Anion exchanger 1b, but not sodium-bicarbonate cotransporter 1b, plays a role in transport functions of zebrafish H+-ATPase-rich cells

Unveiling osmoregulation and immunological adaptations in Eleutheronema tetradactylum gills through high-throughput single-cell transcriptome sequencing

The fourfinger threadfin fish (Eleutheronema tetradactylum) is an economically significant species renowned for its ability to adapt to varying salinity environments, with gills serving as their primary organs for osmoregulation and immune defense. Previous studies focused on tissue and morphological levels, whereas ignored the cellular heterogeneity and the crucial gene information related to core cell subsets within E. tetradactylum gills. In this study, we utilized high-throughput single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) to analyze the gills of E. tetradactylum, characterizing 16 distinct cell types and identifying unique gene markers and enriched functions associated within each cell type. Additionally, we subdivided ionocyte cells into four distinct subpopulations for the first time in E. tetradactylum gills. By employing weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA), we further investigated the cellular heterogeneity and specific response mechanisms to salinity fluctuant. Our findings revealed the intricate osmoregulation and immune functions of gill cells, highlighting their crucial roles in maintaining homeostasis and adapting to fluctuating salinity levels. This comprehensive cell-type atlas provides valuable insights into the species adaptive strategies, contributing to the conservation and management of this commercially significant fish as well as other euryhaline species.

Coping with salinity extremes: Gill transcriptome profiling in the black-chinned tilapia (Sarotherodon melanotheron)

Steeper and sometimes extreme salinity gradients increasingly affect aquatic organisms because of climate change. Hypersalinity habitats demand powerful physiological adaptive strategies. Few teleost species have the capacity to spend their whole life cycle in salinities way over seawater levels. Focusing on the multifunctional gill, we unraveled the tilapia S. melanotheron key strategies to cope with different environmental conditions, ranging from freshwater up to hypersaline habitats. De novo transcriptome assembly based on RNAseq allowed for the analysis of 40,967 annotated transcripts among samples collected in three wild populations at 0, 40 and 80 ‰. A trend analysis of the expression patterns revealed responses across the salinity gradient with different gene pathways involved. Genes linked to ion transport, pH regulation and cell surface receptor signaling were mainly upregulated in the high salinity habitat. We identified tight junction proteins that were critical in high salinity habitats and that were different from the well-known tightening junctional proteins identified and expressed in fresh water. Expression profiles also suggest a change in the vascular tone that could be linked to an osmorespiratory compromise not only in fresh water, but also in high salinity environments. A striking downregulation of genes linked to the immune system and to the heat shock response was observed suggesting an energetic trade-off between immunity and acclimation/adaptation in the hypersaline habitat. The high expression of transcripts coding for immune and heat shock response in the freshwater habitat suggests the establishment of powerful mechanisms to protect gills from environmental threats and to maintain protein integrity. Non-directional expression trends were also detected with an upregulation of genes only in the hypersaline habitat (80 ‰) or only in the marine habitat (40 ‰). Unravel physiological strategies in S. melanotheron populations will help to better understand the molecular basis of fish euryhalinity in salinity-contrasted environments.

Interindividual behavioural variation in response to elevated CO2 predicts mRNA transcript abundance of genes related to acid-base regulation in medaka (Oryzias latipes)

Rising carbon dioxide (CO2) in aquatic ecosystems due to climate change is a challenge for aquatic ectotherms. We examined whether interindividual variation in behavioural responses to CO2 could predict how a teleost fish would respond to elevated CO2 for multiple phenotypic and molecular traits. To this end, we first quantified behavioural responses of individuals exposed to acute elevated CO2, and used these to assign individuals as either high or low responders relative to the population mean. Subsequently, we exposed both high and low responders to elevated CO2 for 6 weeks and quantified the effect on body condition, behaviour, and mRNA transcript responses of gill and liver genes associated with relevant physiological processes. Generally, we found few relationships between the phenotypic groups and body condition and behaviour following the CO2 exposure period; however, stark differences between the phenotypic groups with respect to gene transcripts from each tissue related to various processes were found, mostly independent of CO2 exposure. The most pronounced changes were in the gill transcripts related to acid-base regulation, suggesting that the observed behavioural variation used to assign fish to phenotypic groups may have an underlying molecular origin. Should the link between behaviour and gene transcripts be shown to have a fitness advantage and be maintained across generations, interindividual variation in behavioural responses to acute CO2 exposure may be a viable and non-invasive tool to predict future population responses to elevated aquatic CO2.

