methods

The present study was conducted to determine the prevalence of fasciolosis and investigate the associated risk factors (sex, age, and season) in slaughtered cattle of the Mitidja area. This survey also aimed to compare three diagnostic methods: liver inspection, microscopic bile examination, and ELISA test. Liver and bile of 1400 cattle were examined for the presence of adult and eggs of Fasciola hepatica, respectively. Based on the results obtained by liver and bile examination, a subset of 206 cattle from the 1400 was selected for antibodies detection using the ELISA test. Liver inspection and microscopic bile examination showed prevalences of 2.86% and 5.50%, respectively. The difference between the two methods was highly significant (p < 0.001). The overall prevalence of bovine fasciolosis found by both methods was 6.07%. The disease was more prevalent in females (11.96%) than in males (2.43%), and in older cattle (12.30%) than in younger ones (2.36%). The ELISA test showed some conflicting results: 23.61% of cattle previously diagnosed positive with liver inspection and bile examination were found seronegative, and 3.73% of cattle previously diagnosed negative were found to be seropositive. The sensitivity and specificity of microscopic bile examination were respectively 80% (CI 65.2-89.5%) and 96.7% (CI 95.6-97.5%) as compared with the liver inspection. Likewise, this same method has a sensitivity of 81.36% (CI 69.6-89.3%) and a specificity of 88.97% (CI 82.8-93.1%) as compared with the ELISA test. Our results show that microscopic bile examination is able to detect more infected cattle than liver inspection. In addition to being simple, fast, inexpensive, sensitive, and specific, it is an effective method for the diagnosis of fasciolosis.

Trematodiasis occurrence in cattle along the Progo River, Yogyakarta, Indonesia

AIM

This study aimed to measure the occurrence of trematodiasis in cattle along the Progo River, a district of Yogyakarta, Indonesia. The findings help to establish the magnitude of the disease and encourage prevention and treatment of this condition.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Trematode eggs were extracted from 100 fecal samples collected from cattle. The eggs were examined using the sedimentation technique, and the method of Parfitt and Banks was used to differentiate Paramphistomum spp. eggs from Fasciola spp. eggs.

RESULTS

The infection rate of trematode parasites was 50%. Cattle experienced multiple infections of both Paramphistomum spp. and Fasciola spp., as well as single infections of one species or the other. All breeds were vulnerable to infections of both trematode species, although different cattle breeds, including Peranakan Ongole crossbreeds, Simmental crossbreeds, and Limousin crossbreeds, showed differences in infection rate. The highest rate of infection with Paramphistomum spp. (15.78%) occurred in the Simmental crossbreeds. The highest rate of infection (31.57%) with Fasciola spp. was in the Peranakan Ongole crossbreeds. Multiple infections of both Paramphistomum spp. and Fasciola spp. were highest in Simmental crossbreed cattle (28.97%).

CONCLUSION

The high infection rates of trematode parasites found in fecal samples, particularly of Fasciola spp., indicate that the cattle along the Progo River in Indonesia experience a high rate of trematodiasis disease.

A high throughput deep amplicon sequencing method to show the emergence and spread of Calicophoron daubneyi rumen fluke infection in United Kingdom cattle herds

The prevalence of C. daubneyi infection in the United Kingdom has increased, but despite the potential for rumen flukes to cause production loss in ruminant livestock, understanding of their emergence and spread is poor. Here we describe the development of a method to explore the multiplicity of C. daubneyi infection and patterns of the parasite's emergence and spread, based on Illumina MiSeq deep sequencing of meta barcoded amplicons of a fragment of the cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (mt-COX-1) locus. Our results show high levels of genetic diversity in 32 C. daubneyi populations derived from finished prime cattle consigned to slaughter from northern United Kingdom. The results are consistent with a single introduction of C. daubneyi infection to some of the farms where the cattle had been grazed during their lifetime and multiple introductions to most. The results illustrate the impact of high levels of animal movements in the United Kingdom, whereby multiple common mt-COX-1 haplotypes were identified in 26 populations in the absence of geographical clustering of clades. This has implications for the adaptability of environmental and intermediate host stages of the parasite to changing climatic and animal management conditions, or of parasitic stages to exposure to anthelmintic drugs; potentially allowing for greater pathogenicity, or the development of anthelmintic resistance, respectively.

