Mechanisms of metastatic colorectal cancer

Despite extensive research and improvements in understanding colorectal cancer (CRC), its metastatic form continues to pose a substantial challenge, primarily owing to limited therapeutic options and a poor prognosis. This Review addresses the emerging focus on metastatic CRC (mCRC), which has historically been under-studied compared with primary CRC despite its lethality. We delve into two crucial aspects: the molecular and cellular determinants facilitating CRC metastasis and the principles guiding the evolution of metastatic disease. Initially, we examine the genetic alterations integral to CRC metastasis, connecting them to clinically marked characteristics of advanced CRC. Subsequently, we scrutinize the role of cellular heterogeneity and plasticity in metastatic spread and therapy resistance. Finally, we explore how the tumour microenvironment influences metastatic disease, emphasizing the effect of stromal gene programmes and the immune context. The ongoing research in these fields holds immense importance, as its future implications are projected to revolutionize the treatment of patients with mCRC, hopefully offering a promising outlook for their survival.

Mechanisms of triple-negative breast cancer extravasation: Impact of the physical environment and endothelial glycocalyx

Cancer metastasis is the leading cause of death for those afflicted with cancer. In cancer metastasis, the cancer cells break off from the primary tumor, penetrate nearby blood vessels, and attach and extravasate out of the vessels to form secondary tumors at distant organs. This makes extravasation a critical step of the metastatic cascade. Herein, with a focus on triple-negative breast cancer, the role that the prospective secondary tumor microenvironment's mechanical properties play in circulating tumor cells' extravasation is reviewed. Specifically, the effects of the physically regulated vascular endothelial glycocalyx barrier element, vascular flow factors, and subendothelial extracellular matrix mechanical properties on cancer cell extravasation are examined. The ultimate goal of this review is to clarify the physical mechanisms that drive triple-negative breast cancer extravasation, as these mechanisms may be potential new targets for anti-metastasis therapy.

PHGDH: a novel therapeutic target in cancer

Serine is a key contributor to the generation of one-carbon units for DNA synthesis during cellular proliferation. In addition, it plays a crucial role in the production of antioxidants that prevent abnormal proliferation and stress in cancer cells. In recent studies, the relationship between cancer metabolism and the serine biosynthesis pathway has been highlighted. In this context, 3-phosphoglycerate dehydrogenase (PHGDH) is notable as a key enzyme that functions as the primary rate-limiting enzyme in the serine biosynthesis pathway, facilitating the conversion of 3-phosphoglycerate to 3-phosphohydroxypyruvate. Elevated PHGDH activity in diverse cancer cells is mediated through genetic amplification, posttranslational modification, increased transcription, and allosteric regulation. Ultimately, these characteristics allow PHGDH to not only influence the growth and progression of cancer but also play an important role in metastasis and drug resistance. Consequently, PHGDH has emerged as a crucial focal point in cancer research. In this review, the structural aspects of PHGDH and its involvement in one-carbon metabolism are investigated, and PHGDH is proposed as a potential therapeutic target in diverse cancers. By elucidating how PHGDH expression promotes cancer growth, the goal of this review is to provide insight into innovative treatment strategies. This paper aims to reveal how PHGDH inhibitors can overcome resistance mechanisms, contributing to the development of effective cancer treatments.

Epigenetic regulation of breast cancer metastasis

Breast cancer is the most frequently diagnosed malignancy and the second leading cause of cancer-related mortality among women worldwide. Recurrent metastasis is associated with poor patient outcomes and poses a significant challenge in breast cancer therapies. Cancer cells adapting to a new tissue microenvironment is the key event in distant metastasis development, where the disseminating tumor cells are likely to acquire genetic and epigenetic alterations during the process of metastatic colonization. Despite several decades of research in this field, the exact mechanisms governing metastasis are not fully understood. However, emerging body of evidence indicates that in addition to genetic changes, epigenetic reprogramming of cancer cells and the metastatic niche are paramount toward successful metastasis. Here, we review and discuss the latest knowledge about the salient attributes of metastasis and epigenetic regulation in breast cancer and crucial research domains that need further investigation.

