Liposomes: technologies and analytical applications

A Comprehensive Review of Nanoparticles: From Classification to Application and Toxicity

Nanoparticles are structures that possess unique properties with high surface area-to-volume ratio. Their small size, up to 100 nm, and potential for surface modifications have enabled their use in a wide range of applications. Various factors influence the properties and applications of NPs, including the synthesis method and physical attributes such as size and shape. Additionally, the materials used in the synthesis of NPs are primary determinants of their application. Based on the chosen material, NPs are generally classified into three categories: organic, inorganic, and carbon-based. These categories include a variety of materials, such as proteins, polymers, metal ions, lipids and derivatives, magnetic minerals, and so on. Each material possesses unique attributes that influence the activity and application of the NPs. Consequently, certain NPs are typically used in particular areas because they possess higher efficiency along with tenable toxicity. Therefore, the classification and the base material in the NP synthesis hold significant importance in both NP research and application. In this paper, we discuss these classifications, exemplify most of the major materials, and categorize them according to their preferred area of application. This review provides an overall review of the materials, including their application, and toxicity.

Bioprinting of Synthetic Cell-like Lipid Vesicles to Augment the Functionality of Tissues after Manufacturing

Bioprinting is an automated bioassembly method that enables the formation of human tissue-like constructs to restore or replace damaged tissues. Regardless of the employed bioprinting method, cells undergo mechanical stress that can impact their survival and function postprinting. In this study, we investigate the use of a synthetic cell-like unit, giant unilamellar vesicles (GUVs), as adjuvants of the cellular function of human cells postprinting, or in future as the complete replacement of human cells. We analyzed the impact of two nozzle-based bioprinting methods (drop-on-demand and extrusion bioprinting) on the structure, stability, and function of GUVs. We showed that over 65% of the GUVs remain intact when printing at 0.5 bar, demonstrating the potential of using GUVs as a synthetic cell source. We further increased the stability of GUVs in a cell culture medium by introducing polyethylene glycol (PEG) into the GUV lipid membrane. The presence of PEG, however, diminished the structural properties of GUVs postprinting, and reduced the interaction of GUVs with human cells. Although the design of PEG-GUVs can still be modified in future studies for better cell-GUV interactions, we demonstrated that GUVs are functional postprinting. Chlorin e6-PEG-GUVs loaded with a fluorescent dye were bioprinted, and they released the dye postprinting only upon illumination. This is a new strategy to deliver carriers, such as growth factors, drugs, nutrients, or gases, inside large bioprinted specimens on a millimeter to centimeter scale. Overall, we showed that printed GUVs can augment the functionality of manufactured human tissues.

Exploring the impact of encapsulation on the stability and bioactivity of peptides extracted from botanical sources: trends and opportunities

Bioactive peptides derived from plant sources have gained significant attention for their potential use in preventing and treating chronic degenerative diseases. However, the efficacy of these peptides depends on their bioaccessibility, bioavailability, and stability. Encapsulation is a promising strategy for improving the therapeutic use of these compounds. It enhances their stability, prolongs their shelf life, protects them from degradation during digestion, and enables better release control by improving their bioaccessibility and bioavailability. This review aims to analyze the impact of various factors related to peptide encapsulation on their stability and release to enhance their biological activity. To achieve this, it is necessary to determine the composition and physicochemical properties of the capsule, which are influenced by the wall materials, encapsulation technique, and operating conditions. Furthermore, for peptide encapsulation, their charge, size, and hydrophobicity must be considered. Recent research has focused on the advancement of novel encapsulation methodologies that permit the formation of uniform capsules in terms of size and shape. In addition, it explores novel wall materials, including polysaccharides derived from unconventional sources, that allow the precise regulation of the rate at which peptides are released into the intestine.

Production of Targeted Estrone Liposomes Using a Herringbone Micromixer

Liposomes are spherical vesicles formed from bilayer lipid membranes that are extensively used in targeted drug delivery as nanocarriers to deliver therapeutic reagents to specific tissues and organs in the body. Recently, we have reported using estrone as an endogenous ligand on doxorubicin-encapsulating liposomes to target estrogen receptor (ER)-positive breast cancer cells. Estrone liposomes were synthesized using the thin-film hydration method, which is a long, arduous, and multistep process. Here, we report using a herringbone micromixer to synthesize estrone liposomes in a simple and rapid manner. A solvent stream containing the lipids was mixed with a stream of phosphate buffer saline (PBS) inside a microchannel integrated with herringbone-shaped ridges that enhanced the mixing of the two streams. The small scale involved enabled rapid solvent exchange and initiated the self-assembly of the lipids to form the required liposomes. The effect of different parameters on liposome size, such as the ratio between the flow rate of the solvent and the buffer solutions (FRR), total flow rate, lipid concentrations, and solvent type, were investigated. Using this commercially available chip, we obtained liposomes with a radius of 66.1 ± 11.2 nm (mean ± standard deviation) and a polydispersity of 22% in less than 15 minutes compared to a total of  ∼  11 hours using conventional techniques. Calcein was encapsulated inside the prepared liposomes as a model drug and was released by applying ultrasound at different powers. The size of the prepared liposomes was stable over a period of one month. Overall, using microfluidics to synthesize estrone liposomes simplified the procedure considerably and improved the reproducibility of the resulting liposomes.

Lipid nanoparticles as the drug carrier for targeted therapy of hepatic disorders

The liver, a complex and vital organ in the human body, is susceptible to various diseases, including metabolic disorders, acute hepatitis, cirrhosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma. In recent decades, these diseases have significantly contributed to global morbidity and mortality. Currently, liver transplantation remains the most effective treatment for hepatic disorders. Nucleic acid therapeutics offer a selective approach to disease treatment through diverse mechanisms, enabling the regulation of relevant genes and providing a novel therapeutic avenue for hepatic disorders. It is expected that nucleic acid drugs will emerge as the third generation of pharmaceuticals, succeeding small molecule drugs and antibody drugs. Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) represent a crucial technology in the field of drug delivery and constitute a significant advancement in gene therapies. Nucleic acids encapsulated in LNPs are shielded from the degradation of enzymes and effectively delivered to cells, where they are released and regulate specific genes. This paper provides a comprehensive review of the structure, composition, and applications of LNPs in the treatment of hepatic disorders and offers insights into prospects and challenges in the future development of LNPs.

Novel Drug Delivery Systems: An Important Direction for Drug Innovation Research and Development

The escalating demand for enhanced therapeutic efficacy and reduced adverse effects in the pharmaceutical domain has catalyzed a new frontier of innovation and research in the field of pharmacy: novel drug delivery systems. These systems are designed to address the limitations of conventional drug administration, such as abbreviated half-life, inadequate targeting, low solubility, and bioavailability. As the disciplines of pharmacy, materials science, and biomedicine continue to advance and converge, the development of efficient and safe drug delivery systems, including biopharmaceutical formulations, has garnered significant attention both domestically and internationally. This article presents an overview of the latest advancements in drug delivery systems, categorized into four primary areas: carrier-based and coupling-based targeted drug delivery systems, intelligent drug delivery systems, and drug delivery devices, based on their main objectives and methodologies. Additionally, it critically analyzes the technological bottlenecks, current research challenges, and future trends in the application of novel drug delivery systems.