Patent infections with Fasciola hepatica and paramphistomes (Calicophoron daubneyi) in dairy cows and association of fasciolosis with individual milk production and fertility parameters

Infections with the liver fluke Fasciola hepatica may result in considerable economic losses in the dairy livestock industry worldwide. Infections have been associated with detrimental impacts on milk production and milk quality as well as reduced fertility. However, most related data rely on examinations on herd level and the rather few studies on individual cow level are based solely on antibodies as measure for F. hepatica infections. This entails the risk of including false-positives as anti-F. hepatica antibodies persist for months even if the infection is cleared. Therefore, the presented study aimed to overcome this issue by assessing the association between F. hepatica infections measured via faecal egg counts (FEC) and milk production as well as fertility parameters in individual dairy cows. In total, 2006 faecal samples from 1166 Black and White dairy cows from 17 small and medium-sized German grassland farms were examined in July and September 2015. The relationship between patent F. hepatica infections and the milk production parameters milk yield, milk protein content, milk fat content and somatic cell score (SCS) was assessed in a linear mixed model using test-day records of individual cows. Patent F. hepatica infections were found on 35.3% (7/17) of farms with an individual cow prevalence of 10.1% (97/963) in July and 9.1% (95/1036) in September. Patent rumen fluke infections were detected on 17.6% (3/17) farms with an individual cow prevalence of 0.4% (4/963) in July and 0.7% (9/1036) in September. No significant association was found between F. hepatica infection status and either SCS as an indicator of udder health or milk production parameters, despite 0.06 and 0.10% lower values for milk protein and fat content in patently infected cows. Linear mixed models and generalized linear mixed models were established to estimate the impact of fasciolosis on the fertility parameters calving to first service (CTFS), calving interval (CI), success in first insemination (SFI) and 56-day nonreturn rate (NRR56). A significantly higher average CTFS of 4.69 days was detected in F. hepatica infected cows (P = 0.025), but no significant relationship was found for the other fertility parameters.

Trematode Genomics and Proteomics

Trematode infections are among the most neglected tropical diseases despite their worldwide distribution and extraordinary ability to parasitise many different host species and host tissues. Furthermore, these parasites are of great socioeconomic, medical, veterinary and agricultural importance. During the last 10 years, there have been increasing efforts to overcome the lack of information on different "omic" resources such as proteomics and genomics. Herein, we focus on the recent advances in genomics and proteomics from trematodes of human importance, including liver, blood, intestinal and lung flukes. We also provide information on the latest technologies applied to study the biology of trematodes as well as on the resources available for the study of the molecular aspects of this group of helminths.

Importance of the knowledge of pathological processes for risk-based inspection in pig slaughterhouses (Study of 2002 to 2016)

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this work was to determine the prevalence of the pathologies that caused the condemnation of pig carcasses in an area of intensive pig farming and Mediterranean climatology and to evaluate their influence in a risk-based inspection procedure for slaughterhouses.

METHODS

A retrospective observational investigation was carried out from 2002 to 2016 into the pathological processes that caused the condemnation of pig carcasses in a slaughterhouse from South-eastern Spain. The seasonal effect on the causes of condemnation carcass was reported. Negative binomial model was used to evaluate the effect of season on the rate of antemortem rejections and post-mortem condemnations. Histopathological examinations were performed to confirm the diagnosis.

RESULTS

The risk of antemortem rejections (0.0564%) was significantly greater in summer (risk ratio [RR] = 1.57). Autumn was associated with higher rate (RR = 1.69) of the total postmortem condemnations (0.1046%). Significantly higher rates of pronounced anaemia (0.0111%) were observed in summer (RR = 3.20). The main causes of anaemia were observed gastroesophageal ulcers and haemorrhagic enteropathies. Significantly highest risk of erysipelas (0.0074%) were observed in autumn (RR = 5.485). About other zoonosis, only eight cases (0.0013%) of carcasses were declared unfit due to tuberculosis lesions. Porcine muscular cysticercosis was not detected. Nevertheless, nonspecific causes such as generalized infections and emaciation represented the half of the condemned carcasses (50.90%).

CONCLUSION

The pathologies leading to the condemnation of carcasses in this study can be considered representative of the pathologies that affect the pig population from a region with a high intensive production and Mediterranean climatology because this slaughterhouse receives a lot of animals from many farms of different size in a high intensive pig production zone (Mediterranean region). Increased knowledge of environmental factors that may foment the appearance of the diseases is essential for implementing inspection programs based on risk assessment in pig's slaughterhouses.