Liver tropism of ER mutant breast cancer is characterized by unique molecular changes and immune infiltration

PURPOSE

Hotspot estrogen receptor alpha (ER/ESR1) mutations are recognized as the driver for both endocrine resistance and metastasis in advanced ER-positive (ER+) breast cancer, but their contributions to metastatic organ tropism remain insufficiently understood. In this study, we aim to comprehensively profile the organotropic metastatic pattern for ESR1 mutant breast cancer.

METHODS

The organ-specific metastatic pattern of ESR1 mutant breast cancer was delineated using multi-omics data from multiple publicly available cohorts of ER+ metastatic breast cancer patients. Gene mutation/copy number variation (CNV) and differential gene expression analyses were performed to identify the genomic and transcriptomic alterations uniquely associated with ESR1 mutant liver metastasis. Upstream regulator, downstream pathway, and immune infiltration analysis were conducted for subsequent mechanistic investigations.

RESULTS

ESR1 mutation-driven liver tropism was revealed by significant differences, encompassing a higher prevalence of liver metastasis in patients with ESR1 mutant breast cancer and an enrichment of mutations in liver metastatic samples. The significant enrichment of AGO2 copy number amplifications (CNAs) and multiple gene expression changes were revealed uniquely in ESR1 mutant liver metastasis. We also unveiled alterations in downstream signaling pathways and immune infiltration, particularly an enrichment of neutrophils, suggesting potential therapeutic vulnerabilities.

CONCLUSION

Our data provide a comprehensive characterization of the behaviors and mechanisms of ESR1 mutant liver metastasis, paving the way for the development of personalized therapy to target liver metastasis for patients with ESR1 mutant breast cancer.

Metastatic organotropism: a brief overview

Organotropism has been known since 1889, yet this vital component of metastasis has predominantly stayed elusive. This mini-review gives an overview of the current understanding of the underlying mechanisms of organotropism and metastases development by focusing on the formation of the pre-metastatic niche, immune defenses against metastases, and genomic alterations associated with organotropism. The particular case of brain metastases is also addressed, as well as the impact of organotropism in cancer therapy. The limited comprehension of the factors behind organotropism underscores the necessity for efficient strategies and treatments to manage metastases.

You complete me: tumor cell-myeloid cell nuclear fusion as a facilitator of organ-specific metastasis

Every cancer genome is unique, resulting in potentially near infinite cancer cell phenotypes and an inability to predict clinical outcomes in most cases. Despite this profound genomic heterogeneity, many cancer types and subtypes display a non-random distribution of metastasis to distant organs, a phenomenon known as organotropism. Proposed factors in metastatic organotropism include hematogenous versus lymphatic dissemination, the circulation pattern of the tissue of origin, tumor-intrinsic factors, compatibility with established organ-specific niches, long-range induction of premetastatic niche formation, and so-called "prometastatic niches" that facilitate successful colonization of the secondary site following extravasation. To successfully complete the steps required for distant metastasis, cancer cells must evade immunosurveillance and survive in multiple new and hostile environments. Despite substantial advances in our understanding of the biology underlying malignancy, many of the mechanisms used by cancer cells to survive the metastatic journey remain a mystery. This review synthesizes the rapidly growing body of literature demonstrating the relevance of an unusual cell type known as "fusion hybrid" cells to many of the hallmarks of cancer, including tumor heterogeneity, metastatic conversion, survival in circulation, and metastatic organotropism. Whereas the concept of fusion between tumor cells and blood cells was initially proposed over a century ago, only recently have technological advancements allowed for detection of cells containing components of both immune and neoplastic cells within primary and metastatic lesions as well as among circulating malignant cells. Specifically, heterotypic fusion of cancer cells with monocytes and macrophages results in a highly heterogeneous population of hybrid daughter cells with enhanced malignant potential. Proposed mechanisms behind these findings include rapid, massive genome rearrangement during nuclear fusion and/or acquisition of monocyte/macrophage features such as migratory and invasive capability, immune privilege, immune cell trafficking and homing, and others. Rapid acquisition of these cellular traits may increase the likelihood of both escape from the primary tumor site and extravasation of hybrid cells at a secondary location that is amenable to colonization by that particular hybrid phenotype, providing a partial explanation for the patterns observed in some cancers with regard to sites of distant metastases.