CRISPR-Cas9 genome and long non-coding RNAs as a novel diagnostic index for prostate cancer therapy via liposomal-coated compounds

CRISPR/Cas9 is a recently discovered genomic editing technique that altered scientist's sight in studying genes function. Cas9 is controlled via guide (g) RNAs, which match the DNA targeted in cleavage to modify the respective gene. The development in prostate cancer (PC) modeling directed not only to novel resources for recognizing the signaling pathways overriding prostate cell carcinoma, but it has also created a vast reservoir for complementary tools to examine therapies counteracting this type of cancer. Various cultured somatic rat models for prostate cancer have been developed that nearly mimic human prostate cancer. Nano-medicine can passively target cancer cells via increasing bioavailability and conjugation via specific legend, contributing to reduced systemic side-effects and increased efficacy. This article highlights liposomal loaded Nano-medicine as a potential treatment for prostate cancer and clarifies the CRISPR/Cas9 variation accompanied with prostate cancer. PC is induced experimentally in western rat model via ethinyl estradiol for 4 weeks and SC. dose of 3, 2'- dimethyl-4-aminobiphenyl estradiol (DAE) (50mg/kg) followed by treatment via targeted liposomal-coated compounds such as liposomal dexamethasone (DXM), liposomal doxorubicin (DOX) and liposomal Turmeric (TUR) (3mg/kg IP) for four weeks in a comparative study to their non-targeted analogue dexamethasone, doxorubicin and Turmeric. 3, 2'- dimethyl-4-aminobiphenylestradiol elicit prostate cancer in western rats within 5 months. Simultaneous supplementations with these liposomal compounds influence on prostate cancer; tumor markers were investigated via prostate-specific antigen (PSA), Nitric oxide (NOX) and CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing. Several long non-coding RNAs were reported to be deregulated in prostate cell carcinoma, including MALAT1. On the other hand, gene expression of apoptotic biomarkers focal adhesion kinase (AKT-1), phosphatidylinistol kinase (PI3K) and glycogen synthase kinase-3 (GSK-3) was also investigated and further confirming these results via histopathological examination. Liposomal loaded dexamethasone; doxorubicin and Turmeric can be considered as promising therapeutic agents for prostate cancer via modulating CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing and long non coding gene MALAT1.

A method for in situ self-assembly of the catalytic peptide in enzymatic compartments of glucan particles

Drawing inspiration from cellular compartmentalization, enzymatic compartments play a pivotal role in bringing enzymes and substrates into confined environments, offering heightened catalytic efficiency and prolonged enzyme lifespan. Previously, we engineered bioinspired enzymatic compartments, denoted as TPE-Q18H@GPs, achieved through the spatiotemporally controllable self-assembly of the catalytic peptide TPE-Q18H within hollow porous glucan particles (GPs). This design strategy allows substrates and products to freely traverse, while retaining enzymatic aggregations. The confined environment led to the formation of catalytic nanofibers, resulting in enhanced substrate binding affinity and a more than two-fold increase in the second-order kinetic constant (kcat/Km) compared to TPE-Q18H nanofibers in a dispersed system. In this work, we will introduce how to synthesize the above-mentioned enzymatic compartments using salt-responsive catalytic peptides and GPs.

Ultrasound-nanovesicles interplay for theranostics

Nanovesicles (NVs) are widely used in the treatment and diagnosis of diseases due to their excellent vascular permeability, good biocompatibility, high loading capacity, and easy functionalization. However, their yield and in vivo penetration depth limitations and their complex preparation processes still constrain their application and development. Ultrasound, as a fundamental external stimulus with deep tissue penetration, concentrated energy sources, and good safety, has been proven to be a patient-friendly and highly efficient strategy to overcome the restrictions of traditional clinical medicine. Recent research has shown that ultrasound can drive the generation of NVs, increase their yield, simplify their preparation process, and provide direct therapeutic effects and intelligent control to enhance the therapeutic effect of NVs. In addition, NVs, as excellent drug carriers, can enhance the targeting efficiency of ultrasound-based sonodynamic therapy or sonogenetic regulation and improve the accuracy of ultrasound imaging. This review provides a detailed introduction to the classification, generation, and modification strategies of NVs, emphasizing the impact of ultrasound on the formation of NVs and summarizing the enhanced treatment and diagnostic effects of NVs combined with ultrasound for various diseases.

Lipid-based nanomedicines for the treatment of bacterial respiratory infections: current state and new perspectives

The global threat posed by antimicrobial resistance demands urgent action and the development of effective drugs. Lower respiratory tract infections remain the deadliest communicable disease worldwide, often challenging to treat due to the presence of bacteria that form recalcitrant biofilms. There is consensus that novel anti-infectives with reduced resistance compared with conventional antibiotics are needed, leading to extensive research on innovative antibacterial agents. This review explores the recent progress in lipid-based nanomedicines developed to counteract bacterial respiratory infections, especially those involving biofilm growth; focuses on improved drug bioavailability and targeting and highlights novel strategies to enhance treatment efficacy while emphasizing the importance of continued research in this dynamic field.

Field-flow fractionation - an excellent tool for fractionation, isolation and/or purification of biomacromolecules

Field-flow fractionation (FFF) with its several variants, has developed into a mature methodology. The scope of the FFF investigations has expanded, covering both a wide range of basic studies and especially a wide range of analytical applications. Special attention of this review is given to the achievements of FFF with reference to recent applications in the fractionation, isolation, and purification of biomacromolecules, and from which especially those of (in alphabetical order) bacteria, cells, extracellular vesicles, liposomes, lipoproteins, nucleic acids, and viruses and virus-like particles. In evaluating the major approaches and trends demonstrated since 2012, the most significant biomacromolecule applications are compiled in tables. It is also evident that asymmetrical flow field-flow fractionation is by far the most dominant technique in the studies. The industry has also shown current interest in FFF and adopted it in some sophisticated fields. FFF, in combination with appropriate detectors, handles biomacromolecules in open channel in a gentle way due to the lack of shear forces and unwanted interactions caused by the stationary phase present in chromatography. In addition, in isolation and purification of biomacromolecules quite high yields can be achieved under optimal conditions.

