Comparative MR imaging study of brain maturation in kittens with T1, T2, and the trace of the diffusion tensor

High-resolution diffusion magnetic resonance imaging and spatial-transcriptomic in developing mouse brain

Brain development is a highly complex process regulated by numerous genes at the molecular and cellular levels. Brain tissue exhibits serial microstructural changes during the development process. High-resolution diffusion magnetic resonance imaging (dMRI) affords a unique opportunity to probe these changes in the developing brain non-destructively. In this study, we acquired multi-shell dMRI datasets at 32 µm isotropic resolution to investigate the tissue microstructure alterations, which we believe to be the highest spatial resolution dMRI datasets obtained for postnatal mouse brains. We adapted the Allen Developing Mouse Brain Atlas (ADMBA) to integrate quantitative MRI metrics and spatial transcriptomics. Diffusion tensor imaging (DTI), diffusion kurtosis imaging (DKI), and neurite orientation dispersion and density imaging (NODDI) metrics were used to quantify brain development at different postnatal days. We demonstrated that the differential evolutions of fiber orientation distributions contribute to the distinct development patterns in white matter (WM) and gray matter (GM). Furthermore, the genes enriched in the nervous system that regulate brain structure and function were expressed in spatial correlation with age-matched dMRI. This study is the first one providing high-resolution dMRI, including DTI, DKI, and NODDI models, to trace mouse brain microstructural changes in WM and GM during postnatal development. This study also highlighted the genotype-phenotype correlation of spatial transcriptomics and dMRI, which may improve our understanding of brain microstructure changes at the molecular level.

Measuring in vivo cerebral maturation using age-related T2 relaxation times at 3T

OBJECTIVE

To examine age-related changes in T₂ relaxation times during infancy and childhood in order to assess T₂ values obtained from routine MRI as a biomarker.

METHODS

From our pool of clinical pediatric MRI examinations at 3T all patients with normal conventional MRI scans were retrospectively selected. Depending on their clinical findings the identified 99 patients (0-199months) were divided into 43 healthy controls and 56 diseased children with various clinical abnormalities (developmental delay, epilepsy, prematurity, and deafness). T₂ maps based on routinely performed triple echo turbo spin echo sequences were created. T₂ values were measured in 22 brain regions to determine age-related changes. We also investigated whether such changes differ between healthy and diseased children.

RESULTS

Age significantly reduced T₂ relaxation times across all regions (p<0.05), but health status had no impact. With increasing age, T₂ values decreased continuously, with declines faster over the first 10months and slower thereafter. Early rapid and later slow decline was similar in healthy and diseased groups.

CONCLUSIONS

Using T₂ maps based on clinical MRI data we could determine age-related T₂ relaxation times in 22 brain regions during infancy and childhood. Our data have relevance for future investigator independent T₂ relaxation time measurements in determining whether T₂ values are within the normal range or should be considered as potentially pathologic.

Mapping the critical gestational age at birth that alters brain development in preterm-born infants using multi-modal MRI

Preterm birth adversely affects postnatal brain development. In order to investigate the critical gestational age at birth (GAB) that alters the developmental trajectory of gray and white matter structures in the brain, we investigated diffusion tensor and quantitative T2 mapping data in 43 term-born and 43 preterm-born infants. A novel multivariate linear model-the change point model, was applied to detect change points in fractional anisotropy, mean diffusivity, and T2 relaxation time. Change points captured the "critical" GAB value associated with a change in the linear relation between GAB and MRI measures. The analysis was performed in 126 regions across the whole brain using an atlas-based image quantification approach to investigate the spatial pattern of the critical GAB. Our results demonstrate that the critical GABs are region- and modality-specific, generally following a central-to-peripheral and bottom-to-top order of structural development. This study may offer unique insights into the postnatal neurological development associated with differential degrees of preterm birth.

Diffusion magnetic resonance imaging study of schizophrenia in the context of abnormal neurodevelopment using multiple site data in a Chinese Han population

Schizophrenia has increasingly been considered a neurodevelopmental disorder, and the advancement of neuroimaging techniques and associated computational methods has enabled quantitative re-examination of this important theory on the pathogenesis of the disease. Inspired by previous findings from neonatal brains, we proposed that an increase in diffusion magnetic resonance imaging (dMRI) mean diffusivity (MD) should be observed in the cerebral cortex of schizophrenia patients compared with healthy controls, corresponding to lower tissue complexity and potentially a failure to reach cortical maturation. We tested this hypothesis using dMRI data from a Chinese Han population comprising patients from four different hospital sites. Utilizing data-driven methods based on the state-of-the-art tensor-based registration algorithm, significantly increased MD measurements were consistently observed in the cortex of schizophrenia patients across all four sites, despite differences in psychopathology, exposure to antipsychotic medication and scanners used for image acquisition. Specifically, we found increased MD in the limbic system of the schizophrenic brain, mainly involving the bilateral insular and prefrontal cortices. In light of the existing literature, we speculate that this may represent a neuroanatomical signature of the disorder, reflecting microstructural deficits due to developmental abnormalities. Our findings not only provide strong support to the abnormal neurodevelopment theory of schizophrenia, but also highlight an important neuroimaging endophenotype for monitoring the developmental trajectory of high-risk subjects of the disease, thereby facilitating early detection and prevention.

Chronic fetal hypoxia affects axonal maturation in guinea pigs during development: A longitudinal diffusion tensor imaging and T2 mapping study

PURPOSE

To investigate the impact of chronic hypoxia on neonatal brains, and follow developmental alterations and adaptations noninvasively in a guinea pig model. Chronic hypoxemia is the prime cause of fetal brain injury and long-term sequelae such as neurodevelopmental compromise, seizures, and cerebral palsy.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Thirty guinea pigs underwent either normoxic and hypoxemic conditions during the critical stage of brain development (0.7 gestation) and studied prenatally (n = 16) or perinatally (n = 14). Fourteen newborns (7 hypoxia and 7 normoxia group) were scanned longitudinally to characterize physiological and morphological alterations, and axonal myelination and injury using in vivo diffusion tensor imaging (DTI), T2 mapping, and T2 -weighted magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Sixteen fetuses (8 hypoxia and 8 normoxia) were studied ex vivo to assess hypoxia-induced neuronal injury/loss using Nissl staining and quantitative reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction methods.

RESULTS

Developmental brains in the hypoxia group showed lower fractional anisotropy in the corpus callosum (-12%, P = 0.02) and lower T2 values in the hippocampus (-16%, P = 0.003) compared with the normoxia group with no differences in the cortex (P > 0.07), indicating vulnerability of the hippocampus and cerebral white matter during early development. Fetal guinea pig brains with chronic hypoxia demonstrated an over 10-fold increase in expression levels of hypoxia index genes such as erythropoietin and HIF-1α, and an over 40% reduction in neuronal density, confirming prenatal brain damage.