Characteristics of lung metastasis in testicular cancer: A large-scale population analysis based on propensity score matching

Background

This study aims to systematically evaluate predictive factors for lung metastasis (LM) in patients with testicular cancer (TC) and to investigate cancer-specific survival (CSS) and overall survival (OS) of LM in TC patients based on a large population-cohort.

Methods

A total of 10,414 patients diagnosed with TC during 2010–2015 were adopted from the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER). After propensity score matching (PSM), 493 patients with LM were included for subsequent analysis. Univariate and multivariate logistic regression analyses were employed to identify risk factors, a nomogram was developed, and the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve was utilized to confirm the validation of the nomogram. Prognostic factors for OS and CSS among TC patients with LM were estimated via Cox proportional hazards models.

Results

Postmatching indicated that 11 parameters were successfully balanced between both groups (P > 0.05). After PSM, TC patients with LM presented an undesirable prognosis in both CSS and OS than those without LM (P < 0.001). The logistic regression model showed that tumor size; T stage; N stage; liver, brain, and bone metastases; and histology were positively associated with LM (P < 0.05). A nomogram was developed to predict diagnostic possibilities based on the independent risk variables, and the ROC curve verified the predictive capacity of the logistic regression model [area under the curve (AUC) = 0.910].

Conclusion

The selected variates in the nomogram can be predictive criteria for TC patients with LM. Brain metastasis, liver metastasis, and larger tumor size were prognostic factors for CCS and OS among TC patients with LM.

Machine learning of genomic features in organotropic metastases stratifies progression risk of primary tumors

Metastatic cancer is associated with poor patient prognosis but its spatiotemporal behavior remains unpredictable at early stage. Here we develop MetaNet, a computational framework that integrates clinical and sequencing data from 32,176 primary and metastatic cancer cases, to assess metastatic risks of primary tumors. MetaNet achieves high accuracy in distinguishing the metastasis from the primary in breast and prostate cancers. From the prediction, we identify Metastasis-Featuring Primary (MFP) tumors, a subset of primary tumors with genomic features enriched in metastasis and demonstrate their higher metastatic risk and shorter disease-free survival. In addition, we identify genomic alterations associated with organ-specific metastases and employ them to stratify patients into various risk groups with propensities toward different metastatic organs. This organotropic stratification method achieves better prognostic value than the standard histological grading system in prostate cancer, especially in the identification of Bone-MFP and Liver-MFP subtypes, with potential in informing organ-specific examinations in follow-ups.

In Vitro Magnetic Techniques for Investigating Cancer Progression

Worldwide, there are currently around 18.1 million new cancer cases and 9.6 million cancer deaths yearly. Although cancer diagnosis and treatment has improved greatly in the past several decades, a complete understanding of the complex interactions between cancer cells and the tumor microenvironment during primary tumor growth and metastatic expansion is still lacking. Several aspects of the metastatic cascade require in vitro investigation. This is because in vitro work allows for a reduced number of variables and an ability to gather real-time data of cell responses to precise stimuli, decoupling the complex environment surrounding in vivo experimentation. Breakthroughs in our understanding of cancer biology and mechanics through in vitro assays can lead to better-designed ex vivo precision medicine platforms and clinical therapeutics. Multiple techniques have been developed to imitate cancer cells in their primary or metastatic environments, such as spheroids in suspension, microfluidic systems, 3D bioprinting, and hydrogel embedding. Recently, magnetic-based in vitro platforms have been developed to improve the reproducibility of the cell geometries created, precisely move magnetized cell aggregates or fabricated scaffolding, and incorporate static or dynamic loading into the cell or its culture environment. Here, we will review the latest magnetic techniques utilized in these in vitro environments to improve our understanding of cancer cell interactions throughout the various stages of the metastatic cascade.