Site-specific delivery of cisplatin and paclitaxel mediated by liposomes: A promising approach in cancer chemotherapy

The site-specific delivery of drugs, especially anti-cancer drugs has been an interesting field for researchers and the reason is low accumulation of cytotoxic drugs in cancer cells. Although combination cancer therapy has been beneficial in providing cancer drug sensitivity, targeted delivery of drugs appears to be more efficient. One of the safe, biocompatible and efficient nano-scale delivery systems in anti-cancer drug delivery is liposomes. Their particle size is small and they have other properties such as adjustable physico-chemical properties, ease of functionalization and high entrapment efficiency. Cisplatin is a chemotherapy drug with clinical approval in patients, but its accumulation in cancer cells is low due to lack of targeted delivery and repeated administration results in resistance development. Gene and drug co-administration along with cisplatin/paclitaxel have resulted in increased sensitivity in tumor cells, but there is still space for more progress in cancer therapy. The delivery of cisplatin/paclitaxel by liposomes increases accumulation of drug in tumor cells and impairs activity of efflux pumps in promoting cytotoxicity. Moreover, phototherapy along with cisplatin/paclitaxel delivery can increase potential in tumor suppression. Smart nanoparticles including pH-sensitive nanoparticles provide site-specific delivery of cisplatin/paclitaxel. The functionalization of liposomes can be performed by ligands to increase targetability towards tumor cells in mediating site-specific delivery of cisplatin/paclitaxel. Finally, liposomes can mediate co-delivery of cisplatin/paclitaxel with drugs or genes in potentiating tumor suppression. Since drug resistance has caused therapy failure in cancer patients, and cisplatin/paclitaxel are among popular chemotherapy drugs, delivery of these drugs mediates targeted suppression of cancers and prevents development of drug resistance. Because of biocompatibility and safety of liposomes, they are currently used in clinical trials for treatment of cancer patients. In future, the optimal dose of using liposomes and optimal concentration of loading cisplatin/paclitaxel on liposomal nanocarriers in clinical trials should be determined.

Exploring LIPIDs for their potential to improves bioavailability of lipophilic drugs candidates: A review

This review aims to provide a thorough examination of the benefits, challenges, and advancements in utilizing lipids for more effective drug delivery, ultimately contributing to the development of innovative approaches in pharmaceutical science. Lipophilic drugs, characterized by low aqueous solubility, present a formidable challenge in achieving effective delivery and absorption within the human body. To address this issue, one promising approach involves harnessing the potential of lipids. Lipids, in their diverse forms, serve as carriers, leveraging their unique capacity to enhance solubility, stability, and absorption of these challenging drugs. By facilitating improved intestinal solubility and selective lymphatic absorption of porously permeable drugs, lipids offer an array of possibilities for drug delivery. This versatile characteristic not only bolsters the pharmacological efficacy of drugs with low bioavailability but also contributes to enhanced therapeutic performance, ultimately reducing the required dose size and associated costs. This comprehensive review delves into the strategic formulation approaches that employ lipids as carriers to ameliorate drug solubility and bioavailability. Emphasis is placed on the critical considerations of lipid type, composition, and processing techniques when designing lipid-based formulations. This review meticulously examines the multifaceted challenges that come hand in hand with lipid-based formulations for lipophilic drugs, offering an insightful perspective on future trends. Regulatory considerations and the broad spectrum of potential applications are also thoughtfully discussed. In summary, this review presents a valuable repository of insights into the effective utilization of lipids as carriers, all aimed at elevating the bioavailability of lipophilic drugs.

Microparticles and nanoparticles-based approaches to improve oral treatment of Helicobacter pylori infection

Helicobacter pylori is a gram-negative, spiral-shaped, flagellated bacterium that colonizes the stomach of half the world's population. Helicobacter pylori infection causes pathologies of varying severity. Standard oral therapy fails in 15-20% since the barriers of the oral route decrease the bioavailability of antibiotics and the intrinsic factors of bacteria increase the rates of resistance. Nanoparticles and microparticles are promising strategies for drug delivery into the gastric mucosa and targeting H. pylori. The variety of building blocks creates systems with distinct colloidal, surface, and biological properties. These features improve drug-pathogen interactions, eliminate drug depletion and overuse, and enable the association of multiple actives combating H. pylori on several fronts. Nanoparticles and microparticles are successfully used to overcome the barriers of the oral route, physicochemical inconveniences, and lack of selectivity of current therapy. They have proven efficient in employing promising anti-H. pylori compounds whose limitation is oral route instability, such as some antibiotics and natural products. However, the current challenge is the applicability of these strategies in clinical practice. For this reason, strategies employing a rational design are necessary, including in the development of nano- and microsystems for the oral route.

Motility of Synthetic Cells from Engineered Lipids

Synthetic cells are artificial systems that resemble natural cells. Significant efforts have been made over the years to construct synthetic protocells that can mimic biological mechanisms and perform various complex processes. These include compartmentalization, metabolism, energy supply, communication, and gene reproduction. Cell motility is also of great importance, as nature uses elegant mechanisms for intracellular trafficking, immune response, and embryogenesis. In this review, we discuss the motility of synthetic cells made from lipid vesicles and relevant molecular mechanisms. Synthetic cell motion may be classified into surface-based or solution-based depending on whether it involves interactions with surfaces or movement in fluids. Collective migration behaviors have also been demonstrated. The swarm motion requires additional mechanisms for intercellular signaling and directional motility that enable communication and coordination among the synthetic vesicles. In addition, intracellular trafficking for molecular transport has been reconstituted in minimal cells with the help of DNA nanotechnology. These efforts demonstrate synthetic cells that can move, detect, respond, and interact. We envision that new developments in protocell motility will enhance our understanding of biological processes and be instrumental in bioengineering and therapeutic applications.

Novel biocatalysts based on enzymes in complexes with nano- and micromaterials

In today's world, there is a wide array of materials engineered at the nano- and microscale, with numerous applications attributed to these innovations. This review aims to provide a concise overview of how nano- and micromaterials are utilized for enzyme immobilization. Enzymes act as eco-friendly biocatalysts extensively used in various industries and medicine. However, their widespread adoption faces challenges due to factors such as enzyme instability under different conditions, resulting in reduced effectiveness, high costs, and limited reusability. To address these issues, researchers have explored immobilization techniques using nano- and microscale materials as a potential solution. Such techniques offer the promise of enhancing enzyme stability against varying temperatures, solvents, pH levels, pollutants, and impurities. Consequently, enzyme immobilization remains a subject of great interest within both the scientific community and the industrial sector. As of now, the primary goal of enzyme immobilization is not solely limited to enabling reusability and stability. It has been demonstrated as a powerful tool to enhance various enzyme properties and improve biocatalyst performance and characteristics. The integration of nano- and microscale materials into biomedical devices is seamless, given the similarity in size to most biological systems. Common materials employed in developing these nanotechnology products include synthetic polymers, carbon-based nanomaterials, magnetic micro- and nanoparticles, metal and metal oxide nanoparticles, metal-organic frameworks, nano-sized mesoporous hydrogen-bonded organic frameworks, protein-based nano-delivery systems, lipid-based nano- and micromaterials, and polysaccharide-based nanoparticles.