CONCLUSION

In vivo MRI measurement, such as DTI and T2 mapping, provides quantitative parameters to characterize neurodevelopmental abnormalities and to monitor the impact of prenatal insult on the postnatal brain maturation of guinea pigs.

Assessment of apparent diffusion coefficient of normal fetal brain development from gestational age week 24 up to term age: a preliminary study

OBJECTIVES

This study was designed to investigate the feasibility of apparent diffusion coefficient (ADC) values in evaluating normal fetal brain development from gestational week 24 up to term age.

METHODS

Diffusion-weighted imaging (DWI) was performed on 40 normal fetuses (with normal results on sonography and normal fetal MRI results), with two b-values of 0 and 600 s/mm² in the three (x, y, z) orthogonal axes. Ten regions of interest (ROIs) were manually placed symmetrically in the bilateral frontal white matter (FWM), occipital white matter (OWM), thalamus (THAL), basal ganglia (BG), and cerebellar hemispheres (CH). ADC values of the ten ROIs in all subjects were measured by two radiologists independently. One-way ANOVA was used to calculate the differences among the five regions in the fetal brain and linear regression analysis was used to evaluate the correlation between ADC values and gestational age (GA). p < 0.05 was considered significantly different.

RESULTS

Mean GA was 31.3 ± 3.9 (range 24-41) weeks. The overall mean ADC values (× 10⁻⁶ mm²/s) of the fetuses were 1,800 ± 214 (FWM), 1,400 ± 100 (BG), 1,300 ± 126 (THAL), 1,700 ± 133 (OWM) and 1,400 ± 155 (CH), respectively. The ADC value of BG was not significantly different from those of THAL and CH, while the other four ROIs had significant differences with each other. The ADC values of BG, THAL, OWM and CH had strong negative correlations with increasing GA (R were -0.568, -0.716, -0.830 and -0.700, respectively, all p < 0.01), OWM declined fastest with GA, followed by CH and THAL, the slowest being BG. The ADC value of FWM had no significant change with GA (p = 0.366).

CONCLUSIONS

The measurement of ADC values is feasible to evaluate fetal brain development with high reliability and reproducibility.

Functional correlates of central white matter maturation in perinatal period in rabbits

Anisotropy indices derived from diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) are being increasingly used as biomarkers of central WM structural maturation, myelination and even functional development. Our hypothesis was that the rate of functional changes in central WM tracts directly reflects rate of changes in structural development as determined by DTI indices. We examined structural and functional development of four major central WM tracts with different maturational trajectories, including internal capsule (IC), corpus callosum (CC), fimbria hippocampi (FH) and anterior commissure (AC). Rabbits were chosen due to perinatal brain development being similar to humans, and four time points were studied: P1, P11, P18 and adults. Imaging parameters of structural maturation included fractional anisotropy (FA), mean and directional diffusivities derived from DTI, and T2 relaxation time. Axonal composition and degree of myelination were confirmed on electron microscopy. To assess functional maturation, conduction velocity was measured in myelinated and non-myelinated fibers by electrophysiological recordings of compound action potential in perfused brain slices. Diffusion indices and T2 relaxation time in rabbits followed a sigmoid curve during development similar to that for humans, with active changes even at premyelination stage. The shape of the developmental curve was different between the fiber tracts, with later onset but steeper rapid phase of development in IC and FH than in CC. The structural development was not directly related to myelination or to functional development. Functional properties in projection (IC) and limbic tracts (FH) matured earlier than in associative and commissural tracts (CC and AC). The rapid phase of changes in diffusion anisotropy and T2 relaxation time coincided with the development of functional responses and myelination in IC and FH between the second and third weeks of postnatal development in rabbits. In these two tracts, MRI indices could serve as surrogate markers of the early stage of myelination. However, the discordance between developmental change of diffusion indices, myelination and functional properties in CC and AC cautions against equating DTI index changes as biomarkers for myelination in all tracts.

Assessing white matter microstructure of the newborn with multi-shell diffusion MRI and biophysical compartment models

Brain white matter connections have become a focus of major interest with important maturational processes occurring in newborns. To study the complex microstructural developmental changes in-vivo, it is imperative that non-invasive neuroimaging approaches are developed for this age-group. Multi-b-value diffusion weighted imaging data were acquired in 13 newborns, and the biophysical compartment diffusion models CHARMED-light and NODDI, providing new microstructural parameters such as intra-neurite volume fraction (νin) and neurite orientation dispersion index (ODI), were developed for newborn data. Comparative analysis was performed and twenty ROIs in the white matter were investigated. Diffusion tensor imaging and both biophysical compartment models highlighted the compact and oriented structure of the corpus-callosum with the highest FA and νin values and the smallest ODI values. We could clearly differentiate, using the FA, νin and ODI, the posterior and anterior internal capsule representing similar cellular structure but with different maturation (i.e. partially myelinated and absence of myelin, respectively). Late maturing regions (external capsule and periventricular crossroads of pathways) had lower νin values, but displayed significant differences in ODI. The compartmented models CHARMED-light and NODDI bring new indices corroborating the cellular architectures, with the lowest νin, reflecting the late maturation of areas with thin non-myelinated fibers, and with highest ODI indicating the presence of fiber crossings and fanning. The application of biophysical compartment diffusion models adds new insights to the brain white matter development in vivo.

Development of cerebellar connectivity in human fetal brains revealed by high angular resolution diffusion tractography

High angular resolution diffusion imaging (HARDI) tractography has provided insights into major white matter pathways and cortical development in the human fetal cerebrum. Our objective in this study was to further apply HARDI tracography to the developing human cerebellum ranging from fetal to adult stages, to outline in broad strokes the 3-dimensional development of white matter and local gray matter organization in the cerebellum. We imaged intact fixed fetal cerebellum specimens at 17 gestational weeks (W), 21W, 31W, 36W, and 38W along with an adult cerebellum for comparison. At the earliest gestational age studied (17W), coherent pathways that formed the superior, middle, and inferior cerebellar peduncles were already detected, but pathways between deep cerebellar nuclei and the cortex were not observed until after 38W. At 36-38W, we identified emerging regional specification of the middle cerebellar peduncle. In the cerebellar cortex, we observed disappearance of radial organization in the sagittal orientation during the studied developmental stages similar to our previous observations in developing cerebral cortex. In contrast, in the axial orientation, cerebellar cortical pathways emerged first sparsely (31W) and then with increased prominence at 36-38W with pathways detected both in the radial and tangential directions to the cortical surface. The cerebellar vermis first contained only pathways tangential to the long axes of folia (17-21W), but pathways parallel to the long axes of folia emerged between 21 and 31W. Our results show the potential for HARDI tractography to image developing human cerebellar connectivity.