Comprehensive characterization of distinct genetic alterations in metastatic breast cancer across various metastatic sites

Metastasis is the major cause of death in breast cancer patients. Although previous large-scale analyses have identified frequently altered genes specific to metastatic breast cancer (MBC) compared with those in primary breast cancer (PBC), metastatic site-specific altered genes in MBC remain largely uncharacterized. Moreover, large-scale analyses are required owing to the low expected frequency of such alterations, likely caused by tumor heterogeneity and late dissemination of breast cancer. To clarify MBC-specific genetic alterations, we integrated publicly available clinical and mutation data of 261 genes, including MBC drivers, from 4268 MBC and 5217 PBC patients from eight different cohorts. We performed meta-analyses and logistic regression analyses to identify MBC-enriched genetic alterations relative to those in PBC across 15 different metastatic site sets. We identified 11 genes that were more frequently altered in MBC samples from pan-metastatic sites, including four genes (SMARCA4, TSC2, ATRX, and AURKA) which were not identified previously. ARID2 mutations were enriched in treatment-naïve de novo and post-treatment MBC samples, compared with that in treatment-naïve PBC samples. In metastatic site-specific analyses, associations of ESR1 with liver metastasis and RICTOR with bone metastasis were significant, regardless of intrinsic subtypes. Among the 15 metastatic site sets, ESR1 mutations were enriched in the liver and depleted in the lymph nodes, whereas TP53 mutations showed an opposite trend. Seven potential MBC driver mutations showed similar preferential enrichment in specific metastatic sites. This large-scale study identified new MBC genetic alterations according to various metastatic sites and highlights their potential role in breast cancer organotropism.

Stresses in the metastatic cascade: molecular mechanisms and therapeutic opportunities

In this review, Shen and Kang provide an overview of the tumor-intrinsic and microenvironment- and treatment-induced stresses that tumor cells encounter in the metastatic cascade and the molecular pathways they develop to relieve these stresses.

Metastasis is the ultimate “survival of the fittest” test for cancer cells, as only a small fraction of disseminated tumor cells can overcome the numerous hurdles they encounter during the transition from the site of origin to a distinctly different distant organ in the face of immune and therapeutic attacks and various other stresses. During cancer progression, tumor cells develop a variety of mechanisms to cope with the stresses they encounter, and acquire the ability to form metastases. Restraining these stress-releasing pathways could serve as potentially effective strategies to prevent or reduce metastasis and improve the survival of cancer patients. Here, we provide an overview of the tumor-intrinsic, microenvironment- and treatment-induced stresses that tumor cells encounter in the metastatic cascade and the molecular pathways they develop to relieve these stresses. We also summarize the preclinical and clinical studies that evaluate the potential therapeutic benefit of targeting these stress-relieving pathways.

Cancer progression and the invisible phase of metastatic colonization

Metastatic dissemination occurs very early in the malignant progression of a cancer but the clinical manifestation of metastases often takes years. In recent decades, 5-year survival of patients with many solid cancers has increased due to earlier detection, local disease control and adjuvant therapies. As a consequence, we are confronted with an increase in late relapses as more antiproliferative cancer therapies prolong disease courses, raising questions about how cancer cells survive, evolve or stop growing and finally expand during periods of clinical latency. I argue here that the understanding of early metastasis formation, particularly of the currently invisible phase of metastatic colonization, will be essential for the next stage in adjuvant therapy development that reliably prevents metachronous metastasis.

Innovative Options for Bone Metastasis Treatment: An Extensive Analysis on Biomaterials-Based Strategies for Orthopedic Surgeons

Bone is the third most frequent site of metastasis, with a particular incidence in breast and prostate cancer patients. For example, almost 70% of breast cancer patients develop several bone metastases in the late stage of the disease. Bone metastases are a challenge for clinicians and a burden for patients because they frequently cause pain and can lead to fractures. Unfortunately, current therapeutic options are in most cases only palliative and, although not curative, surgery remains the gold standard for bone metastasis treatment. Surgical intervention mostly provides the replacement of the affected bone with a bioimplant, which can be made by materials of different origins and designed through several techniques that have evolved throughout the years simultaneously with clinical needs. Several scientists and clinicians have worked to develop biomaterials with potentially successful biological and mechanical features, however, only a few of them have actually reached the scope. In this review, we extensively analyze currently available biomaterials-based strategies focusing on the newest and most innovative ideas while aiming to highlight what should be considered both a reliable choice for orthopedic surgeons and a future definitive and curative option for bone metastasis and cancer patients.