The effects of dietary microbial 6-phytase on growth parameters, intestinal morphometric properties and selected intestinal genes expression in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss, Walbaum 1876)

This study investigated the effects of dietary 6-phytase, produced by a genetically modified Komagataella phaffii, on growth performance, feed utilisation, flesh quality, villus morphometric properties, and intestinal mRNA expression in rainbow trout. Six iso-nitrogenous, iso-lipidic, and iso-caloric diets were formulated and fed to triplicate groups of juvenile rainbow trout weighing 32.57 ± 0.36 g (mean ± SD) for 90 days. The dietary treatments included two positive controls (PC), one formulated with 400 g/kg of fish meal named T1, and the other formulated with 170 g/kg of fish meal plus 1% avP derived from monocalcium phosphate named T2. The remaining dietary treatments consisted of a negative control (NC) formulated with 170 g/kg of fish meal (T3), NC+ 750, NC+ 1500, and NC+ 3000 OTU/kg levels of phytase designated as T4, T5, and T6 diets respectively. Compared to T1, weight gain (WG) increased by 16.29, 13.71 and 11.66% in T4, T5 and T6, respectively (p < 0.05). Feed conversion ratio (FCR) was lowered by 3.2 and 0.8% in T4 and T5 compared to T1 (p < 0.05). WG, feed intake (FI), FCR, final body length, bone ash, bone ash P, and intestinal morphometry were negatively affected in T3 fed fish (p < 0.05). Whole-body fish nutrient, bone ash, bone ash phosphorus (P) compositions and mucosal villus morphometric properties improved in rainbow trout fed diets supplemented with phytase dose ranging from 750-3000 OTU. Bone ash increased by 6.12% in T5 compared to T1 (p < 0.05). Phytase inclusion enhanced the profitability of feeding juvenile rainbow trout such diets as it reduced the feed price and economic conversion rate. Dietary inclusion of phytase down-regulated mRNA expression of genes responsible for fatty acid synthesis and lipogenesis in juvenile rainbow trout. Dietary phytase up-regulated the mRNA expression of genes (SLC4A11 and ATP1A3A) responsible for nutrient uptake and down-regulated intestinal expression of MUCIN 5AC-like genes (mucus secreting genes) in juvenile rainbow trout. Along with improving performance parameters, the inclusion of phytase in rainbow trout diet containing plant-based protein sources, can preserve intestinal morphology by regulating the mRNA expression of genes responsible for fatty acid synthesis, lipogenesis and nutrient uptake and transport.

A biotin-stabilized HKUST-1/ADM scaffold for facilitating MSC endothelial differentiation and vascularization in diabetic wound healing

Inadequate angiogenesis in diabetic wound healing has been identified as one of the most difficult issues to treat. Copper ions (Cu²⁺) have been confirmed to stimulate angiogenesis; nevertheless, the rapid rise in non-physiological Cu²⁺ concentrations increases the danger of ion poisoning. For the first time, biotin was used to stabilize a copper-based metal-organic framework (HKUST-1) to change its hydrophobicity and achieve sustained release of Cu²⁺. The inability to offer a suitable area for the dynamic interaction between cells and growth factors still restricts the use of nanomaterials for the regeneration of injured skin in diabetes. Acellular dermal matrix (ADM) scaffolds are collagen fibers with natural spatial tissue that can create a biological "niche" for cell attachment and growth. In this study, biotin-stabilized HKUST-1 (B-HKUST-1) nanoparticles were modified with an ADM to form a novel scaffold (ADM-B-HKUST-1). Notably, Cu²⁺ and mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) released by the composite scaffold may synergistically promote MSC adhesion, proliferation and endothelial differentiation by upregulating the expression of transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β), vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and alpha-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA). Overall, the ADM-B-HKUST1 scaffold combines the dual advantages of the sustained release of Cu²⁺ and creating a biological "niche" can provide a potential strategy for enhancing angiogenesis and promoting diabetic wound healing.

Mechanisms of Na+ uptake from freshwater habitats in animals

Life in fresh water is osmotically and energetically challenging for living organisms, requiring increases in ion uptake from dilute environments. However, mechanisms of ion uptake from freshwater environments are still poorly understood and controversial, especially in arthropods, for which several hypothetical models have been proposed based on incomplete data. One compelling model involves the proton pump V-type H+ ATPase (VHA), which energizes the apical membrane, enabling the uptake of Na+ (and other cations) via an unknown Na+ transporter (referred to as the "Wieczorek Exchanger" in insects). What evidence exists for this model of ion uptake and what is this mystery exchanger or channel that cooperates with VHA? We present results from studies that explore this question in crustaceans, insects, and teleost fish. We argue that the Na+/H+ antiporter (NHA) is a likely candidate for the Wieczorek Exchanger in many crustaceans and insects; although, there is no evidence that this is the case for fish. NHA was discovered relatively recently in animals and its functions have not been well characterized. Teleost fish exhibit redundancy of Na+ uptake pathways at the gill level, performed by different ion transporter paralogs in diverse cell types, apparently enabling tolerance of low environmental salinity and various pH levels. We argue that much more research is needed on overall mechanisms of ion uptake from freshwater habitats, especially on NHA and other potential Wieczorek Exchangers. Such insights gained would contribute greatly to our general understanding of ionic regulation in diverse species across habitats.