White matter microstructure is influenced by extremely preterm birth and neonatal respiratory factors

AIM

The aim of this study was to investigate whether prematurity per se or perinatal risk factors explain altered brain structure after preterm birth, in extremely preterm (EPT) infants without focal brain lesions.

METHODS

A population-based cohort of 58 EPT infants [gestational age (GA) <27 + 0 weeks] was examined with diffusion magnetic resonance imaging at term-equivalent age and compared with 14 term-born controls. Associations of diffusion measures with prematurity and neonatal risk factors were explored. Data were analysed with tract-based spatial statistics (TBSS) for whole-brain analysis and region-of-interest (ROI) analysis.

RESULTS

Whole-brain analyses showed lower fractional anisotropy (FA) and higher mean diffusivity (MD) in several white matter (WM) tracts in the preterms, which was essentially confirmed by ROI analyses. Within the preterm GA range (23 + 0 to 26 + 6 weeks), GA at birth was not significantly associated with diffusion measures. Bronchopulmonary dysplasia predicted lower FA in the corpus callosum and right inferior longitudinal fasciculus; mechanical ventilation >2 days was predictive of higher MD in the right external capsule.

CONCLUSION

White matter microstructure is influenced by preterm birth and by neonatal respiratory factors, whereas the degree of prematurity within the EPT range appears to be of less importance.

Development of cortical microstructure in the preterm human brain

Cortical maturation was studied in 65 infants between 27 and 46 wk postconception using structural and diffusion magnetic resonance imaging. Alterations in neural structure and complexity were inferred from changes in mean diffusivity and fractional anisotropy, analyzed by sampling regions of interest and also by a unique whole-cortex mapping approach. Mean diffusivity was higher in gyri than sulci and in frontal compared with occipital lobes, decreasing consistently throughout the study period. Fractional anisotropy declined until 38 wk, with initial values and rates of change higher in gyri, frontal and temporal poles, and parietal cortex; and lower in sulcal, perirolandic, and medial occipital cortex. Neuroanatomical studies and experimental diffusion-anatomic correlations strongly suggested the interpretation that cellular and synaptic complexity and density increased steadily throughout the period, whereas elongation and branching of dendrites orthogonal to cortical columns was later and faster in higher-order association cortex, proceeding rapidly before becoming undetectable after 38 wk. The rate of microstructural maturation correlated locally with cortical growth, and predicted higher neurodevelopmental test scores at 2 y of age. Cortical microstructural development was reduced in a dose-dependent fashion by longer premature exposure to the extrauterine environment, and preterm infants at term-corrected age possessed less mature cortex than term-born infants. The results are compatible with predictions of the tension theory of cortical growth and show that rapidly developing cortical microstructure is vulnerable to the effects of premature birth, suggesting a mechanism for the adverse effects of preterm delivery on cognitive function.

White matter maturation in the brains of Long Evans shaker myelin mutant rats by ex-vivo QSI and DTI

The brains of Long Evans shaker (les) rats, a model of dysmyelination, and their age- matched controls were studied by ex-vivo q-space diffusion imaging (QSI) and diffusion tensor imaging (DTI). The QSI and DTI indices were computed from the same acquisition. The les and the control brains were studied at different stages of maturation and disease progression. The mean displacement, the probability for zero displacement and kurtosis were computed from QSI data while the fractional anisotropy (FA) and the eigenvalues were computed from DTI. It was found that all QSI indices detect the les pathology, at all stages of maturation, while only some of the DTI indices could detect the les pathology. The QSI mean displacement was larger in the les group as compared with their age-matched controls while the probability for zero displacement and the kurtosis were both lower all indicating higher degree of restriction in the control brains. Since all the DTI eigenvalues were higher in the les brains as compared to controls, the less efficient DTI measure for discerning the les pathology was found to be the FA. Clearly, the most sensitive DTI parameter to the les pathology is λ3, i.e., the minimal diffusivity. Since the QSI and DTI data were obtained from the same acquisition, despite the somewhat higher SNR of the QSI data compared to the DTI data, it seems that the higher diagnostic capacity of the QSI data in this experimental model of dysmyelination, originates mainly from the higher diffusing weighting of the QSI data.

Brain changes in long-term zen meditators using proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy and diffusion tensor imaging: a controlled study

Introduction

This work aimed to determine whether ¹H magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS), diffusion-weighted imaging (DWI) and diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) are correlated with years of meditation and psychological variables in long-term Zen meditators compared to healthy non-meditator controls.

Materials and Methods

Design. Controlled, cross-sectional study. Sample. Meditators were recruited from a Zen Buddhist monastery. The control group was recruited from hospital staff. Meditators were administered questionnaires on anxiety, depression, cognitive impairment and mindfulness. ¹H-MRS (1.5 T) of the brain was carried out by exploring four areas: both thalami, both hippocampi, the posterior superior parietal lobule (PSPL) and posterior cingulate gyrus. Predefined areas of the brain were measured for diffusivity (ADC) and fractional anisotropy (FA) by MR-DTI.

Results

Myo-inositol (mI) was increased in the posterior cingulate gyrus and Glutamate (Glu), N-acetyl-aspartate (NAA) and N-acetyl-aspartate/Creatine (NAA/Cr) was reduced in the left thalamus in meditators. We found a significant positive correlation between mI in the posterior cingulate and years of meditation (r = 0.518; p = .019). We also found significant negative correlations between Glu (r = −0.452; p = .045), NAA (r = −0.617; p = .003) and NAA/Cr (r = −0.448; P = .047) in the left thalamus and years of meditation. Meditators showed a lower Apparent Diffusion Coefficient (ADC) in the left posterior parietal white matter than did controls, and the ADC was negatively correlated with years of meditation (r = −0.4850, p = .0066).

Conclusions

The results are consistent with the view that mI, Glu and NAA are the most important altered metabolites. This study provides evidence of subtle abnormalities in neuronal function in regions of the white matter in meditators.

Diffusion tensor imaging of normal brain development

Diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) is an MRI technique that can measure the macroscopic structural organization in brain tissues. DTI has been shown to provide information complementary to relaxation-based MRI about the changes in the brain's microstructure. In the pediatric population, DTI enables quantitative observation of the maturation process of white matter structures. Its ability to delineate various brain structures during developmental stages makes it an effective tool with which to characterize both the normal and abnormal anatomy of the developing brain. This review will highlight the advantages, as well as the common technical pitfalls of pediatric DTI. In addition, image quantification strategies for various DTI-derived parameters and the normal brain developmental changes associated with these parameters are discussed.