Metabolic Potential of Cancer Cells in Context of the Metastatic Cascade

The metastatic cascade is a highly plastic and dynamic process dominated by cellular heterogeneity and varying metabolic requirements. During this cascade, the three major metabolic pillars, namely biosynthesis, RedOx balance, and bioenergetics, have variable importance. Biosynthesis has superior significance during the proliferation-dominated steps of primary tumour growth and secondary macrometastasis formation and only minor relevance during the growth-independent processes of invasion and dissemination. Consequently, RedOx homeostasis and bioenergetics emerge as conceivable metabolic key determinants in cancer cells that disseminate from the primary tumour. Within this review, we summarise our current understanding on how cancer cells adjust their metabolism in the context of different microenvironments along the metastatic cascade. With the example of one-carbon metabolism, we establish a conceptual view on how the same metabolic pathway can be exploited in different ways depending on the current cellular needs during metastatic progression.

Limited Environmental Serine and Glycine Confer Brain Metastasis Sensitivity to PHGDH Inhibition

A hallmark of metastasis is the adaptation of tumor cells to new environments. Metabolic constraints imposed by the serine and glycine-limited brain environment restrict metastatic tumor growth. How brain metastases overcome these growth-prohibitive conditions is poorly understood. Here, we demonstrate that 3-phosphoglycerate dehydrogenase (PHGDH), which catalyzes the rate-limiting step of glucose-derived serine synthesis, is a major determinant of brain metastasis in multiple human cancer types and preclinical models. Enhanced serine synthesis proved important for nucleotide production and cell proliferation in highly aggressive brain metastatic cells. In vivo, genetic suppression and pharmacologic inhibition of PHGDH attenuated brain metastasis, but not extracranial tumor growth, and improved overall survival in mice. These results reveal that extracellular amino acid availability determines serine synthesis pathway dependence, and suggest that PHGDH inhibitors may be useful in the treatment of brain metastasis. SIGNIFICANCE: Using proteomics, metabolomics, and multiple brain metastasis models, we demonstrate that the nutrient-limited environment of the brain potentiates brain metastasis susceptibility to serine synthesis inhibition. These findings underscore the importance of studying cancer metabolism in physiologically relevant contexts, and provide a rationale for using PHGDH inhibitors to treat brain metastasis.This article is highlighted in the In This Issue feature, p. 1241.

Specific chromatin landscapes and transcription factors couple breast cancer subtype with metastatic relapse to lung or brain

Background

Few somatic mutations have been linked to breast cancer metastasis, whereas transcriptomic differences among primary tumors correlate with incidence of metastasis, especially to the lungs and brain. However, the epigenomic alterations and transcription factors (TFs) which underlie these alterations remain unclear.

Methods

To identify these, we performed RNA-seq, Chromatin Immunoprecipitation and sequencing (ChIP-seq) and Assay for Transposase-Accessible Chromatin using sequencing (ATAC-seq) of the MDA-MB-231 cell line and its brain (BrM2) and lung (LM2) metastatic sub-populations. We incorporated ATAC-seq data from TCGA to assess metastatic open chromatin signatures, and gene expression data from human metastatic datasets to nominate transcription factor biomarkers.

Results

Our integrated epigenomic analyses found that lung and brain metastatic cells exhibit both shared and distinctive signatures of active chromatin. Notably, metastatic sub-populations exhibit increased activation of both promoters and enhancers. We also integrated these data with chromosome conformation capture coupled with ChIP-seq (HiChIP) derived enhancer-promoter interactions to predict enhancer-controlled pathway alterations. We found that enhancer changes are associated with endothelial cell migration in LM2, and negative regulation of epithelial cell proliferation in BrM2. Promoter changes are associated with vasculature development in LM2 and homophilic cell adhesion in BrM2. Using ATAC-seq, we identified a metastasis open-chromatin signature that is elevated in basal-like and HER2-enriched breast cancer subtypes and associates with worse prognosis in human samples. We further uncovered TFs associated with the open chromatin landscapes of metastatic cells and whose expression correlates with risk for metastasis. While some of these TFs are associated with primary breast tumor subtypes, others more specifically correlate with lung or brain metastasis.