Na+/HCO3- cotransporter 1 (nbce1) isoform gene expression during smoltification and seawater acclimation of Atlantic salmon

The life history of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) includes an initial freshwater phase (parr) that precedes a springtime migration to marine environments as smolts. The development of osmoregulatory systems that will ultimately support the survival of juveniles upon entry into marine habitats is a key aspect of smoltification. While the acquisition of seawater tolerance in all euryhaline species demands the concerted activity of specific ion pumps, transporters, and channels, the contributions of Na⁺/HCO₃^- cotransporter 1 (Nbce1) to salinity acclimation remain unresolved. Here, we investigated the branchial and intestinal expression of three Na⁺/HCO₃^- cotransporter 1 isoforms, denoted nbce1.1, -1.2a, and -1.2b. Given the proposed role of Nbce1 in supporting the absorption of environmental Na⁺ by ionocytes, we first hypothesized that expression of a branchial nbce1 transcript (nbce1.2a) would be attenuated in salmon undergoing smoltification and following seawater exposure. In two separate years, we observed spring increases in branchial Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase activity, Na⁺/K⁺/2Cl^- cotransporter 1, and cystic fibrosis transmembrane regulator 1 expression characteristic of smoltification, whereas there were no attendant changes in nbce1.2a expression. Nonetheless, branchial nbce1.2a levels were reduced in parr and smolts within 2 days of seawater exposure. In the intestine, gene transcript abundance for nbce1.1 increased from spring to summer in the anterior intestine, but not in the posterior intestine or pyloric caeca, and nbce1.1 and -1.2b expression in the intestine showed season-dependent transcriptional regulation by seawater exposure. Collectively, our data indicate that tissue-specific modulation of all three nbce1 isoforms underlies adaptive responses to seawater.

In Vivo Functional Assay in Fish Gills: Exploring Branchial Acid-Excreting Mechanisms in Zebrafish

Molecular and physiological analyses in ionoregulatory organs (e.g., adult gills and embryonic skin) are essential for studying fish ion regulation. Recent progress in the molecular physiology of fish ion regulation was mostly obtained in embryonic skin; however, studies of ion regulation in adult gills are still elusive and limited because there are no direct methods for in vivo functional assays in the gills. The present study applied the scanning ion-selective electrode technique (SIET) in adult gills to investigate branchial H⁺-excreting functions in vivo. We removed the opercula from zebrafish and then performed long-term acid acclimation experiments. The results of Western blot and immunofluorescence showed that the protein expression of H⁺-ATPase (HA) and the number of H⁺-ATPase-rich ionocytes were increased under acidic situations. The SIET results proved that the H⁺ excretion capacity is indeed enhanced in the gills acclimated to acidic water. In addition, both HA and Na⁺/H⁺ exchanger (Nhe) inhibitors suppressed the branchial H⁺ excretion capacity, suggesting that H⁺ is excreted in association with HA and Nhe in zebrafish gills. These results demonstrate that SIET is effective for in vivo detection in fish gills, representing a breakthrough approach for studying the molecular physiology of fish ion regulation.

Effects of Bicarbonate Stress on Serum Ions and Gill Transporters in Alkali and Freshwater Forms of Amur Ide (Leuciscus waleckii)

The Amur ide (Leuciscus waleckii) is a fish in the Cyprinidae family. Compared with other Amur ide living in freshwater ecosystems, the Amur ide population in Lake Dali Nor of China is famous for its high tolerance to the alkaline conditions of 54 mM (pH 9.6). Yet, surprisingly, the ionoregulatory mechanism responsible for this remarkable alkaline adaptation remains unclear. Therefore, this study sought to investigate how bicarbonate affects the acid-base balancing and ionoregulatory responses of this animal. Here, using a comparative approach, the alkali form of Amur ide and its ancestral freshwater form living in other freshwater basins were each exposed to 50 mM (pH 9.59 ± 0.09), a level close to the alkalinity of Lake Dali Nor, and their physiological (AE1) adjustment of ions and acid-base regulation were investigated. This study highlighted differences in blood pH and serum ions (e.g., Na⁺, K⁺, Cl⁻, and Ca²⁺), Na⁺/K⁺ ATPase (NKA) activity and its mRNA level, and mRNA expression of gill transporters (Na⁺/H⁺ exchanger member 2 and/or 3, Na⁺/HCO3- cotransporter (NBC1), Cl⁻/HCO3- exchanger, Na⁺/Cl⁻ cotransporter (NCC), Na⁺/K⁺/2Cl⁻ (NKCC1), SLC26A5, and SLC26A6) for alkalinity adaptation between the two forms of Amur ide differing in alkalinity tolerance. Specifically, close relationships among the serum Na⁺ and mRNA levels of NCC, NKCC1, and NHE, and also NKA and NBC1, in addition to serum Cl⁻ and bicarbonate transporters (e.g., SLC26A5 and SLC26A6), characterized the alkali form of Amur ide. We propose that this ecotype can ensure its transepithelial Cl⁻ and Na⁺ uptake/base secretions are highly functional, by its basolateral NKA with NBC1 and apical ionic transporters, and especially NCC incorporated with other transporters (e.g., SLC26). This suggests an evolved strong ability to maintain an ion osmotic and acid-base balance for more effectively facilitating its adaptability to the high alkaline environment. This study provides new insights into the physiological responses of the alkaline form of the Amur ide fish for adapting to extreme alkaline conditions. This information could be used as a reference to cultivating alkaline-tolerant fish species in abandoned alkaline waters.