Diffusion Tensor Metric Measurements as a Function of Diffusion Time in the Rat Central Nervous System

MRI and Monte Carlo simulated data of pulsed gradient spin echo experiments were used to study the effects of diffusion time, gradient strength and b-value on diffusion tensor (DT) metrics using real and simulated fixed rat spines. Radial (λ⊥) in grey matter and simulation data, axial (λ||) in both grey and white matter in fixed rat spinal cords and mean diffusivity in all tissues showed a significant decrease with diffusion time at b = 1 μm2/ms. All diffusivities significantly decreased with b-value at g = 116 mT/m and at Δeff = 23 ms. The fractional anisotropy (FA) significantly increased with diffusion time at b = 1 μm2/ms in the simulation data and grey matter. FA significantly increased in white matter and simulation data and significantly decreased in grey matter with b-value at g = 116 mT/m and at Δeff = 23 ms. These data suggest that DTI metrics are highly dependent on pulse sequence parameters.

Layer-specific intracortical connectivity revealed with diffusion MRI

In this work, we show for the first time that the tangential diffusion component is orientationally coherent at the human cortical surface. Using diffusion magnetic resonance imaging (dMRI), we have succeeded in tracking intracortical fiber pathways running tangentially within the cortex. In contrast with histological methods, which reveal little regarding 3-dimensional organization in the human brain, dMRI delivers additional understanding of the layer dependence of the fiber orientation. A postmortem brain block was measured at very high angular and spatial resolution. The dMRI data had adequate resolution to allow analysis of the fiber orientation within 4 notional cortical laminae. We distinguished a lamina at the cortical surface where diffusion was tangential along the surface, a lamina below the surface where diffusion was mainly radial, an internal lamina covering the Stria of Gennari, where both strong radial and tangential diffusion could be observed, and a deep lamina near the white matter, which also showed mainly radial diffusion with a few tangential compartments. The measurement of the organization of the tangential diffusion component revealed a strong orientational coherence at the cortical surface.

Quantitative MRI in the very preterm brain: assessing tissue organization and myelination using magnetization transfer, diffusion tensor and T₁ imaging

Magnetization transfer ratio (MTR), diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) parameters and T(1) relaxometry values were used to create parametric maps characterizing the tissue microstructure of the neonatal brain in infants born very premature (24-32 gestational weeks) and scanned at preterm and term equivalent age. Group-wise image registration was used to determine anatomical correspondence between individual scans and the pooled parametric data at the preterm and term ages. These parametric maps showed distinct contrasts whose interrelations varied across brain regions and between the preterm and term period. Discrete patterns of regional variation were observed for the different quantitative parameters, providing evidence that MRI is sensitive to multiple independent aspects of brain maturation. MTR values showed a marked change in the pattern of regional variation at term equivalent age compared to the preterm period such that the ordinal ranking of regions by signal contrast changed. This was unlike all other parameters where the regional ranking was preserved at the two time points. Interpreting the data in terms of myelination and structural organization, we report on the concordance with available histological data and demonstrate the value of quantitative MRI for tracking brain maturation over the neonatal period.

The diffusion tensor imaging toolbox

During the past few years, The Journal of Neuroscience has published more than 30 articles that describe investigations that used Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI) and related techniques as a primary observation method. This illustrates a growing interest in DTI within the basic and clinical neuroscience communities. This article summarizes DTI methodology in terms that can be immediately understood by the neuroscientist who has little previous exposure to DTI. It describes the fundamentals of water molecular diffusion coefficient measurement in brain tissue and illustrates how these fundamentals can be used to form vivid and useful depictions of white matter macroscopic and microscopic anatomy. It also describes current research applications and the technique's attributes and limitations. It is hoped that this article will help the readers of this Journal to more effectively evaluate neuroscience studies that use DTI.

Cerebral white matter disruption in Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Human prion diseases are known to cause gray matter degeneration in specific cerebral structures, but evidence for white matter involvement is scarce. We used DTI to test the hypothesis that white matter integrity is disrupted in human CJD during the early stages of the disease.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Twenty-one patients with the E200K variant of CJD and 19 controls participated in DTI studies conducted on a 1.5T MR imaging scanner. The data were quantitatively analyzed and mapped with a voxelwise TBSS method.

RESULTS

We found significant reductions of FA in patients with CJD in distinct and functionally relevant white matter pathways, including the corticospinal tract, internal capsule, external capsule, fornix, and posterior thalamic radiation. Moreover, these FA deficits increased with disease duration, and were mainly determined by increase of radial diffusivity, suggesting elevated permeability of axonal membranes.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings suggest that some of the symptoms of CJD may be caused by a functional dysconnection syndrome, and that the leukoencephalopathy is progressive and detectable fairly early in the course of the disease.

Advanced neonatal NeuroMRI

This article describes the potentials and challenges of quantitative analyses of human neonatal brain images using structural magnetic resonance (MR) imaging and diffusion tensor imaging. To maximize the potential of MR imaging for neonatal brain studies, the combination of both contrasts is highly beneficial. Based on the multicontrast data, a neonate brain atlas was created, which allows automated segmentation of neonate brain MR images. The accuracy, advantages, and potential pitfalls of this atlas-based segmentation approach are discussed. The accurate and reproducible MR imaging quantification achieved by this approach could be an initial step toward the successful clinical evaluation of the neonatal brain.

Myelination deficits in schizophrenia: evidence from diffusion tensor imaging

BACKGROUND

Diffusion Tensor Imaging studies have repeatedly shown a decrease of the fractional anisotropy (FA) parameter in patients with schizophrenia. This has been interpreted as a disturbed microstructural integrity of white matter. However, FA is a relative parameter that is derived from eigenvalues of the diffusion tensor and FA reductions may be the result of decreases in parallel diffusivity (PD) or increases in radial diffusivity (RD). Despite the well-established FA reduction in schizophrenia, little is known what this reduction is based on.

METHODS

Seventeen patients with schizophrenia were scanned with a DTI protocol and compared to a group of healthy control subjects. In addition to an FA comparison, a detailed analysis of PD and RD values was performed with two approaches to localize changes in diffusion values, i.e. a voxel-based analysis and an anatomically based tract specific analysis.

RESULTS

We found significantly decreased FA values in the patient group when compared to healthy controls. FA decreases were based on an increase in RD, while we observed no significant changes of PD. These changes were predominantly localized in frontal and temporal areas.

CONCLUSION

RD increases as the underlying change in FA decreases is suggestive of desintegration of myelin, which is in line with histopathological studies suggesting a disturbed myelination in schizophrenia.

Diffusion MRI at 25: exploring brain tissue structure and function

Diffusion MRI (or dMRI) came into existence in the mid-1980s. During the last 25 years, diffusion MRI has been extraordinarily successful (with more than 300,000 entries on Google Scholar for diffusion MRI). Its main clinical domain of application has been neurological disorders, especially for the management of patients with acute stroke. It is also rapidly becoming a standard for white matter disorders, as diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) can reveal abnormalities in white matter fiber structure and provide outstanding maps of brain connectivity. The ability to visualize anatomical connections between different parts of the brain, non-invasively and on an individual basis, has emerged as a major breakthrough for neurosciences. The driving force of dMRI is to monitor microscopic, natural displacements of water molecules that occur in brain tissues as part of the physical diffusion process. Water molecules are thus used as a probe that can reveal microscopic details about tissue architecture, either normal or in a diseased state.