Conclusions

We identify distinctive epigenomic properties of breast cancer cells that metastasize to the lung and brain. We also demonstrate that signatures of active chromatin sites are partially linked to human breast cancer subtypes with poor prognosis, and that specific TFs can independently distinguish lung and brain relapse.

Site of extranodal metastasis impacts survival in patients with testicular germ cell tumors

BACKGROUND

Using a large, nationally representative, population-based cancer registry, this study systematically evaluated the impact of the location and burden of extranodal testicular germ cell tumor (TGCT) metastases on survival.

METHODS

Men with stage III TGCTs captured by the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results registry from 2010 to 2015 with distant extranodal metastases were identified. Clinicopathologic information was collected, and patients were subdivided according to the specific organ site or sites of metastatic involvement (lung, liver, bone, and/or brain). Kaplan-Meier analysis and multivariable Cox regression were used to evaluate cancer-specific survival (CSS), and model performance was assessed with Harrell's C statistic.

RESULTS

Nine hundred sixty-nine patients with stage III TGCTs were included with predominantly nonseminomatous histology (84%). Most patients (91%) had pulmonary metastases, whereas 20%, 10%, and 10% had liver, bone, and brain metastases, respectively. Over a median follow-up of 21 months, 19% of these men died of TGCTs. When they were grouped by the primary site of metastasis, patients with more than 1 extrapulmonary metastasis exhibited the worst CSS (hazard ratio [HR] vs isolated pulmonary involvement, 4.27; 95% confidence interval [CI], 2.60-7.00; P < .01). Among patients with isolated extrapulmonary involvement, those with brain metastases had the poorest survival (HR, 3.24; 95% CI, 1.98-5.28; P < .01), and they were followed by patients with liver (HR, 2.29; 95% CI, 1.56-3.35; P < .01) and bone metastases (HR, 1.97; 95% CI, 1.11-3.50; P = .02). Harrell's C statistic (multivariable) was 0.71.

CONCLUSIONS

The site of metastatic involvement affects survival outcomes for patients with TGCTs, and this may reflect both the aggressive biology and the challenging treatment of these tumors. Further incorporation of organotropism into current prognostic models for metastatic TGCTs warrants attention.

Bone as a Preferential Site for Metastasis

Bone marrow provides a unique microenvironment favoring the colonization and outgrowth of metastatic tumor cells. Despite the high incidence of bone metastasis in breast and prostate cancer patients, many of the molecular mechanisms controlling metastatic progression remain unclear. Several gene signatures associated with bone metastasis have been reported, but no metastasis-specific gene alterations have been identified. Therefore, there has been considerable interest in understanding how the bone microenvironment impacts the behavior of disseminated tumor cells (DTCs) prior to and following colonization of the bone. Substantial evidence indicates that disruption of normal bone homeostasis by tumor-derived factors establishes a premetastatic niche within the bone that favors DTC colonization. Following dissemination, bone resident cells and the surrounding stroma provide critical signals that support tumor cell colonization, survival, and eventual outgrowth. Clinical data suggest that patients can harbor DTCs for years to decades prior to developing overt bone metastases, suggesting a period of tumor dormancy occurs in the bone marrow. Several dormancy-promoting factors have been recently identified; however, critical questions surrounding the molecular triggers and timing of tumor cell emergence from dormancy remain. Here, we review how metastatic tumor cells co-opt the bone marrow microenvironment for metastatic progression and discuss emerging insights into how to more effectively target DTCs and prevent metastasis. © 2018 The Authors. JBMR Plus published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. on behalf of American Society for Bone and Mineral Research.