Cortisol and glucocorticoid receptor 2 regulate acid secretion in medaka (Oryzias latipes) larvae

Freshwater fish live in environments where pH levels fluctuate more than those in seawater. During acidic stress, the acid-base balance in these fish is regulated by ionocytes in the gills, which directly contact water and function as an external kidney. In ionocytes, apical acid secretion is largely mediated by H⁺-ATPase and the sodium/hydrogen exchanger (NHE). Control of this system was previously proposed to depend on the hormone, cortisol, mostly based on studies of zebrafish, a stenohaline fish, which utilize H⁺-ATPase as the main route for apical acid secretion. However, the role of cortisol is poorly understood in euryhaline fish species that preferentially use NHE as the main transporter. In the present study, we explored the role of cortisol in NHE-mediated acid secretion in medaka larvae. mRNA expression levels of transporters related to acid secretion and cortisol-synthesis enzyme were enhanced by acidic FW treatment (pH 4.5, 2 days) in medaka larvae. Moreover, exogenous cortisol treatment (25 mg/L, 2 days) resulted in upregulation of nhe3 and rhcg1 expression, as well as acid secretion in 7 dpf medaka larvae. In loss-of-function experiments, microinjection of glucocorticoid receptor (GR)2 morpholino (MO) caused reductions in nhe3 and rhcg1 expression and diminished acid secretion, but microinjection of mineralocorticoid receptor (MR) and GR1 MOs did not. Together, these results suggest a conserved action of cortisol and GR2 on fish body fluid acid-base regulation.

Characterization of a member of the CEACAM protein family as a novel marker of proton pump-rich ionocytes on the zebrafish epidermis

In humans, several members of the CEACAM receptor family have been shown to interact with intestinal pathogens in an inflammatory context. While CEACAMs have long been thought to be only present in mammals, recent studies have identified ceacam genes in other vertebrates, including teleosts. The function of these related genes remains however largely unknown. To gain insight into the function of CEACAM proteins in fish, we undertook the study of a putative member of the family, CEACAMz1, identified in Danio rerio. Sequence analysis of the ceacamz1 gene product predicted a GPI-anchored extracellular protein containing eleven immunoglobulin domains but revealed no evident orthology with human CEACAMs. Using a combination of RT-PCR analyses and in situ hybridization experiments, as well as a fluorescent reporter line, we showed that CEACAMz1 is first expressed in discrete cells on the ventral skin of zebrafish larvae and later on in the developing gills. This distribution remains constant until juvenile stage is reached, at which point CEACAMz1 is almost exclusively expressed in gills. We further observed that at late larval stages, CEACAMz1-expressing cells mostly localize on the afferent side of the branchial filaments and possibly in the inter-lamellar space. Using immunolabelling and 3D-reconstructions, we showed that CEACAMz1 is expressed in cells from the uppermost layer of skin epidermis. These cells are embedded within the keratinocytes pavement and we unambiguously identified them as proton-pump rich ionocytes (HR cells). As the expression of ceacamz1 is turned on concomitantly to that of other known markers of HR cells, we propose that ceacamz1 may serve as a novel marker of mature HR cells from the zebrafish epidermis.

Slc4 Gene Family in Spotted Sea Bass (Lateolabrax maculatus): Structure, Evolution, and Expression Profiling in Response to Alkalinity Stress and Salinity Changes

The solute carrier 4 (SLC4) family is a class of cell membranes transporters involved in base transport that plays crucial roles in diverse physiological processes. In our study, 15 slc4 genes were identified and annotated in spotted sea bass, including five members of Cl⁻/HCO₃⁻ exchangers, eight genes coding Na⁺-dependent HCO₃⁻ transporters, and two copies of Na⁺-coupled borate transporters. The gene sequence and structure, chromosomal and syntenic arrangement, phylogenetic and evolution profiles were analyzed. Results showed that the slc4 gene in teleosts obviously expanded compared with higher vertebrates, arising from teleost-specific whole genome duplication event. Most gene sites of slc4 in spotted sea bass were under strong purifying selection during evolution, while positive selection sites were only detected in slc4a1b, slc4a8, and slc4a10b. Additionally, qRT-PCR results showed that different slc4 genes exhibited distinct branchial expression patterns after alkalinity and salinity stresses, of which the strongly responsive members may play essential roles during these physiological processes. Our study provides the systemic overview of the slc4 gene family in spotted sea bass and enables a better understanding for the evolution of this family and further deciphering the biological roles in maintaining ion and acid–base homeostasis in teleosts.

Inter-individual variability in freshwater tolerance is related to transcript level differences in gill and posterior kidney of European sea bass

Acclimation to low salinities is a vital physiological challenge for euryhaline fish as the European sea bass Dicentrarchus labrax. This species undertakes seasonal migrations towards lagoons and estuaries where a wide range of salinity variations occur along the year. We have previously reported intraspecific differences in freshwater tolerance, with an average 30% mortality rate. In this study, we bring new evidence of mechanisms underlying freshwater tolerance in sea bass at gill and kidney levels. In fresh water (FW), intraspecific differences in mRNA expression levels of several ion transporters and prolactin receptors were measured. We showed that the branchial Cl^-/HCO₃^- anion transporter (slc26a6c) was over-expressed in freshwater intolerant fish, probably as a compensatory response to low blood chloride levels and potential metabolic alkalosis. Moreover, prolactin receptor a (prlra) and Na⁺/Cl^- cotransporter (ncc1) but not ncc-2a expression seemed to be slightly increased and highly variable between individuals in freshwater intolerant fish. In the posterior kidney, freshwater intolerant fish exhibited differential expression levels of slc26 anion transporters and Na⁺/K⁺/2Cl^- cotransporter 1b (nkcc1b). Lower expression levels of prolactin receptors (prlra, prlrb) were measured in posterior kidney which probably contributes to the failure in ion reuptake at the kidney level. Freshwater intolerance seems to be a consequence of renal failure of ion reabsorption, which is not sufficiently compensated at the branchial level.