Systematic differences between lean and obese adolescents in brain spin-lattice relaxation time: a quantitative study

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Emerging evidence suggests that obese adolescents show changes in brain structure compared with lean adolescents. In addition, obesity impacts body development during adolescence. We tested a hypothesis that T1, a marker of brain maturation, can show brain differences associated with obesity.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Adolescents similar in sex, family income, and school grade were recruited by using strict entry criteria. We measured brain T1 in 48 obese and 31 lean adolescents by quantitative MR imaging at 1.5T. We combined MPRAGE and inversion-recovery sequences with normalization to standard space and automated skull stripping to obtain T1 maps with a symmetric voxel volume of 1 mm(3).

RESULTS

Sex, income, triglycerides, total cholesterol, and fasting glucose did not differ between groups, but obese adolescents had significantly lower HDL, higher LDL, and higher fasting insulin levels than lean adolescents. Intracranial vault volume did not differ between groups, but obese adolescents had smaller intracranial vault-adjusted brain parenchymal volumes. Obese adolescents had 4 clusters (>100 contiguous voxels) of T1 relaxation that were significantly different (P < .005) from those in lean adolescents. Three of these clusters had longer T1s in obese adolescents (in the orbitofrontal and parietal regions), and 1 cluster had shorter T1s, compared with lean adolescents.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results suggest that obesity may have a significant impact on brain development, especially in the frontal and parietal lobes. It is unclear if these changes persist into adulthood or whether they indicate that obese subjects follow a different developmental trajectory during adolescence.

High b-value and diffusion tensor imaging in a canine model of dysmyelination and brain maturation

Recent studies in rodents have demonstrated that diffusion imaging is highly sensitive to differences in myelination. These studies suggest that demyelination/dysmyelination cause increases in the radial diffusivity from diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) measurements and decreases in the restricted diffusion component from high b-value diffusion-weighted imaging experiments. In this study, the shaking pup (sh pup), a canine model of dysmyelination, was studied on a clinical MRI scanner using a combination of conventional diffusion tensor imaging and high b-value diffusion-weighted imaging methods. Diffusion measurements were compared between control dogs and sh pups in the age range 3 months to 16 months, which is similar to the period of early childhood through adolescence in humans. The study revealed significant group differences in nearly all diffusion measures with the largest differences in the zero-displacement probability (Po) from high b-value DWI and the radial diffusivity from DTI, which are consistent with the observations from the published rodent studies. Age-related changes in Po, FA, mean diffusivity, radial diffusivity and axial diffusivity were observed in whole brain white matter for the control dogs, but not the sh pups. Regionally, age-related changes in the sh pup white matter were observed for Po, mean diffusivity and radial diffusivity in the internal capsule, which may be indicative of mild myelination. These studies demonstrate that DWI may be used to study myelin abnormalities and brain development in large animal models on clinical MRI scanners, which are more amenable to translation to human studies.

Atlas-based investigation of human brain tissue microstructural spatial heterogeneity and interplay between transverse relaxation time and radial diffusivity

Microstructural metrics obtained using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) such as transverse relaxation time and radial diffusivity have been used as in vivo markers of human brain tissue integrity. Considering the sensitivity of these parameters to some common biophysical contributors and their structural and spatial heterogeneity, we hypothesized that strong inter and intra-regional associations exist between these variables providing evidence to possible interplay between transverse relaxation time and radial diffusivity. To validate our hypothesis we obtained high resolution anatomical T1-weighted data and fused it with T2-relaxometry and diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) data on a cohort of healthy adults. The anatomical data were parcellated using FreeSurfer and then coaligned and fused with the T2 and DTI maps. Our data reveal some association between transverse relaxation and radial diffusivity that may help toward the interpretation and modeling of the biophysical contributors to the measured MRI metrics.

Correlation of apparent diffusion coefficient and fractional anisotropy values in the developing infant brain

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of our study was to correlate decrease in apparent diffusion coefficient (ADC) and increase in fractional anisotropy (FA) in various white matter (WM) regions using diffusion tenor imaging (DTI) within the first year of life.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We performed DTI on 53 infants and measured FA and ADC within 10 WM regions important in brain development. For each region, we calculated the slope of ADC as a function of FA, the correlation coefficient (r) and correlation of determination (r(2)). We performed a group analysis of r values and r(2)values for six WM regions primarily composed of crossing fibers and four regions primarily having parallel fibers. Upon finding that a strong correlation of FA with age existed, we adjusted for age and calculated partial correlation coefficients.

RESULTS

Slopes of FA versus ADC ranged from -1.00711 to -1.67592 (p < 0.05); r values ranged from -0.81 to -0.50 and r(2) values from 0.25 to 0.66. The four greatest r(2) values were within WM regions having large numbers of crossing fibers and the three lowest r(2) values were in regions having predominantly parallel fibers. After adjusting for age, slopes ranged from -1.08095 to 0.09612 (p < 0.05 in five cases); partial correlation coefficients ranged from -0.49 to 0.03 and r(2) values from 0.31 to 0.79. The highest partial correlation coefficients were then relatively equally distributed between the two types of WM regions.

CONCLUSION

In various regions, FA and ADC evolved with differing degrees of correlation. We found a strong influence of age on the relationship between FA and ADC.

Voxel-based analysis of white matter during adolescence and young adulthood

PURPOSE

To evaluate differences in age-related brain white matter by voxel-based analysis of healthy adolescents and young adults.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Echo-planar diffusion-tensor magnetic resonance (MR) imaging was performed in healthy subjects of 3 groups (aged 11-13, 16-18 and 23-25, respectively). Linear correlative analyses were applied to determining age-related fractional anisotropy (FA) and mean diffusivity (MD), and t-test was performed to compare FA and mean diffusion maps between different age groups.

RESULTS

Significant positive correlation of FA with age was found in the internal capsule, the external capsule, the frontal white matter, and the body and genu of the corpus callosum. Compared with the 11-13 age group, FA in the 16-18 age group increased in the internal capsule, the frontal white matter, the body and the splenium of the corpus callosum. Compared to the 16-18 age group, FA in the 23-25 age group increased in the frontal white matter, the posterior limb of internal capsule, and the genu of the corpus callosum. Statistically significant negative correlation of the mean diffusion with age was found in the frontal and parietal white matter. Compared with the 11-13 age group, MD in the 16-18 age group decreased in the prefrontal and the temporo-parietal white matter. Compared with the 16-18 age group, MD in the 23-25 age group decreased in the frontal white matter.

CONCLUSION

Diffusion-tensor MR imaging results indicate that white matter maturation assessed at different ages involves increases in FA and decreases in mean diffusion of the white matter during adolescence and young adulthood. FA and mean diffusion may reflect different physiologic processes in healthy adolescents and young adults. Taken together, these data show that maturation of white matter is an important part of brain maturation during adolescence and young adulthood.