Functionalization and higher-order organization of liposomes with DNA nanostructures

Small unilamellar vesicles (SUVs) are indispensable model membranes, organelle mimics, and drug and vaccine carriers. However, the lack of robust techniques to functionalize or organize preformed SUVs limits their applications. Here we use DNA nanostructures to coat, cluster, and pattern sub-100-nm liposomes, generating distance-controlled vesicle networks, strings and dimers, among other configurations. The DNA coating also enables attachment of proteins to liposomes, and temporal control of membrane fusion driven by SNARE protein complexes. Such a convenient and versatile method of engineering premade vesicles both structurally and functionally is highly relevant to bottom-up biology and targeted delivery.

Spontaneous Formation of Ultrasmall Unilamellar Vesicles in Mixtures of an Amphiphilic Drug and a Phospholipid

We have observed ultrasmall unilamellar vesicles, with diameters of less than 20 nm, in mixtures of the tricyclic antidepressant drug amitriptyline hydrochloride (AMT) and the unsaturated zwitterionic phospholipid 1,2-dioleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DOPC) in physiological saline solution. The size and shape of spontaneously formed self-assembled aggregates have been characterized using complementary techniques, i.e., small-angle neutron and X-ray scattering (SANS and SAXS) and cryo-transmission electron microscopy (cryo-TEM). We observe rodlike mixed micelles in more concentrated samples that grow considerably in length upon dilution, and a transition from micelles to vesicles is observed as the concentration approaches the critical micelle concentration of AMT. Unlike the micelles, the spontaneously formed vesicles decrease in size with each step of dilution, and ultrasmall unilamellar vesicles, with diameters as small as about 15 nm, were observed at the lowest concentrations. The spontaneously formed ultrasmall unilamellar vesicles maintain their size for as long we have investigated them (i.e., several months). To the best of our knowledge, such small vesicles have never before been reported to form spontaneously in a biocompatible phospholipid-based system. Most interestingly, the size of the vesicles was observed to be strongly dependent on the chemical structure of the phospholipid, and in mixtures of AMT and the phospholipid 1,2-dimyristoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DMPC), the vesicles were observed to be considerably larger in size. The self-assembly behavior in the phospholipid-drug surfactant system in many ways resembles the formation of equilibrium micelles and vesicles in mixed anionic/cationic surfactant systems.

Use of sodium alginate coatings to improve bioavailability of liposomes containing DPP-IV inhibitory collagen peptides

Sodium alginate (SA) was used to coat liposomes containing DPP-IV inhibitory collagen peptides to improve their stability and in vitro absorption for intra-oral delivery. The liposome structure as well as entrapment efficiency and DPP-IV inhibitory activity was characterized. The liposome stability was determined by measuring in vitro release rates and their gastrointestinal stability. Transcellular permeability of liposomes was further tested to characterize their permeability in small intestinal epithelial cells. The results showed that the 0.3% SA coating increased the diameter (166.7 nm to 249.9 nm), absolute value of zeta potential (30.2 mV to 40.1 mV) and entrapment efficiency (61.52% to 70.99%) of liposomes. The SA-coated liposomes containing collagen peptides showed enhanced storage stability within one month, gastrointestinal stability increased by 50% in bioavailability, transcellular permeability increased by 18% in transmission percentage, and in vitro release rates reduced by 34%, compared to uncoated liposomes. SA coating liposomes are promising carriers for transporting hydrophilic molecules, may be beneficial for improving nutrient absorption and can protect bioactive compounds from being inactivated in the gastrointestinal tract.

Construction of a biomimetic core-shell PDA@Lac bioreactor from intracellular laccase as a nano-confined biocatalyst for decolorization

Enzymes immobilized on the surface of the carriers are difficult to maintain their conformation and high activity due to the influence of the external harsh environments. A biomimetic core-shell PDA@Lac bioreactor was constructed by depositing polydopamine (PDA) on the surface of the recombinant Escherichia coli with CotA laccase gene, and releasing intracellular laccase into the PDA shell using ultrasound to break the cell wall of the bacteria. The bioreactor provided a nano-confined environment for the laccase and accelerated the mass and electron transfer in the volume-confined space, with a 2.77-fold increase in Km compared with the free laccase. Since there was no barrier of the cell wall, the crystal violet dye can enter the bioreactor to participate in the enzymatic reaction. As a result, PDA@Lac achieved excellent decolorization performance even without ABTS as an electron mediator. Moreover, the cytoplasmic solution retained in the PDA shell promoted the enzyme's tolerance to pH, temperature and harsh environments. In addition to PDA encapsulation, carbonyl and -NH₂ groups of PDA were bound covalently with -NH₂ and -COOH on the laccase in the PDA@Lac, resulting in an extremely high laccase loading of 817.59 mg/g. Also, the relative activity of the bioreactor maintained approximately 75% after 10 cycles of reuse. In addition, the protection of the PDA shell increased the resistance of laccase to UV irradiation. This work provides a novel method of laccase immobilization for application in wastewater treatment.

Tailoring the Inherent Properties of Biobased Nanoparticles for Nanomedicine

Biobased nanoparticles are at the leading edge of the rapidly developing field of nanomedicine and biotherapeutics. Their unique size, shape, and biophysical properties make them attractive tools for biomedical research, including vaccination, targeted drug delivery, and immune therapy. These nanoparticles are engineered to present native cell receptors and proteins on their surfaces, providing a biomimicking camouflage for therapeutic cargo to evade rapid degradation, immune rejection, inflammation, and clearance. Despite showing promising clinical relevance, commercial implementation of these biobased nanoparticles is yet to be fully realized. In this perspective, we discuss advanced biobased nanoparticle designs used in medical applications, such as cell membrane nanoparticles, exosomes, and synthetic lipid-derived nanoparticles, and highlight their benefits and potential challenges. Moreover, we critically assess the future of preparing such particles using artificial intelligence and machine learning. These advanced computational tools will be able to predict the functional composition and behavior of the proteins and cell receptors present on the nanoparticle surfaces. With more advancement in designing new biobased nanoparticles, this field of research could play a key role in dictating the future rational design of drug transporters, thereby ultimately improving overall therapeutic outcomes.

Microfluidic fabricated bisdemethoxycurcumin thermosensitive liposome with enhanced antitumor effect

Bisdemethoxycurcumin (BDMC) is the main active ingredient that is isolated from Zingiberaceae plants, wherein it has excellent anti-tumor effects. However, insolubility in water limits its clinical application. Herein, we reported a microfluidic chip device that can load BDMC into the lipid bilayer to form BDMC thermosensitive liposome (BDMC TSL). The natural active ingredient glycyrrhizin was selected as the surfactant to improve solubility of BDMC. Particles of BDMC TSL had small size, homogenous size distribution, and enhanced cultimulative release in vitro. The anti-tumor effect of BDMC TSL on human hepatocellular carcinomas was investigated via 3-(4,5-Dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide method, live/dead staining, and flowcytometry. These results showed that the formulated liposome had a strong cancer cell inhibitory, and presented a dose-dependent inhibitory effect on migration. Further mechanistic studies showed that BDMC TSL combined with mild local hyperthermia could significantly upregulate B cell lymphoma 2 associated X protein levels and decrease B cell lymphoma 2 protein levels, thereby inducing cell apoptosis. The BDMC TSL that was fabricated via microfluidic device were decomposed under mild local hyperthermia, which could beneficially enhance the anti-tumor effect of raw insoluble materials and promote translation of liposome.