Assessing intracellular pH regulation in H+-ATPase-rich ionocytes in zebrafish larvae using in vivo ratiometric imaging

The H+-ATPase-rich (HR) cells of zebrafish larvae are a sub-type of ion-transporting cell located on the yolk sac epithelium that are responsible for Na+ uptake and H+ extrusion. Current models of HR cell ion transport mechanisms in zebrafish larvae are well established, but little is known about the involvement of the various ion transport pathways in regulating intracellular acid-base status. Here, a ratiometric imaging technique was developed and validated to monitor intracellular pH (pHi) continuously in larval zebrafish HR cells in vivo Gene knockdown or CRISPR/Cas9 knockout approaches were used to evaluate the roles of the two principal apical membrane acid excretory pathways, the Na+/H+ exchanger (NHE3b; slc9a3.2) and the H+-ATPase (atpv1aa). Additionally, the role of HR cell cytosolic carbonic anhydrase (CAc) was investigated because of its presumed role in providing H+ for Na+/H+ exchange and H+-ATPase. The temporal pattern and extent of intracellular acidification during exposure of fish to 1% CO2 and the extent of post-CO2 alkalisation were altered markedly in fish experiencing knockdown/knockout of CAc, NHE3b or H+-ATPase. Although there were slight differences among the three knockdown/knockout experiments, the typical response was a greater degree of intracellular acidification during CO2 exposure and a reduced capacity to restore pHi to baseline levels post-hypercapnia. The metabolic alkalosis and subsequent acidification associated with 20 mmol l-1 NH4Cl exposure and its washout were largely unaffected by gene knockdown. Overall, the results suggest markedly different mechanisms of intracellular acid-base regulation in zebrafish HR cells depending on the nature of the acid-base disturbance.

Xenobiotic transporter activity in zebrafish embryo ionocytes

Ionocytes are specialized cells in the epidermis of embryonic zebrafish (Danio rerio) that play important roles in ion homeostasis and have functional similarities to mammalian renal cells. Here, we examined whether these cells might also share another functional similarity with renal cells, which is the presence of efflux transporter activities useful for elimination of toxic small molecules. Xenobiotic transporters (XTs), including the ATP-Binding Cassette (ABC) family, are a major defense mechanism against diffusible toxic molecules in aquatic embryos, including zebrafish, but their activity in the ionocytes has not previously been studied. Using fluorescent small molecule substrates of XT, we observed that specific populations of ionocytes uptake and efflux fluorescent small molecules in a manner consistent with active transport. We specifically identified a P-gp/ABCB1 inhibitor-sensitive efflux activity in the H⁺-ATPase-rich (HR) ionocytes, and show that these cells exhibit enriched expression of the ABCB gene, abcb5. The results extend our understanding of the functional significance of zebrafish ionocytes and indicate that these cells could play an important role in protection of the fish embryo from harmful small molecules.

Dynamics of Gene Expression Responses for Ion Transport Proteins and Aquaporins in the Gill of a Euryhaline Pupfish during Freshwater and High-Salinity Acclimation

Pupfishes (genus Cyprinodon) evolved some of the broadest salinity tolerances of teleost fishes, with some taxa surviving in conditions from freshwater to nearly 160 ppt. In this study, we examined transcriptional dynamics of ion transporters and aquaporins in the gill of the desert Amargosa pupfish (Cyprinodon nevadensis amargosae) during rapid salinity change. Pupfish acclimated to 7.5 ppt were exposed to freshwater (0.3 ppt), seawater (35 ppt), or hypersaline (55 ppt) conditions over 4 h and sampled at these salinities over 14 d. Plasma osmolality and Cl^- concentration became elevated 8 h after the start of exposure to 35 or 55 ppt but returned to baseline levels after 14 d. Osmolality recovery was paralleled by increased gill Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase activity and higher relative levels of messenger RNAs (mRNAs) encoding cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (cftr) and Na⁺/K⁺/2Cl^- cotransporter-1 (nkcc1). Transcripts encoding one Na⁺-HCO₃^- cotransporter-1 isoform (nbce1.1) also increased in the gills at higher salinities, while a second isoform (nbce1.2) increased expression in freshwater. Pupfish in freshwater also had lower osmolality and elevated gill mRNAs for Na⁺/H⁺ exchanger isoform-2a (nhe2a) and V-type H⁺-ATPase within 8 h, followed by increases in Na⁺/H⁺ exchanger-3 (nhe3), carbonic anhydrase 2 (ca2), and aquaporin-3 (aqp3) within 1 d. Gill mRNAs for Na⁺/Cl^- cotransporter-2 (ncc2) also were elevated 14 d after exposure to 0.3 ppt. These results offer insights into how coordinated transcriptional responses for ion transporters in the gill facilitate reestablishment of osmotic homeostasis after changes in environmental salinity and provide evidence that the teleost gill expresses two Na⁺-HCO₃^- cotransporter-1 isoforms with different roles in freshwater and seawater acclimation.