Developing neocortex organization and connectivity in cats revealed by direct correlation of diffusion tractography and histology

The immature cortex (cortical plate [CP]) and underlying subplate (SP), a transient cell layer just below the CP, play critical roles in the formation of intracerebral connections. The purpose of this study was to examine the diffusion characteristics of the developing cortex and subcortical structures and compare to histology. We obtained high-resolution diffusion spectrum images of postnatal day (P) 0 (newborn), P35 (pediatric), and P100 (adult) cat brains, performed tractography analysis, and correlated with histological findings. Tractography revealed radial organization and radial afferent/efferent tracts not only in the CP but also in external SP at P0. Radial organization persisted only in the cortex but decreased at P35 and P100. Radial organization correlated with radial cellular organization, with highest cellular density at P0 (Cresyl Violet staining). At P0, the internal SP contained abundant corticocortical and projection tractography pathways, crossing at wide angles in areas with no myelination by Luxol Fast Blue staining. At P35 and P100, increased directional coherence of white matter was observed, with fewer local tracts, but more long association pathways. These results suggest that diffusion tractography can differentially characterize internal and external SP zones and their transition into mature cortical pathways.

Atlas-based analysis of neurodevelopment from infancy to adulthood using diffusion tensor imaging and applications for automated abnormality detection

Quantification of normal brain maturation is a crucial step in understanding developmental abnormalities in brain anatomy and function. The aim of this study was to develop atlas-based tools for time-dependent quantitative image analysis, and to characterize the anatomical changes that occur from 2years of age to adulthood. We used large deformation diffeomorphic metric mapping to register diffusion tensor images of normal participants into the common coordinates and used a pre-segmented atlas to segment the entire brain into 176 structures. Both voxel- and atlas-based analyses reported a structure that showed distinctive changes in terms of its volume and diffusivity measures. In the white matter, fractional anisotropy (FA) linearly increased with age in logarithmic scale, while diffusivity indices, such as apparent diffusion coefficient (ADC), and axial and radial diffusivity, decreased at a different rate in several regions. The average, variability, and the time course of each measured parameter are incorporated into the atlas, which can be used for automated detection of developmental abnormalities. As a demonstration of future application studies, the brainstem anatomy of cerebral palsy patients was evaluated and the altered anatomy was delineated.

Atypical development of white matter microstructure in adolescents with autism spectrum disorders

Diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) studies in adolescents with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) indicate aberrant neurodevelopment of frontal white matter (WM), potentially underlying abnormal social cognition and communication in ASD. Here, we further use tract-based spatial statistics (TBSS) to examine the developmental change of WM skeleton (i.e., the most compact whole-brain WM) during adolescence in ASD. This whole-brain DTI used TBSS measures fractional anisotropy (FA) and longitudinal and radial diffusivities in fifty adolescents, 25 ASD and 25 controls. Results show that adolescents with ASD versus controls had significantly reduced FA in the right posterior limb of internal capsule (increased radial diffusivity distally and reduced longitudinal diffusivity centrally). Adolescents with ASD versus controls (covarying for age and IQ) had significantly greater FA in the frontal lobe (reduced radial diffusivity), right cingulate gyrus (reduced radial diffusivity), bilateral insula (reduced radial diffusivity and increased longitudinal diffusivity), right superior temporal gyrus (reduced radial diffusivity), and bilateral middle cerebellar peduncle (reduced radial diffusivity). Notably, a significant interaction with age by group was found in the right paracentral lobule and bilateral superior frontal gyrus as indicated by an age-related FA gain in the controls whilst an age-related FA loss in the ASD. To our knowledge, this is the first study to use TBSS to examine WM in individuals with ASD. Our findings indicate that the frontal lobe exhibits abnormal WM microstructure as well as an aberrant neurodevelopment during adolescence in ASD, which support the frontal disconnectivity theory of autism.

Development of cerebral fiber pathways in cats revealed by diffusion spectrum imaging

Examination of the three-dimensional axonal pathways in the developing brain is key to understanding the formation of cerebral connectivity. By tracing fiber pathways throughout the entire brain, diffusion tractography provides information that cannot be achieved by conventional anatomical MR imaging or histology. However, standard diffusion tractography (based on diffusion tensor imaging, or DTI) tends to terminate in brain areas with low water diffusivity, indexed by low diffusion fractional anisotropy (FA), which can be caused by crossing fibers as well as fibers with less myelin. For this reason, DTI tractography is not effective for delineating the structural changes that occur in the developing brain, where the process of myelination is incomplete, and where crossing fibers exist in greater numbers than in the adult brain. Unlike DTI, diffusion spectrum imaging (DSI) can define multiple directions of water diffusivity; as such, diffusion tractography based on DSI provides marked flexibility for delineation of fiber tracts in areas where the fiber architecture is complex and multidirectional, even in areas of low FA. In this study, we showed that FA values were lower in the white matter of newborn (postnatal day 0; P0) cat brains than in the white matter of infant (P35) and juvenile (P100) cat brains. These results correlated well with histological myelin stains of the white matter: the newborn kitten brain has much less myelin than that found in cat brains at later stages of development. Using DSI tractography, we successfully identified structural changes in thalamo-cortical and cortico-cortical association tracts in cat brains from one stage of development to another. In newborns, the main body of the thalamo-cortical tract was smooth, and fibers branching from it were almost straight, while the main body became more complex and branching fibers became curved reflecting gyrification in the older cats. Cortico-cortical tracts in the temporal lobe were smooth in newborns, and they formed a sharper angle in the later stages of development. The cingulum bundle and superior longitudinal fasciculus became more visible with time. Within the first month after birth, structural changes occurred in these tracts that coincided with the formation of the gyri. These results show that DSI tractography has the potential for mapping morphological changes in low FA areas associated with growth and development. The technique may also be applicable to the study of other forms of brain plasticity, including future studies in vivo.

Relationship Between White Matter Integrity, Attention, and Memory in Schizophrenia: A Diffusion Tensor Imaging Study

Attention and memory deficits are among the most prominent cognitive disturbances observed in schizophrenia. It has been suggested that a disruption in anatomical connectivity between areas involved in attentional control might be responsible for these abnormalities. We used Diffusion Tensor Tractography and Color Stroop/Negative Priming(NP) paradigm to investigate integrity of Cingulum Bundle(CB), the main white matter tract interconnecting these regions, and its relationship with executive functions in patients with schizophrenia and matched controls. The Fractional Anisotropy(FA), was calculated along the CB pathways, and correlated with reaction times for each Stroop item, and both Stroop, and NP effects. Patients with schizophrenia demonstrated decreased CB integrity and diminished NP effect, compared with controls, but both groups showed Stroop effect. For patients only, reaction times for every item, as well as for Stroop effect, correlated with left CB FA. These findings suggest that CB integrity disruptions might compromise the executive processes in schizophrenia.