Multifunctional targetable liposomal drug delivery system in the management of leukemia: Potential, opportunities, and emerging strategies

The concern impeding the success of chemotherapy in leukemia treatment is descending efficacy of drugs because of multiple drug resistance (MDR). The previous failure of traditional treatment methods is primarily responsible for the present era of innovative agents to treat leukemia effectively. The treatment option is a chemotherapeutic agent in most available treatment strategies, which unfortunately leads to high unavoidable toxicities. As a result of the recent surge in marketed products, theranostic nanoparticles, i.e., multifunctional targetable liposomes (MFTL), have been approved for improved and more successful leukemia treatment that blends therapeutic and diagnostic characteristics. Since they broadly offer the required characteristics to get past the traditional/previous limitations, such as the absence of site-specific anti-cancer therapeutic delivery and ongoing real-time surveillance of the leukemia target sites while administering therapeutic activities. To prepare MFTL, suitable targeting ligands or tumor-specific antibodies are required to attach to the surface of the liposomes. This review exhaustively covered and summarized the liposomal-based formulation in leukemia treatment, emphasizing leukemia types; regulatory considerations, patents, and clinical portfolios to overcome clinical translation hurdles have all been explored.

Minimal Out-of-Equilibrium Metabolism for Synthetic Cells: A Membrane Perspective

Life-like systems need to maintain a basal metabolism, which includes importing a variety of building blocks required for macromolecule synthesis, exporting dead-end products, and recycling cofactors and metabolic intermediates, while maintaining steady internal physical and chemical conditions (physicochemical homeostasis). A compartment, such as a unilamellar vesicle, functionalized with membrane-embedded transport proteins and metabolic enzymes encapsulated in the lumen meets these requirements. Here, we identify four modules designed for a minimal metabolism in a synthetic cell with a lipid bilayer boundary: energy provision and conversion, physicochemical homeostasis, metabolite transport, and membrane expansion. We review design strategies that can be used to fulfill these functions with a focus on the lipid and membrane protein composition of a cell. We compare our bottom-up design with the equivalent essential modules of JCVI-syn3a, a top-down genome-minimized living cell with a size comparable to that of large unilamellar vesicles. Finally, we discuss the bottlenecks related to the insertion of a complex mixture of membrane proteins into lipid bilayers and provide a semiquantitative estimate of the relative surface area and lipid-to-protein mass ratios (i.e., the minimal number of membrane proteins) that are required for the construction of a synthetic cell.

Treatment Strategies for KRAS-Mutated Non-Small-Cell Lung Cancer

Activating mutations in KRAS are highly prevalent in solid tumours and are frequently found in 35% of lung, 45% of colorectal, and up to 90% of pancreatic cancers. Mutated KRAS is a prognostic factor for disease-free survival (DFS) and overall survival (OS) in NSCLC and is associated with a more aggressive clinical phenotype, highlighting the need for KRAS-targeted therapy. Once considered undruggable due to its smooth shallow surface, a breakthrough showed that the activated G12C-mutated KRAS isozyme can be directly inhibited via a newly identified switch II pocket. This discovery led to the development of a new class of selective small-molecule inhibitors against the KRAS G12C isoform. Sotorasib and adagrasib are approved in locally advanced or metastatic NSCLC patients who have received at least one prior systemic therapy. Currently, there are at least twelve KRAS G12C inhibitors being tested in clinical trials, either as a single agent or in combination. In this study, KRAS mutation prevalence, subtypes, rates of occurrence in treatment-resistant invasive mucinous adenocarcinomas (IMAs), and novel drug delivery options are reviewed. Additionally, the current status of KRAS inhibitors, multiple resistance mechanisms that limit efficacy, and their use in combination treatment strategies and novel multitargeted approaches in NSCLC are discussed.

Acute Toxicity Evaluation of Phosphatidylcholine Nanoliposomes Containing Nisin in Caenorhabditis elegans

Liposomes are among the most studied nanostructures. They are effective carriers of active substances both in the clinical field, such as delivering genes and drugs, and in the food industry, such as promoting the controlled release of bioactive substances, including food preservatives. However, toxicological screenings must be performed to ensure the safety of nanoformulations. In this study, the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans was used as an alternative model to investigate the potential in vivo toxicity of nanoliposomes encapsulating the antimicrobial peptide nisin. The effects of liposomes containing nisin, control liposomes, and free nisin were evaluated through the survival rate, lethal dose (LD₅₀), nematode development rate, and oxidative stress status by performing mutant strain, TBARS, and ROS analyses. Due to its low toxicity, it was not possible to experimentally determine the LD₅₀ of liposomes. The survival rates of control liposomes and nisin-loaded liposomes were 94.3 and 73.6%, respectively. The LD₅₀ of free nisin was calculated as 0.239 mg mL^-1. Free nisin at a concentration of 0.2 mg mL^-1 significantly affected the development of C. elegans, which was 25% smaller than the control and liposome-treated samples. A significant increase in ROS levels was observed after exposure to the highest concentrations of liposomes and free nisin, coinciding with a significant increase in catalase levels. The treatments induced lipid peroxidation as evaluated by TBARS assay. Liposome encapsulation reduces the deleterious effect on C. elegans and can be considered a nontoxic delivery system for nisin.

Development of Novel Lipid-Based Formulations for Water-Soluble Vitamin C versus Fat-Soluble Vitamin D3

The aim of this study was to develop a facile and novel lipid-based formulation of vitamin C and vitamin D3. Liposomes loaded with vitamin C and D3 were characterized using transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and zeta potential measurements for evaluating morphology, particle size and physical stability. HPLC was employed to quantify the content of vitamin C and vitamin D3 in their liposomal forms. The UHPLC analysis of the lipid-based vitamin formulation is an easy and rapid method for the characterization as well as the quantification of all components. In addition, encapsulation efficiency, vitamin loading and stability analysis were performed by the UHPLC method, in order to evaluate the reliability of the optimized lipid-based formulation. The TEM results provided key support for the core type of liposome structure in the formulations, whereas the HPLC results indicated that the liposomal vitamin C and D3 systems were homogeneous, and did not undergo phase separation. Taken together, the results demonstrate that liposomal encapsulated vitamins (vitamin C and D3) possess a unilamellar vesicle morphology with uniform particle size, despite differences in the hydrophile-lipophile profiles of the vitamins. The highly efficient encapsulation properties of such liposomal constructs are proposed to contribute to enhanced vitamin bioavailability.