RNA sequencing, de novo assembly and differential analysis of the gill transcriptome of freshwater climbing perch Anabas testudineus after 6 days of seawater exposure

To obtain transcriptomic insights into branchial responses to salinity challenge in Anabas testudineus, this study employed RNA sequencing (RNA-Seq) to analyse the gill transcriptome of A. testudineus exposed to seawater (SW) for 6 days compared with the freshwater (FW) control group. A combined FW and SW gill transcriptome was de novo assembled from 169.9 million 101 bp paired-end reads. In silico validation employing 17 A. testudineus Sanger full-length coding sequences showed that 15/17 of them had greater than 80% of their sequences aligned to the de novo assembled contigs where 5/17 had their full-length (100%) aligned and 9/17 had greater than 90% of their sequences aligned. The combined FW and SW gill transcriptome was mapped to 13,780 unique human identifiers at E-value ≤1.0E-20 while 952 and 886 identifiers were determined as up and down-regulated by 1.5 fold, respectively, in the gills of A. testudineus in SW when compared with FW. These genes were found to be associated with at least 23 biological processes. A larger proportion of genes encoding enzymes and transporters associated with molecular transport, energy production, metabolisms were up-regulated, while a larger proportion of genes encoding transmembrane receptors, G-protein coupled receptors, kinases and transcription regulators associated with cell cycle, growth, development, signalling, morphology and gene expression were relatively lower in the gills of A. testudineus in SW when compared with FW. High correlation (R = 0.99) was observed between RNA-Seq data and real-time quantitative PCR validation for 13 selected genes. The transcriptomic sequence information will facilitate development of molecular resources and tools while the findings will provide insights for future studies into branchial iono-osmoregulation and related cellular processes in A. testudineus.

Zebrafish as a Model System for Investigating the Compensatory Regulation of Ionic Balance during Metabolic Acidosis

Zebrafish (Danio rerio) have become an important model for integrative physiological research. Zebrafish inhabit a hypo-osmotic environment; to maintain ionic and acid-base homeostasis, they must actively take up ions and secrete acid to the water. The gills in the adult and the skin at larval stage are the primary sites of ionic regulation in zebrafish. The uptake of ions in zebrafish is mediated by specific ion transporting cells termed ionocytes. Similarly, in mammals, ion reabsorption and acid excretion occur in specific cell types in the terminal region of the renal tubules (distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct). Previous studies have suggested that functional regulation of several ion transporters/channels in the zebrafish ionocytes resembles that in the mammalian renal cells. Additionally, several mechanisms involved in regulating the epithelial ion transport during metabolic acidosis are found to be similar between zebrafish and mammals. In this article, we systemically review the similarities and differences in ionic regulation between zebrafish and mammals during metabolic acidosis. We summarize the available information on the regulation of epithelial ion transporters during acidosis, with a focus on epithelial Na⁺, Cl- and Ca2+ transporters in zebrafish ionocytes and mammalian renal cells. We also discuss the neuroendocrine responses to acid exposure, and their potential role in ionic compensation. Finally, we identify several knowledge gaps that would benefit from further study.

Insights into molecular and cellular mechanisms of hormonal actions on fish ion regulation derived from the zebrafish model

Fish have sophisticated mechanisms of ionic and acid-base regulation for maintaining body fluid homeostasis. Many hormones have been proposed to control the ionic and acid-base regulation mechanisms in fishes; however, lots of the proposed actions lack convincing cellular/molecular evidence. With the advantages of available genetic databases and molecular manipulation techniques, zebrafish has become an emerging model for research into ion transport physiology and functional regulation. Different types of ionocytes were found to transport ions through various sets of ion transporters, and the molecular mechanisms of ionocyte proliferation and differentiation have also been dissected, providing a competent platform with which to precisely study the ion transport pathways and ionocytes targeted by hormones, including isotocin, prolactin, cortisol, stanniocalcin-1, calcitonin, endothelin-1, vitamin D, parathyroid hormone 1, catecholamines, the renin-angiotensin-system, estrogen-related receptor α, and calcitonin gene-related peptide, which have been demonstrated to positively or negatively regulate ion transport through specific receptors at different molecular levels (transcriptional, translational, or posttranslational) or at different developmental stages of ionocytes (proliferation or differentiation). The knowledge obtained in zebrafish not only enhances our understanding of the hormonal control of fish ion regulation, but also informs studies on other animal species, thereby providing insights into related fields.