DEVELOPMENTAL SEX DIFFERENCES IN THE RELATION OF NEUROANATOMICAL CONNECTIVITY TO INTELLIGENCE

Recent neuroimaging research has shown sex-related differences in the relationship between brain structure and cognitive function. Anatomical studies have shown a greater reliance for cognitive function on white matter structure in adult females, and a greater reliance on gray matter structure in adult males. Functional neuroimaging studies have also shown a greater correlation between brain connectivity and cognitive function in females. However, this relationship is not present in young childhood (5 years old) but appears during the developmental period. Here sex differences in structure-function relationships and their developmental trajectory are investigated using diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) on a large cohort of over 100 normal children ages 5-18. Significant sex-X-IQ interactions on fractional anisotropy (FA), a marker for white matter organization, were seen in the left frontal lobe, in fronto-parietal areas bilaterally, and in the arcuate fasciculus bilaterally, with girls showing positive correlations of FA with IQ, and boys showing a negative correlation. Significant sex-X-IQ-X-age interactions on FA were also seen in the left frontal lobe and in fronto-parietal areas bilaterally, showing a developmental effect. These results strongly corroborate previous findings regarding sex differences in structure-function relationships regarding intelligence. Results also indicate that a naïve interpretation of "more is better" with respect to FA may not be accurate, especially in adult males.

Clinical applications of quantitative T2 determination: a complementary MRI tool for routine diagnosis of suspected myelination disorders

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Though magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) plays an important role in studying pathological changes in central nervous system, a quantitative measure of contrast variance on MRI, allowing the detection of subtle signal variances in pathological processes, is not readily available for routine imaging. We report on the first experiences with evaluation of routine T2 relaxation time measurement as a diagnostic tool in routine imaging of suspected myelination disorders.

METHODS

Twenty patients suffering from defined or suspected myelination disorders were examined by MRI. T2 relaxation time maps of the brain were derived from a triple spin echo sequence. T2 values were measured for each patient by regions of interest (ROI) analysis. As references age-dependent T2 prediction values in normal maturating brains were calculated by using a biexponentional function reported earlier. Deviations from these prediction values were used as an assisting tool both for detection of pathology and for monitoring of changes over time. These quantitative results were compared to conventional visual inspections by two independent neuroradiologists.

RESULTS

In 18 patients with single diagnostic MRI, the T2 measurements were more graduated or definite in 9/18 cases, confirmatory in 9/18 cases. In two patients with MRI follow up, the dynamic clinical course of the disease had no correlate in visual inspection of the images but was associated with the quantitative T2 values.

CONCLUSIONS

Quantitative T2 measurement is a promising tool for routine imaging as a complementary method in detecting and monitoring of suspected myelination disorders.

Diffusion tensor imaging of frontal lobe in autism spectrum disorder

To investigate frontal lobe white matter in children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), we performed diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) in 50 ASD children (mean age: 57.5 ± 29.2 months, 43 males) and 16 typically developing children (mean age: 82.1 ± 41.4 months, 11 males). The apparent diffusion coefficient (ADC) was significantly higher for whole frontal lobe (P = 0.011), long (P < 0.001) and short range (P = 0.0126) association fibers in ASD group. There was a trend toward statistical significance in the fractional anisotropy (FA) of whole frontal lobe fibers (P = 0.11). FA was significantly lower in ASD group for short range fibers (P = 0.0031) but not for long range fibers (P = not significant [NS]). There was no between-group difference in the number of frontal lobe fibers (short and long) (P = NS). The fiber length distribution was significantly more positively skewed in the normal population than in the ASD group (P < 0.001). The long range association fibers of frontal lobe were significantly longer in ASD group (P = 0.026 for both left and right hemispheres). Abnormal frontal FA and ADC may be due to white matter organization abnormalities in ASD. Lack of evidence for excessive short range connectivity in ASD in this study may need to be re-examined with future advances in DTI technology.

Quantitative cortical mapping of fractional anisotropy in developing rat brains

Cortical development is associated with a series of events that involve axon and dendrite growth and synaptic formation. Although these developmental processes have been investigated in detail with histology, three-dimensional and quantitative imaging methods for rodent brains may be useful for genetic and pharmacological studies in which cortical developmental abnormalities are suspected. It has been shown that diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) can delineate the columnar organization of the fetal and early neonatal cortex based on a high degree of diffusion anisotropy along the columnar structures. This anisotropy is known to decrease during brain development. In this study, we applied DTI to developing rat brains at five developmental stages, postnatal days 0, 3, 7, 11 and 19, and used diffusion anisotropy as an index to characterize the structural change. Statistical analysis reveals four distinctive cortical areas that demonstrate a characteristic time course of anisotropy loss. This method may provide a means to delineate specific cortical areas and a quantitative method to detect abnormalities in cortical development in rodent pathological models.

Disturbed structural connectivity in schizophrenia primary factor in pathology or epiphenomenon?

Indirect evidence for disturbed structural connectivity of subcortical fiber tracts in schizophrenia has been obtained from functional neuroimaging and electrophysiologic studies. During the past few years, new structural imaging methods have become available. Diffusion tensor imaging and magnetization transfer imaging (MTI) have been used to investigate directly whether fiber tract abnormalities are indeed present in schizophrenia. To date, findings are inconsistent that may express problems related to methodological issues and sample size. Also, pathological processes detectable with these new techniques are not yet well understood. Nevertheless, with growing evidence of disturbed structural connectivity, myelination has been in the focus of postmortem investigations. Several studies have shown a significant reduction of oligodendroglial cells and ultrastructural alterations of myelin sheats in schizophrenia. There is also growing evidence for abnormal expression of myelin-related genes in schizophrenia: Neuregulin (NRG1) is important for oligodendrocyte development and function, and altered expression of erbB3, one of the NRG1 receptors, has been shown in schizophrenia patients. This is consistent with recent genetic studies suggesting that NRG1 may contribute to the genetic risk for schizophrenia. In conclusion, there is increasing evidence from multiple sides that structural connectivity might be pathologically changed in schizophrenia illness. Up to the present, however, it has not been possible to decide whether alterations of structural connectivity are intrinsically linked to the primary risk factors for schizophrenia or to secondary downstream effects (ie, degeneration of fibers secondarily caused by cortical neuronal dysfunction)-an issue that needs to be clarified by future research.