Application of temporary agglomeration of chitosan-coated nanoparticles for the treatment of lung metastasis of melanoma

Temporary association of chitosan (CS)-coated nanoparticles (NPs) including phloretin (Phl) in the blood stream can be applied to treat lung metastasis of melanoma. Phl was entrapped in poly(d,l-lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) NPs as an anticancer agent, whereas CS was decorated onto the outer surfaces of the Phl-loaded PLGA NPs (PLGA/Phl NPs). CS-coated PLGA/Phl NPs (CS-PLGA/Phl NPs) with mean hydrodynamic sizes of 342 nm, spherical shapes, unimodal size distribution, positive zeta potentials, and drug encapsulation efficiency larger than 90% were prepared. The presence of the CS layers in the outer surfaces of the CS-PLGA/Phl NPs was elucidated by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. Upon blending of the CS-PLGA/Phl NPs with serum albumin, microscale agglomerates formed and easily dissociated into individual NPs by applying external forces. A sustained Phl release from NPs and similar antiproliferation potential of the CS-PLGA/Phl NPs to that of Phl in melanoma (B16F10) cells were observed. After multiple dosing of developed NPs in mouse models with lung metastasis of melanoma, the CS-PLGA/Phl NPs group exhibited significantly lower lung weight and number of metastasis foci than the PLGA/Phl NPs group (p < 0.05). These results suggest that the transient transformation of NPs into microscale aggregates and their facile dissociation into individual NPs can be efficiently and safely applied for the treatment of lung metastasis of melanoma.

Meeting report: Metastasis Research Society (MRS) 17th Biennial conference and associated Young Investigator Satellite Meeting (YISM) on cancer metastasis

The Metastasis Research Society (MRS) 17th Biennial conference on metastasis was held on the 1st to the 5th of August 2018 at Princeton University, NJ, USA. The meeting was held around themes addressing notable aspects of the understanding and treatment of metastasis and metastatic disease covering basic, translational, and clinical research. Importantly, the meeting was largely supported by our patient advocate partners including Susan G. Komen for the Cure, Theresa's Research Foundation and METAvivor. There were a total of 85 presentations from invited and selected speakers spread across the main congress and presentations from the preceding Young Investigator Satellite Meeting. Presentations are summarized in this report by session topic.

Metastatic niche functions and therapeutic opportunities

Metastasis is an inefficient process, especially during colonization at a distant organ. This bottleneck underlies the importance of the metastatic niche for seeding and outgrowth of metastases. Here, we classify the common functions of different metastatic niches: anchorage, survival support, protection from external insults, licensing proliferation and outgrowth. We highlight the emerging role of the metastatic niche in maintaining cancer stemness and promoting immune evasion, and discuss therapeutic opportunities against the metastatic niche.

pSTAT3+ Reactive Astrocytes Promote Brain Metastasis

The tumor microenvironment contains heterogeneous populations of stromal cells with important roles in cancer progression and metastasis. In a recent study published in Nature Medicine, pSTAT3⁺ reactive astrocytes were found to promote brain metastasis by altering the tumor microenvironment, and represent a promising target for the treatment of brain metastasis.

Targeting Metastasis with Snake Toxins: Molecular Mechanisms

Metastasis involves the migration of cancer cells from a primary tumor to invade and establish secondary tumors in distant organs, and it is the main cause for cancer-related deaths. Currently, the conventional cytostatic drugs target the proliferation of malignant cells, being ineffective in metastatic disease. This highlights the need to find new anti-metastatic drugs. Toxins isolated from snake venoms are a natural source of potentially useful molecular scaffolds to obtain agents with anti-migratory and anti-invasive effects in cancer cells. While there is greater evidence concerning the mechanisms of cell death induction of several snake toxin classes on cancer cells; only a reduced number of toxin classes have been reported on (i.e., disintegrins/disintegrin-like proteins, C-type lectin-like proteins, C-type lectins, serinproteases, cardiotoxins, snake venom cystatins) as inhibitors of adhesion, migration, and invasion of cancer cells. Here, we discuss the anti-metastatic mechanisms of snake toxins, distinguishing three targets, which involve (1) inhibition of extracellular matrix components-dependent adhesion and migration, (2) inhibition of epithelial-mesenchymal transition, and (3) inhibition of migration by alterations in the actin/cytoskeleton network.