Toxicological perspective on the osmoregulation and ionoregulation physiology of major ions by freshwater animals: Teleost fish, crustacea, aquatic insects, and Mollusca

Anthropogenic sources increase freshwater salinity and produce differences in constituent ions compared with natural waters. Moreover, ions differ in physiological roles and concentrations in intracellular and extracellular fluids. Four freshwater taxa groups are compared, to investigate similarities and differences in ion transport processes and what ion transport mechanisms suggest about the toxicity of these or other ions in freshwater. Although differences exist, many ion transporters are functionally similar and may belong to evolutionarily conserved protein families. For example, the Na+ /H+ -exchanger in teleost fish differs from the H+ /2Na+ (or Ca2+ )-exchanger in crustaceans. In osmoregulation, Na+ and Cl- predominate. Stenohaline freshwater animals hyperregulate until they are no longer able to maintain hypertonic extracellular Na+ and Cl- concentrations with increasing salinity and become isotonic. Toxic effects of K+ are related to ionoregulation and volume regulation. The ionic balance between intracellular and extracellular fluids is maintained by Na+ /K+ -adenosine triphosphatase (ATPase), but details are lacking on apical K+ transporters. Elevated H+ affects the maintenance of internal Na+ by Na+ /H+ exchange; elevated HCO3- inhibits Cl- uptake. The uptake of Mg2+ occurs by the gills or intestine, but details are lacking on Mg2+ transporters. In unionid gills, SO42- is actively transported, but most epithelia are generally impermeant to SO42- . Transporters of Ca2+ maintain homeostasis of dissolved Ca2+ . More integration of physiology with toxicology is needed to fully understand freshwater ion effects. Environ Toxicol Chem 2017;36:576-600. Published 2016 Wiley Periodicals Inc. on behalf of SETAC. This article is a US government work and, as such, is in the public domain in the United States of America.

Ion transport in the zebrafish kidney from a human disease angle: possibilities, considerations, and future perspectives

Unique experimental advantages, such as its embryonic/larval transparency, high-throughput nature, and ease of genetic modification, underpin the rapid emergence of the zebrafish ( Danio rerio) as a preeminent model in biomedical research. Particularly in the field of nephrology, the zebrafish provides a promising model for studying the physiological implications of human solute transport processes along consecutive nephron segments. However, although the zebrafish might be considered a valuable model for numerous renal ion transport diseases and functional studies of many channels and transporters, not all human renal electrolyte transport mechanisms and human diseases can be modeled in the zebrafish. With this review, we explore the ontogeny of zebrafish renal ion transport, its nephron structure and function, and thereby demonstrate the clinical translational value of this model. By critical assessment of genomic and amino acid conservation of human proteins involved in renal ion handling (channels, transporters, and claudins), kidney and nephron segment conservation, and renal electrolyte transport physiology in the zebrafish, we provide researchers and nephrologists with an indication of the possibilities and considerations of the zebrafish as a model for human renal ion transport. Combined with advanced techniques envisioned for the future, implementation of the zebrafish might expand beyond unraveling pathophysiological mechanisms that underlie distinct genetic or environmentally, i.e., pharmacological and lifestyle, induced renal transport deficits. Specifically, the ease of drug administration and the exploitation of improved genetic approaches might argue for the adoption of the zebrafish as a model for preclinical personalized medicine for distinct renal diseases and renal electrolyte transport proteins.

(Uncommon) Mechanisms of Branchial Ammonia Excretion in the Common Carp (Cyprinus carpio) in Response to Environmentally Induced Metabolic Acidosis

Freshwater fishes generally increase ammonia excretion in acidic waters. The new model of ammonia transport in freshwater fish involves an association between the Rhesus (Rh) protein Rhcg-b, the Na(+)/H(+) exchanger (NHE), and a suite of other membrane transporters. We tested the hypothesis that Rhcg-b and NHE3 together play a critical role in branchial ammonia excretion in common carp (Cyprinus carpio) chronically exposed to a low-pH environment. Carp were exposed to three sequential environmental treatments-control pH 7.6 water (24 h), pH 4.0 water (72 h), and recovery pH 7.6 water (24 h)-or in a separate series were simply exposed to either control (72 h) or pH 4.0 (72 h) water. Branchial ammonia excretion was increased by ∼2.5-fold in the acid compared with the control period, despite the absence of an increase in the plasma-to-water partial pressure NH3 gradient. Alanine aminotransferase activity was higher in the gills of fish exposed to pH 4 versus control water, suggesting that ammonia may be generated in gill tissue. Gill Rhcg-b and NHE3b messenger RNA levels were significantly elevated in acid-treated relative to control fish, but at the protein level Rhcg-b decreased (30%) and NHE3b increased (2-fold) in response to water of pH 4.0. Using immunofluorescence microscopy, NHE3b and Rhcg-b were found to be colocalized to ionocytes along the interlamellar space of the filament of control fish. After 72 h of acid exposure, Rhcg-b staining almost disappeared from this region, and NHE3b was more prominent along the lamellae. We propose that ammoniagenesis within the gill tissue itself is responsible for the higher rates of branchial ammonia excretion during chronic metabolic acidosis. Unexpectedly, gill Rhcg-b does not appear to be important in gill ammonia transport in low-pH water, but the strong induction of NHE3b suggests that some NH4(+) may be eliminated directly in exchange for Na(+). These findings contrast with previous studies in larval zebrafish (Danio rerio) and medaka (Oryzias latipes), underlining the importance of species comparisons.