Latanoprost-Loaded Nanotransfersomes Designed for Scalp Administration Enhance Keratinocytes Proliferation

Latanoprost (LAT) has been shown to have a hypertrichotic effect, which makes it a promising candidate for alopecia treatments. For the first time, LAT has been encapsulated in nanotransfersomes in order to increase its efficacy. Ex vivo skin biodistribution was studied by confocal laser microscopy both in human scalp and pig skin. Results showed that nanotransfersomes increase the penetration of two different fluorochromes, with similar patterns in both species, compared with fluorochrome solutions containing no nanotransfersomes. Nanotransfersomes were stable under accelerated conditions (40 °C/75% RH) and long-term conditions (25 °C/60% RH) for up to 1 year, with no differences in vesicle size and polydispersity when LAT was loaded. Nanotransfersomes increased the LAT cell proliferation effect in HaCaT cell via MAPK signaling pathway. Collectively, our results demonstrate LAT-nanotransfersomes formulation could be a promising therapy for hair growth disorders.

Advancements in Rectal Drug Delivery Systems: Clinical Trials, and Patents Perspective

The rectal route is an effective route for the local and systemic delivery of active pharmaceutical ingredients. The environment of the rectum is relatively constant with low enzymatic activity and is favorable for drugs having poor oral absorption, extensive first-pass metabolism, gastric irritation, stability issues in the gastric environment, localized activity, and for drugs that cannot be administered by other routes. The present review addresses the rectal physiology, rectal diseases, and pharmaceutical factors influencing rectal delivery of drugs and discusses different rectal drug delivery systems including suppositories, suspensions, microspheres, nanoparticles, liposomes, tablets, and hydrogels. Clinical trials on various rectal drug delivery systems are presented in tabular form. Applications of different novel drug delivery carriers viz. nanoparticles, liposomes, solid lipid nanoparticles, microspheres, transferosomes, nano-niosomes, and nanomicelles have been discussed and demonstrated for their potential use in rectal administration. Various opportunities and challenges for rectal delivery including recent advancements and patented formulations for rectal drug delivery have also been included.

Synthetic Biology: Bottom-Up Assembly of Molecular Systems

The bottom-up assembly of biological and chemical components opens exciting opportunities to engineer artificial vesicular systems for applications with previously unmet requirements. The modular combination of scaffolds and functional building blocks enables the engineering of complex systems with biomimetic or new-to-nature functionalities. Inspired by the compartmentalized organization of cells and organelles, lipid or polymer vesicles are widely used as model membrane systems to investigate the translocation of solutes and the transduction of signals by membrane proteins. The bottom-up assembly and functionalization of such artificial compartments enables full control over their composition and can thus provide specifically optimized environments for synthetic biological processes. This review aims to inspire future endeavors by providing a diverse toolbox of molecular modules, engineering methodologies, and different approaches to assemble artificial vesicular systems. Important technical and practical aspects are addressed and selected applications are presented, highlighting particular achievements and limitations of the bottom-up approach. Complementing the cutting-edge technological achievements, fundamental aspects are also discussed to cater to the inherently diverse background of the target audience, which results from the interdisciplinary nature of synthetic biology. The engineering of proteins as functional modules and the use of lipids and block copolymers as scaffold modules for the assembly of functionalized vesicular systems are explored in detail. Particular emphasis is placed on ensuring the controlled assembly of these components into increasingly complex vesicular systems. Finally, all descriptions are presented in the greater context of engineering valuable synthetic biological systems for applications in biocatalysis, biosensing, bioremediation, or targeted drug delivery.

Solid-to-Liposome Conformational Transition of Phosphatidylcholine and Phosphatidylserine Probed by Atomic Force Microscopy, Infrared Spectroscopy, and Density Functional Theory Calculations

Liposomes are emerging therapeutic formulations for site-specific delivery of chemotherapeutic drugs. The efficiency and selectivity of drug delivery by these carriers largely rely on their surface properties, shape, and size. There is a growing demand for analytical approaches that can be used for structural and morphological characterization of liposomes at the single-vesicle level. AFM-IR is a modern optical nanoscopic technique that combines the advantages of scanning probe microscopy and infrared spectroscopy. Our findings show that AFM-IR can be used to probe conformational changes in phospholipids that take place upon their assembly into liposomes. Such conclusions can be made based on the corresponding changes in intensities of the lipid vibrational bands as the molecules transition from a solid state into large unilamellar vesicles (LUVs). This spectroscopic analysis of LUV formation together with density functional theory calculations also reveals the extent to which the molecular conformation and local environment of the functional groups alter the AFM-IR spectra of phospholipids. Using melittin as a test protein, we also examined the extent to which LUVs can be used for protein internalization. We found that melittin enters LUVs nearly instantaneously, which protects it from possible structural modifications that are caused by a changing environment. This foundational work empowers AFM-IR analysis of liposomes and opens new avenues for determination of the molecular mechanisms of liposome-drug interactions.

Recent advancements on hyperthermia driven controlled drug delivery from nanotherapeutics

Previous reviews of the works on magnetic nanoparticles for hyperthermia induced treatment concentrated mostly on magnetic fluid hyperthermia (MFH) employing monometallic/metal oxide nanocomposites. In the literature, the word "hyperthermia" was also limited to the use of heat for medicinal purposes. A number of publications have recently been published demonstrating that magnetic nanoparticle-based hyperthermia may produce restricted high temperatures, resulting in the release of medicines that are either connected to the magnetic nanoparticles or encased in polymer matrices. In this debate, we propose broadening the concept of "hyperthermia" to encompass temperature-based treatment as well as magnetically controlled medication delivery. The review also addresses core-shell magnetic nanomaterials, particularly nanoshells made by stacked assembly, for the use of hyperthermia-based treatment and precise administration of drugs. The primary objective of this review article is to demonstrate how the combination of hyperthermia-induced therapy and 'on demand' drug release models may lead to effective applications in personalized medicine.

Membrane Fusion Biophysical Analysis of Fusogenic Liposomes

Liposomes represent important drug carrier vehicles in biological systems. A fusogenic liposomal system composed of equimolar mixtures of the cationic lipid DOTAP and the phospholipid DOPE showed high fusion and delivery efficiencies with cells and lipid vesicles. However, aspects of the thermodynamics involving the interaction of these fusogenic liposomes and biomimetic systems remain unclear. Here, we investigate the fusion of this system with large unilamellar vesicles (LUVs) composed of the zwitterionic lipid POPC and increasing fractions of the anionic lipid POPG and up to 30 mol % cholesterol. The focus here is to concomitantly follow changes in size, zeta-potential, and enthalpy binding upon membrane interaction and fusion. Isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC) data showed that membrane fusion in our system is an exothermic process in the absence of cholesterol, suggesting that electrostatic attraction is the driving force for fusion. An endothermic component appeared and eventually dominated the titration at 30 mol % cholesterol, which we propose is caused by membrane fluidification when cholesterol is diluted upon fusion. The inflection points of the ITC data occurred around 0.5-0.7 POPG/DOTAP for all systems, the same stoichiometry for which zeta-potential and dynamic light scattering measurements showed an increase in size coupled with charge neutralization of the system, which is consistent with the fact that fusion in our system is charge-mediated. Microscopy observations of the final mixtures revealed the presence of giant vesicles, which is a clear indication of fusion, coexisting with intermediate-sized objects that could be the result of both fusion and/or aggregation. The results show that the fusion efficiency of the DOTAP:DOPE fusogenic system is modulated by the charge and membrane packing of the acceptor membrane and explain why the system fuses very efficiently with cells.