Paramphistomosis of Ruminants: An Emerging Parasitic Disease in Europe

Whilst historically regarded as being of minor importance in European livestock, recent evidence suggests that the prevalence of paramphistomosis is greater than that of fasciolosis in parts of the UK. In order to address this emerging threat to ruminant farming systems, and associated risks for food security posed by rumen fluke infection, it is imperative that we develop a better understanding of the basic biology of this parasite and how it interacts with its ruminant host. In this Opinion article we review recent progress in tracking the spread of rumen fluke infection in Europe, and propose some research questions that should be addressed if we are to develop tools to diagnose and treat paramphistomosis more effectively in the future.

Presence and species identity of rumen flukes in cattle and sheep in the Netherlands

The purpose of the study was to gain knowledge about the prevalence and identity of rumen flukes (RF) in cattle and sheep in the Netherlands. Routine faecal examinations of diagnostic submissions between May 2009 and September 2014 showed a mean annual herd or flock RF prevalence of 15.8% for cattle and 8.0% for sheep. Prevalence in cattle was higher after 2012 than before, which may reflect a change in detection method as well as an increase in true prevalence. During November and December 2014, an abattoir survey was conducted to allow for scoring of rumen fluke burden and to obtain specimens for molecular species characterization. Over 8 visits to 5 abattoirs in areas deemed to pose a high risk for trematode infection, 116 cows and 41 sheep from 27 herds and 10 flocks were examined. Prevalence of RF was higher in beef cattle than in dairy cattle and higher in cattle than in sheep. Median fluke burden was >100 specimens per animal for most positive animals. Using a semi-quantitative RF density score as a gold standard, sensitivity and specificity of a modified quantitative Dorsman egg counting method were estimated at 82.6% and 83.3%, respectively. Of 14 collected adult rumen flukes, twelve (8 bovine and 4 ovine specimens) were identified as Calicophoron daubneyi. The other two, of bovine origin, were identified as Paramphistomum leydeni, which was unexpected as in other European countries all recently collected rumen flukes in both cattle and sheep were identified as C. daubneyi. The findings implicate that multiple rumen fluke species, intermediate host species and transmission cycles may play a role in rumen fluke infections in the Netherlands.

Liver fluke (Fasciola hepatica) infection in cattle in Northern Ireland: a large-scale epidemiological investigation utilising surveillance data

Background

Liver fluke (Fasciola hepatica) is a widespread parasite of ruminants which can have significant economic impact on cattle production. Fluke infection status at the animal-level is captured during meat inspection of all animals processed for human consumption within Northern Ireland. These national datasets have not been analysed to assess their utility in uncovering patterns in fluke infection at animal- and herd-levels in Northern Ireland.

Methods

We utilised a dataset of 1.2 million animal records from ~18,000 herds across 3 years (2011–2013) to assess animal- and herd-level apparent prevalence and risk-factors associated with fluke infection. Animal-level apparent prevalence was measured as the proportion of animals exhibiting evidence of fluke infection at slaughter; between herd-level infection prevalence was measured by binary categorisation of herds (infected or not). “Within herd” infection prevalence was measured using the proportion of animals within a herd that showed evidence of fluke infection per year (ranging from 0–100 %). “Within herd” infection prevalence at the herd level was investigated using multivariable modelling.

Results

At the animal level, the proportion of animals slaughtered that exhibited evidence of infection was 21–25 % amongst years. Across herds, the proportion of herds with at least one infected animal, varied between 61 and 65 %. However, there was a significant sampling effect at the herd-level; all herds where at least 105 animals slaughtered over the study period exhibited evidence of fluke infection (100 %). There was significant variation in terms of within-herd infection prevalence. Risk factors included herd type, long-term weather variation, geographic location (region) and the abattoir.

Conclusions

Liver fluke apparent prevalence was high at the herd-level across years. However, there was lower prevalence at the animal level, which may indicate significant variation in the exposure to fluke infection within herds. The proportion infected within-herds varied significantly in time and space, and by abattoir, herd-type and some weather variables. These data are a useful source of information on a widespread endemic disease, despite known limitations in terms of test performance (low sensitivity). As well as informing on the distribution and severity of liver fluke infection, these analyses will be used to investigate the effect of co-infection on risk for bovine tuberculosis.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13071-016-1489-2) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Observations on the biology, epidemiology and economic relevance of rumen flukes (Paramphistomidae) in cattle kept in a temperate environment