Anisotropy induced by macroscopic boundaries: surface-normal mapping using diffusion-weighted imaging

In MRI, macroscopic boundaries lead to a diffusion-related increase in signal intensity near them--an effect commonly referred to as edge-enhancement. In diffusion-weighted imaging protocols where the signal attenuation due to diffusion results predominantly from the application of magnetic field gradients, edge-enhancement will depend on the orientation of these diffusion gradients. The resulting diffusion anisotropy can be exploited to map the direction normal to the macroscopic boundary. Simulations suggest that the hypothesized anisotropy may be within observable limits even when the voxel contains no boundary itself--hence, the name remote-anisotropy. Moreover, for certain experimental parameters there may be significant phase cancellations within the voxel that may lead to an edge detraction effect. When this is avoided, the eigenvector corresponding to the smallest eigenvalue of the diffusion tensor obtained from diffusion-tensor imaging can be used to create surface-normal maps conveniently. Experiments performed on simple geometric constructs as well as real tissue demonstrate the feasibility of using the edge-enhancement mechanism to map orientations orthogonal to macroscopic surfaces, which may be used to assess the integrity of tissue and organ boundaries noninvasively.

[Myelin and nuclear magnetic resonance]

MRI is one of the most important tools for the investigation of white matter diseases of the central nervous system. Other techniques based on the magnetic resonance phenomena (magnetization transfer imaging, diffusion imaging, magnetic resonance spectroscopy) have joined MRI to better caracterize certain diseases, understand their pathophysiology and follow their evolution.

Abnormal white matter appearance on term FLAIR predicts neuro-developmental outcome at 6 years old following preterm birth

Preterm infants are at significant risk of neuro-developmental disorders at school-age. MRI is a potentially useful screening tool of such disorders. Using FLAIR imaging in the preterm infants at term, here we demonstrate that abnormal low-intensity signal in the white matter predicts the neuro-developmental outcome at 6 years.

STUDY DESIGN

Clinical factors associated with white matter appearance on MRI obtained at term were investigated in 210 preterm infants.

RESULTS

Low-intensity signal on FLAIR imaging was commonly observed (69%) at <2 months corrected-age. Its incidence correlated with corrected-age at scan, maternal pyrexia and cystic periventricular leukomalacia. Low-intensity signal on FLAIR significantly correlated with performance and full-scale developmental quotients, whereas diffuse high-intensity signal on T2-weighted imaging correlated only with the full-scale developmental quotient at 6 years (n = 75, WISC-R). FLAIR imaging, but not T2-weighted imaging, predicted mild neuro-developmental delay.

CONCLUSIONS

FLAIR appeared to detect subtle white matter injury related with neuro-developmental disorders at school-age, whereas T2-weighted imaging seemed to identify relatively more severe injury. FLAIR is a potentially sensitive screening tool that is readily available and easily interpretable.

MR imaging of brain maturation

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is the imaging tool of choice to evaluate brain maturation and especially brain myelination. Magnetic resonance imaging also provides functional insight through diffusion images and proton spectroscopy. In this review the MRI techniques are analyzed for both pre- and postnatal periods. The origin of MR signal changes is also detailed in order to understand normal myelination evolution and the consequences on brain maturation of the different pathologies encountered prior and after birth. Because MRI is "blind" in terms of signal on conventional sequences after 2 years of age, a particular attention is given to diffusion images and proton spectroscopy of the developing brain.

Evidence of slow maturation of the superior longitudinal fasciculus in early childhood by diffusion tensor imaging

While the majority of axonal organization is established by birth in mammalian brains, axonal wiring and pruning processes, as well as myelination, are known to extend to the postnatal periods, where environmental stimuli often play a major role. Normal axonal and myelin development of individual white matter tracts of human in this period is poorly understood and may have a major role in cognitive development of human. In this study, we applied diffusion tensor imaging and normalization-based population analyses to 44 preteen children and 30 adult images. We observed highly significant changes of fiber orientations at regions that correspond to the superior longitudinal fasciculus during the first 5 years. The result is attributed to slow axonal and/or myelin maturation of this tract, which is believed to be involved in language functions.

In vivo analysis of the post-natal development of normal mouse brain by DTI

The water diffusion characteristics of wild-type mouse brains have been studied in vivo by DTI to follow developmental changes. Here, axial (lambda(//)) and radial (lambda(perpendicular)) diffusivities and fractional anisotropy were measured from the fifth day of life (P5) and at three other post-natal ages (P12, P19 and P54). Magnetic resonance images were collected from a single sagittal slice in the middle of the two hemispheres; ROI were chosen in nine different structures of both grey and white matter. Fractional anisotropy (FA) from P5 onwards distinguished structures of both white and grey matter, even though myelination had yet to occur. Between P5 and P54, a significant increase in FA was observed in the genu of the corpus callosum due to a significant decrease in lambda(perpendicular) whereas lambda(//) remained stable. Many other significant variations of lambda(//) and lambda(perpendicular) were measured in different structures. They were substantially correlated with axon and myelin maturation which are responsible for the main evolutions of the brain during its post-natal development. These quantitative data show that in vivo characterization of the anatomy and microstructure of the normal mouse brain during development is possible. The normative data will greatly improve the characterization of abnormal development in the transgenic mouse brain.

Neurodevelopment of C57B/L6 mouse brain assessed by in vivo diffusion tensor imaging

Heterogeneous spatiotemporal patterns of C57B/L6 murine brain maturation during the first 7 weeks after birth (i.e. P15 to P45) were assessed in vivo by diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) at 9.4 T. Maps of apparent diffusion coefficient (ADC) and fractional anisotropy (FA) were used to assess developmental changes. Because directionally encoded color (DEC) maps provide an efficient and straightforward way to visualize anisotropy direction, they were used to highlight the orientation-dominant anisotropic tissues. In the corpus callosum, the increases in FA (approximately 0.4 to approximately 0.6 from P15 to P45) were primarily dominant in the medial-lateral direction, whereas the ADC decreased slightly (approximately 0.8 x 10(-3) to approximately 0.5 x 10(-3) mm(2)/s from P15 to P45). Similar increases in FA (approximately 0.3 to approximately 0.4 from P15 to P45) and decreases in ADC (approximately 0.8 x 10(-3) to approximately 0.5 x 10(-3) mm(2)/s from P15 to P45) were found in the cingulate, but these anisotropic changes were dominant in the anterior-posterior direction. In the caudate putamen, there were significant FA increases (approximately 0.1 to approximately 0.2 from P15 to P45) dominant in the dorsal-ventral and anterior-posterior directions, whereas the ADC increased rapidly early in development (approximately 0.3 x 10(-3) to approximately 0.7 x 10(-3) mm(2)/s from P15 to P17). There were no significant changes in tissue anisotropy in the somatosensory regions (whisker, forelimb), but the ADC decreased slightly (approximately 0.7 x 10(-3) to approximately 0.5 x 10(-3) mm(2)/s from P15 to P45). Although the major differences in DEC values were mainly observed in white matter pathways, other cortical and subcortical regions showed some potential morphological changes that were consistent with classical histological findings. In summary, these results show that high-resolution DTI at high magnetic fields allows detection and quantification of brain structures throughout normal development in C57B/L6 mice in vivo.