Nanoparticles in association with antimicrobial peptides (NanoAMPs) as a promising combination for agriculture development

Antimicrobial peptides are small molecules, up to 10 kDa, present in all kingdoms of life, including in plants. Several studies report that these molecules have a broad spectrum of activity, including antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, and insecticidal activity. Thus, they can be employed in agriculture as alternative tools for phytopathogen and pest control. However, the application of peptides in agriculture can present challenges, such as loss of activity due to degradation of these molecules, off-target effects, and others. In this context, nanotechnology can offer versatile structures, including metallic nanoparticles, liposomes, polymeric nanoparticles, nanofibers, and others, which might act both in protection and in release of AMPs. Several polymers and biomaterials can be employed for the development of nanostructures, such as inorganic metals, natural or synthetic lipids, synthetic and hybrid polymers, and others. This review addresses the versatility of NanoAMPs (Nanoparticles in association with antimicrobial peptides), and their potential applications in agribusiness, as an alternative for the control of phytopathogens in crops.

Application of sonodynamic technology and sonosensitizers in food sterilization: a review of developments, trends and challenges

Food safety and food waste have always been hot topics of discussion in recent years. However, the infection of human pathogenic bacteria and the waste of food resources caused by microbial-contaminated food remains common. Although traditional sterilization technology has been very mature, it causes changes in food flavor and excessive energy consumption to a certain extent. Moreover, the widespread bacterial resistance has also sounded a warning for researchers and finding a new alternative to antibiotics is urgently needed. The application of sonodynamic sterilization technology in medical treatment has aroused the interest of researchers. It provides ideas for new food sterilization technology. As a new non-thermal sterilization technology, sonodynamic sterilization technology has strong penetration, safety, less residue and by-products, and will less change the quality of the food itself. Therefore, sonodynamic sterilization technology has great potential applied in food sterilization technology. This review describes the concept of sonodynamic sterilization technology, the sterilization mechanism of sonodynamic sterilization and the inactivation mechanism of various pathogens, the classification and application of sonosensitizers, and the ultrasonic technology in sonodynamic sterilization in the application over the recent years. It provides a scientific reference for the application of sonodynamic sterilization technology in the field of food sterilization.

Tracking the Endosomal Escape: A Closer Look at Calcein and Related Reporters

Crossing the cellular membrane and delivering active pharmaceuticals or biologicals into the cytosol of cells is an essential step in the development of nanomedicines. One of the most important intracellular processes regarding the cellular uptake of biologicals is the endolysosomal pathway. Sophisticated nanocarriers have been developed overcoming a major hurdle, the endosomal entrapment, and delivering their cargo to the required site of action. In parallel, in vitro assays have been established analyzing the performance of these nanocarriers. Among them, the release of the membrane-impermeable dye calcein has become a popular and straightforward method. It is accessible for most researchers worldwide, allows for rapid conclusions about the release potential, and enables the study of release mechanisms. This review is intended to provide an overview and guidance for scientists applying the calcein release assay. It comprises a survey of several applications in the study of endosomal escape, considerations of potential pitfalls, challenges and limitations of the assay, and a brief summary of complementary methods. Based on this review, we hope to encourage further research groups to take advantage of the calcein release assay for their own purposes and help to create a database for more efficient cross-correlations between nanocarriers. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Bioinspired enzymatic compartments constructed by spatiotemporally confined in situ self-assembly of catalytic peptide

Enzymatic compartments, inspired by cell compartmentalization, which bring enzymes and substrates together in confined environments, are of particular interest in ensuring the enhanced catalytic efficiency and increased lifetime of encapsulated enzymes. Herein, we constructed bioinspired enzymatic compartments (TPE-Q18H@GPs) with semi-permeability by spatiotemporally controllable self-assembly of catalytic peptide TPE-Q18H in hollow porous glucan particles (GPs), allowing substrates and products to pass in/out freely, while enzymatic aggregations were retained. Due to the enrichment of substrates and synergistic effect of catalytic nanofibers formed in the confined environment, the enzymatic compartments exhibited stronger substrate binding affinity and over two-fold enhancement of second-order kinetic constant (k_cat/K_m) compared to TPE-Q18H nanofibers in disperse system. Moreover, GPs enabled the compartments sufficient stability against perturbation conditions, such as high temperature and degradation. This work opens an intriguing avenue to construct enzymatic compartments using porous biomass materials and has fundamental implications for constructing artificial organelles and even artificial cells.

Multiscale Dynamics of Lipid Vesicles in Polymeric Microenvironment

Understanding dynamic and complex interaction of biological membranes with extracellular matrices plays a crucial role in controlling a variety of cell behavior and functions, from cell adhesion and growth to signaling and differentiation. Tremendous interest in tissue engineering has made it possible to design polymeric scaffolds mimicking the topology and mechanical properties of the native extracellular microenvironment; however, a fundamental question remains unanswered: that is, how the viscoelastic extracellular environment modifies the hierarchical dynamics of lipid membranes. In this work, we used aqueous solutions of poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) with different molecular weights to mimic the viscous medium of cells and nearly monodisperse unilamellar DMPC/DMPG liposomes as a membrane model. Using small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS), dynamic light scattering, temperature-modulated differential scanning calorimetry, bulk rheology, and fluorescence lifetime spectroscopy, we investigated the structural phase map and multiscale dynamics of the liposome–polymer mixtures. The results suggest an unprecedented dynamic coupling between polymer chains and phospholipid bilayers at different length/time scales. The microviscosity of the lipid bilayers is directly influenced by the relaxation of the whole chain, resulting in accelerated dynamics of lipids within the bilayers in the case of short chains compared to the polymer-free liposome case. At the macroscopic level, the gel-to-fluid transition of the bilayers results in a remarkable thermal-stiffening behavior of polymer–liposome solutions that can be modified by the concentration of the liposomes and the polymer chain length.

Preparation of Drug-Loaded Liposomes with Multi-Inlet Vortex Mixers

The multi-inlet vortex mixer (MIVM) has emerged as a novel bottom-up technology for solid nanoparticle preparation. However, its performance in liposome preparation remains unknown. Here, two key process parameters (aqueous/organic flow rate ratio (FRR) and total flow rate (TFR)) of MIVM were investigated for liposome preparation. For this study, two model drugs (lysozyme and erythromycin) were chosen for liposome encapsulation as the representative hydrophilic and hydrophobic drugs, respectively. In addition, two modified MIVMs, one with herringbone-patterned straight inlets and one with zigzag inlets, were designed to further improve the mixing efficiency, aiming to achieve better drug encapsulation. Data showed that FRR played an important role in liposome size control, and a size of <200 nm was achieved by FRR higher than 3:1. Moreover, increasing TFR (from 1 to 100 mL/min) could further decrease the size at a given FRR. However, similar regularities in controlling the encapsulation efficiency (EE%) were only noted in erythromycin-loaded liposomes. Modified MIVMs improved the EE% of lysozyme-loaded liposomes by 2~3 times at TFR = 40 mL/min and FRR = 3:1, which was consistent with computational fluid dynamics simulations. In summary, the good performance of MIVM in the control of particle size and EE% makes it a promising tool for liposome preparation, especially for hydrophobic drug loading, at flexible production scales.