There is concern about the probable recent introduction, increased prevalence and potential economic impact of rumen fluke infection of United Kingdom cattle. A study of 339 cattle slaughtered in a Scottish red meat abattoir was undertaken with the aims of describing the prevalence and geographical distribution of rumen fluke infection, estimating its effect on production, and evaluating faecal egg counts (FECs) as a tool to diagnose infection in live animals and study the epidemiology of the disease. The overall proportion of cattle consigned to the abattoir from northern United Kingdom with rumen fluke infection in the forestomachs was 0.29. Rumen flukes were distributed predominantly in the cranial sac of the rumen and adjacent to the reticular groove. Overall, a mean of 213 and median of 44 rumen flukes was identified in the forestomachs of rumen fluke-positive cattle. The mean and median FECs of animals were 26.01 and 5.20 eggs per gram (epg), respectively. There was a significant difference between the mean FECs per rumen fluke of 0.08 and 0.13 epg during summer/autumn and winter sampling periods, respectively. The overall correlation between rumen fluke FECs and the number of flukes in the forestomach was high, albeit lower in the summer/autumn than in the winter period. The sensitivities of rumen fluke FECs for the identification of flukes in the forestomach during the summer/autumn and winter sampling periods were 0.65 and 0.85, respectively. These results will aid in the interpretation of rumen fluke FECs when monitoring cattle health and production and studying the parasite's epidemiology in a temperate environment, thereby informing rational, precise and sustainable disease control.

The Increase of Exotic Zoonotic Helminth Infections: The Impact of Urbanization, Climate Change and Globalization

Zoonotic parasitic diseases are increasingly impacting human populations due to the effects of globalization, urbanization and climate change. Here we review the recent literature on the most important helminth zoonoses, including reports of incidence and prevalence. We discuss those helminth diseases which are increasing in endemic areas and consider their geographical spread into new regions within the framework of globalization, urbanization and climate change to determine the effect these variables are having on disease incidence, transmission and the associated challenges presented for public health initiatives, including control and elimination.

Determining the Prevalence and Seasonality of Fasciola hepatica in Pasture-based Dairy herds in Ireland using a Bulk Tank Milk ELISA

BACKGROUND

Fasciola hepatica is a helminth parasite of global importance in livestock, with major economic impact. However information on F. hepatica infections in Irish pasture-based dairy herds is limited. Therefore this study was conducted in order to determine the prevalence, seasonality and management factors associated with F. hepatica. A total of 319 Irish dairy herds were selected for this study. Bulk tank milk (BTM) samples were collected from 290 dairy farms on a quarter year basis, while from a further 29 dairy farms BTM samples were collected on a monthly basis to provide a more detailed pattern of F. hepatica exposure in Irish herds. BTM samples were analysed using a commercially available F. hepatica antibody detection ELISA. Furthermore, within-herd prevalence of F. hepatica was assessed in a subset of these 29 herds (n = 17); both individual serum samples and bulk tank milk samples were collected.

RESULTS

A within-herd prevalence of ≤ 50 % was found for herds with negative bulk tank milk samples. The mean prevalence of the 290 study herds was 75.4 % (Range 52 %-75.1 %), with the highest prevalence being observed in November (75.1 %). The seasonal pattern of F. hepatica shows elevated antibodies as the grazing season progressed, reaching a peak in January. A significant association was found between F. hepatica and age at first calving.

CONCLUSION

This study demonstrates that F. hepatica is present in a large proportion of Irish dairy herds and provides a basis on which control practices, particularly in adult dairy cows, can be reviewed.

Morphological and histological identification of Paramphistomum cervi (Trematoda: Paramiphistoma) in the rumen of infected sheep

AIM

This study was undertaken to identify Paramphistomum cervi on the basis of its morphology and histology to be the common cause of paramphistomosis in infected sheep and its differentiation from other similar Paramphistomes in Gujarat.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Adult rumen flukes were recovered from the rumen of naturally infected sheep slaughtered in various abattoirs in Gujarat. Some adult flukes were flattened and stained in Borax carmine, and some were sectioned in the median sagittal plane and histological slides of the flukes were prepared for detailed morphological and histological studies.

RESULT

Microscopic pictures of the parasite used in identification define the similarity in the morphology and histology of the anterior sucker, pharynx, esophagus, genital atrium, posterior sucker (acetabulum) and testes to the P. cervi.

CONCLUSION

It can be concluded that the most common species found in sheep infected with Paramphistomosis is P. cervi on the basis of its histo-morphological appearance in Gujarat.