Surface Modification of Lipid-Based Nanoparticles

There is a growing interest in the development of lipid-based nanocarriers for multiple purposes, including the recent increase of these nanocarriers as vaccine components during the COVID-19 pandemic. The number of studies that involve the surface modification of nanocarriers to improve their performance (increase the delivery of a therapeutic to its target site with less off-site accumulation) is enormous. The present review aims to provide an overview of various methods associated with lipid nanoparticle grafting, including techniques used to separate grafted nanoparticles from unbound ligands or to characterize grafted nanoparticles. We also provide a critical perspective on the usefulness and true impact of these modifications on overcoming different biological barriers, with our prediction on what to expect in the near future in this field.

Advances in antibody phage display technology

Phage display technology can be used for the discovery of antibodies for research, diagnostic, and therapeutic purposes. In this review, we present and discuss key parameters that can be optimized when performing phage display selection campaigns, including the use of different antibody formats and advanced strategies for antigen presentation, such as immobilization, liposomes, nanodiscs, virus-like particles, and whole cells. Furthermore, we provide insights into selection strategies that can be used for the discovery of antibodies with complex binding requirements, such as targeting a specific epitope, cross-reactivity, or pH-dependent binding. Lastly, we provide a description of specialized phage display libraries for the discovery of bispecific antibodies and pH-sensitive antibodies. Together, these methods can be used to improve antibody discovery campaigns against all types of antigen. Teaser: This review provides an overview of the different strategies that can be exploited to improve the success rate of antibody phage display discovery campaigns, addressing key parameters, such as antigen presentation, selection methodologies, and specialized libraries.

Nanobiotechnology with Therapeutically Relevant Macromolecules from Animal Venoms: Venoms, Toxins, and Antimicrobial Peptides

Some diseases of uncontrolled proliferation such as cancer, as well as infectious diseases, are the main cause of death in the world, and their causative agents have rapidly developed resistance to the various existing treatments, making them even more dangerous. Thereby, the discovery of new therapeutic agents is a challenge promoted by the World Health Organization (WHO). Biomacromolecules, isolated or synthesized from a natural template, have therapeutic properties which have not yet been fully studied, and represent an unexplored potential in the search for new drugs. These substances, starting from conglomerates of proteins and other substances such as animal venoms, or from minor substances such as bioactive peptides, help fight diseases or counteract harmful effects. The high effectiveness of these biomacromolecules makes them promising substances for obtaining new drugs; however, their low bioavailability or stability in biological systems is a challenge to be overcome in the coming years with the help of nanotechnology. The objective of this review article is to describe the relationship between the structure and function of biomacromolecules of animal origin that have applications already described using nanotechnology and targeted delivery.

Biophysical Characterization of Membrane Proteins Embedded in Nanodiscs Using Fluorescence Correlation Spectroscopy

Proteins embedded in biological membranes perform essential functions in all organisms, serving as receptors, transporters, channels, cell adhesion molecules, and other supporting cellular roles. These membrane proteins comprise ~30% of all human proteins and are the targets of ~60% of FDA-approved drugs, yet their extensive characterization using established biochemical and biophysical methods has continued to be elusive due to challenges associated with the purification of these insoluble proteins. In response, the development of nanodisc techniques, such as nanolipoprotein particles (NLPs) and styrene maleic acid polymers (SMALPs), allowed membrane proteins to be expressed and isolated in solution as part of lipid bilayer rafts with defined, consistent nanometer sizes and compositions, thus enabling solution-based measurements. Fluorescence correlation spectroscopy (FCS) is a relatively simple yet powerful optical microscopy-based technique that yields quantitative biophysical information, such as diffusion kinetics and concentrations, about individual or interacting species in solution. Here, we first summarize current nanodisc techniques and FCS fundamentals. We then provide a focused review of studies that employed FCS in combination with nanodisc technology to investigate a handful of membrane proteins, including bacteriorhodopsin, bacterial division protein ZipA, bacterial membrane insertases SecYEG and YidC, Yersinia pestis type III secretion protein YopB, yeast cell wall stress sensor Wsc1, epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), ABC transporters, and several G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs).

Efficient healing of large osseous segmental defects using optimized chemically modified messenger RNA encoding BMP-2

Large segmental osseous defects heal poorly. Recombinant, human bone morphogenetic protein-2 (rhBMP-2) is used clinically to promote bone healing, but it is applied at very high doses that cause adverse side effects and raise costs while providing only incremental benefit. We describe a previously unexplored, alternative approach to bone regeneration using chemically modified messenger RNA (cmRNA). An optimized cmRNA encoding BMP-2 was delivered to critical-sized femoral osteotomies in rats. The cmRNA remained orthotopically localized and generated BMP locally for several days. Defects healed at doses ≥25 μg of BMP-2 cmRNA. By 4 weeks, all animals treated with 50 μg of BMP-2 cmRNA had bridged bone defects without forming the massive callus seen with rhBMP-2. Moreover, such defects recovered normal mechanical strength quicker and initiated bone remodeling faster. cmRNA regenerated bone via endochondral ossification, whereas rhBMP-2 drove intramembranous osteogenesis; cmRNA provides an innovative, safe, and highly translatable technology for bone healing.

Folate-Targeted Liposomal Formulations Improve Effects of Methotrexate in Murine Collagen-Induced Arthritis

Methotrexate (MTX) is first-line therapy for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis (RA), however, its use may be limited by side effects notably post-injection malaise. When patients are intolerant or become unresponsive, second-line or antibody therapy may be indicated. A folate-targeted liposomal formulation of MTX (FL-MTX) is tropic to arthritic paws and prevents the onset of collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) in the mouse. We optimized the drug-to-lipid molar ratio to 0.15 and demonstrated the therapeutic efficacy of this form at 2 mg/kg MTX intraperitoneal (i.p.) twice a week. These improved liposomes were present in inflamed joints in proportion to the degree of swelling of the paw and bone remodeling activity. FL-MTX had lower hepatic and renal elimination of MTX than the free substance. FL-MTX provided equivalent results when given i.p. or subcutaneous (s.c.) and FL-MTX 2 mg/kg (drug/lipid 0.15), twice weekly, was similar to or more effective than 35 mg/kg MTX (same route and schedule) in reducing the incidence and swelling in the murine CIA model. These results suggest that FL-MTX is a more potent nanotherapeutic formulation than free MTX treatment. Its potential benefits for patients may include reduced frequency of treatment and lower overall doses for a given response.