Ruminal paramphistomosis in cattle from northeastern Algeria: prevalence, parasite burdens and species identification

Slaughterhouse samples were analysed over a two-year period (September 2010-August 2012) in Jijel (northeastern Algeria) in order to determine seasonal variations in the prevalence and intensity of bovine paramphistomosis in a Mediterranean climate and identify paramphistome species using molecular biology. In spring and summer, significantly higher prevalences and lower parasite burdens were noted in bull calves, thus indicating an effect of season on these parameters. In contrast, the differences among seasonal prevalences or among seasonal parasite burdens were not significant in the case of old cows. Eleven adult worms from the slaughterhouses of Jijel and three neighbouring departments (Constantine, El Tarf and Setif) were analysed using molecular markers for species identification. Two different species, Calicophoron daubneyi and C. microbothrium, were found. The presence of these two paramphistomids raises the question of their respective frequency in the definitive host and local intermediate hosts.

Paramphistomum daubneyi: characteristics of infection in three lymnaeid species

Experimental infections of two South American lymnaeids (Lymnaea neotropica and L. viatrix var. ventricosa) with Paramphistomum daubneyi were carried out to determine if these snail species could sustain larval development of this digenean and, if so, to specify their potential for cercarial production. A French population of Galba truncatula infected and raised according to the same protocol served as controls. In both experiments, prevalence of P. daubneyi infections in snails did not significantly differ from each other. In snail groups evaluated for cercarial shedding (first experiment), a significantly lower number of shed cercariae was noted for L. neotropica, while those from G. truncatula and L. v. ventricosa did not differ significantly from each other. Dissection of infected snails at day 65 post-exposure at 20 °C (second experiment) found significantly lower burdens of P. daubneyi rediae and cercariae in the bodies of L. neotropica than in those of G. truncatula and L. v. ventricosa. Compared to total cercarial production observed in dissected snails, the percentage of cercariae which exited from snails was 75.6% for G. truncatula, 21.6% for L. neotropica, and 91.4% for L. v. ventricosa. This last species seems to be a good candidate for metacercarial production of P. daubneyi.

Bovine paramphistomosis in Galicia (Spain): prevalence, intensity, aetiology and geospatial distribution of the infection

The present study explored various basic aspects of the epidemiology of paramphistomosis in Galicia, the main cattle producing region in Spain. In total, 589 cows from different farms located across the region were selected at random in the slaughterhouse for examination of the rumens and reticula for the presence of Paramphistomidae flukes. Paramphistomes were found in 111 of 589 necropsied cows (18.8%; 95% CI: 15.7-21.9%), with higher prevalences of infection in beef cows than in dairy cows (29.2% vs 13.9%). Although the number of flukes per animal was generally low (median=266 flukes), some cows harboured large parasite burdens (up to 11,895 flukes), which may have harmful effects on their health or productivity. Cows with higher parasite burdens also excreted greater numbers of fluke eggs in their faeces, which suggests that heavily parasitized mature cows play an important role in the transmission of paramphistomosis. This role may be particularly important in Galicia, where the roe deer, which is the only wild ruminant in the study area, was found not to be a reservoir for the infection. The use of morpho-anatomical and molecular techniques applied to a large number of fluke specimens provided reliable confirmation that Calicophoron daubneyi is the only species of the family Paramphistomidae that parasitizes cattle in Galicia. The environmental data from the farms of origin of the necropsied cows were used in Bayesian geostatistical models to predict the probability of infection by C. daubneyi throughout the region. The results revealed the role of environmental risk factors in explaining the geographical heterogeneity in the probability of infection in beef and dairy cattle. These explanatory factors were used to construct predictive maps showing the areas with the highest predicted risk of infection as well as the uncertainty associated with the predictions.

Microsatellite analysis of Fasciola spp. in Egypt

Recently, the topic of diversity in Fasciola population in Egypt is controversial. The present study was performed to study the genetic diversity of isolated flukes based on microsatellites markers. Fasciola worms were collected from different hosts and geographical locations in Egypt. Control samples of Fasciola hepatica from France as well as Fasciola gigantica from Cameroon were included in the study. Collected flukes were identified morphologically and subjected for analysis using four microsatellite markers. Results of microsatellite profile (FM1 and FM2) proved that both species of Fasciola are distributed in Egypt irrespective of geographical location and host. Nevertheless, the microsatellite profile of some analyzed loci (FM2 and FM3) proved that Egyptian flukes showed more alleles compared to the reference ones. Differences of microsatellite profile in Egyptian isolates than that of corresponding reference samples indicate the remarkable diversity of these isolates. The present results highlighted the utility of microsatellite profile to discriminate between Fasciola species and to elucidate the diversity within the species. To our knowledge, this is the first time to study microsatellite polymorphism in Fasciola populations in Egypt.