Salt secretion is linked to acid-base regulation of ionocytes in seawater-acclimated medaka: new insights into the salt-secreting mechanism

Ionocytes in the skin and gills of seawater (SW) teleosts are responsible for both salt and acid secretion. However, the mechanism through which ionocytes secrete acid is still unclear. Here, we hypothesized that apical Na⁺/H⁺ exchangers (NHE2/3), carbonic anhydrase (CA2-like), and basolateral HCO₃⁻/Cl⁻ exchanger (AE1) are involved in acid secretion. In addition, the hypothesized involvement of basolateral AE1 suggested that acid secretion may be linked to Cl⁻ secretion by ionocytes. The scanning ion-selective electrode technique (SIET) was used to measure H⁺ and Cl⁻ secretion by ionocytes in the skin of medaka larvae acclimated to SW. Treatment with inhibitors of NHE, CA, and AE suppressed both H⁺ and Cl⁻ secretion by ionocytes. Short-term exposure to hypercapnic SW stimulated both H⁺ and Cl⁻ secretion. mRNA of CA2-like and AE1 were localized to ionocytes in the skin. Branchial mRNA levels of NKCC1a, CA2-like, and AE1a increased together with the salinity to which fish were acclimated. In addition, both AE1a and AE1b mRNA increased in fish acclimated to acidified (pH 7) SW; NKCC1a mRNA increased in fish acclimated to pH 9 SW. This study reveals the mechanism of H⁺ secretion by ionocytes, and refines our understanding of the well-established mechanism of Cl⁻ secretion by ionocytes of SW fish.

Nitric oxide and pH modulation in gynaecological cancer

Nitric oxide plays several roles in cellular physiology, including control of the vascular tone and defence against pathogen infection. Neuronal, inducible and endothelial nitric oxide synthase (NOS) isoforms synthesize nitric oxide. Cells generate acid and base equivalents, whose physiological intracellular concentrations are kept due to membrane transport systems, including Na⁺/H⁺ exchangers and Na⁺/HCO₃⁻ transporters, thus maintaining a physiological pH at the intracellular (~7.0) and extracellular (~7.4) medium. In several pathologies, including cancer, cells are exposed to an extracellular acidic microenvironment, and the role for these membrane transport mechanisms in this phenomenon is likely. As altered NOS expression and activity is seen in cancer cells and because this gas promotes a glycolytic phenotype leading to extracellular acidosis in gynaecological cancer cells, a pro‐inflammatory microenvironment increasing inducible NOS expression in this cell type is feasible. However, whether abnormal control of intracellular and extracellular pH by cancer cells regards with their ability to synthesize or respond to nitric oxide is unknown. We, here, discuss a potential link between pH alterations, pH controlling membrane transport systems and NOS function. We propose a potential association between inducible NOS induction and Na⁺/H⁺ exchanger expression and activity in human ovary cancer. A potentiation between nitric oxide generation and the maintenance of a low extracellular pH (i.e. acidic) is proposed to establish a sequence of events in ovarian cancer cells, thus preserving a pro‐proliferative acidic tumour extracellular microenvironment. We suggest that pharmacological therapeutic targeting of Na⁺/H⁺ exchangers and inducible NOS may have benefits in human epithelial ovarian cancer.

Solute carriers (SLCs) identified and characterized from kidney transcriptome of golden mahseer (Tor putitora) (Fam: Cyprinidae)

The solute carriers (SLC) are trans-membrane proteins, those regulate the transport of various substances (sugars, amino acids, nucleotides, inorganic cations/anions, metals, drugs etc.) across the cell membrane. There are more than 338 solute carriers (slc) reported in fishes that play crucial role in cellular influx and efflux. The study of solute carrier families may reveal many answers regarding the function of transporter genes in the species and their effect in the existing environment. Therefore, we performed RNA sequencing of kidney tissue of the golden mahseer (Tor putitora) using Illumina platform to identify the solute carrier families and characterized 24 putative functional genes under 15 solute carrier families. Out of 24 putative functional genes, 11 genes were differentially expressed in different tissues (head kidney, trunk kidney, spleen, liver, gill, muscle, intestine and brain) using qRT-PCR assay. The slc5a1, slc5a12, slc12a3, slc13a3, slc22a13 and slc26a6 were highly expressed in kidney. The slc15a2, slc25a47, slc33a1 and slc38a2 were highly expressed in brain and slc30a5 was over-expressed in gill. The unrooted phylogenetic trees of slc2, slc5, slc13 and slc33 were constructed using amino acid sequences of Homo sapiens, Salmo salar, Danio rerio, Cyprinus carpio and Tor putitora. It appears that all the putative solute carrier families are very much conserved in human and fish species including the present fish, golden mahseer. This study provides the first hand database of solute carrier families particularly transporter encoding proteins in the species.

Oestrogen-related receptor α is required for transepithelial H+ secretion in zebrafish

Oestrogen-related receptor α (ERRα) is an orphan nuclear receptor which is important for adaptive metabolic responses under conditions of increased energy demand, such as cold, exercise and fasting. Importantly, metabolism under these conditions is usually accompanied by elevated production of organic acids, which may threaten the body acid-base status. Although ERRα is known to help regulate ion transport by the renal epithelia, its role in the transport of acid-base equivalents remains unknown. Here, we tested the hypothesis that ERRα is involved in acid-base regulation mechanisms by using zebrafish as the model to examine the effects of ERRα on transepithelial H(+) secretion. ERRα is abundantly expressed in H(+)-pump-rich cells (HR cells), a group of ionocytes responsible for H(+) secretion in the skin of developing embryos, and its expression is stimulated by acidic (pH 4) environments. Knockdown of ERRα impairs both basal and low pH-induced H(+) secretion in the yolk-sac skin, which is accompanied by decreased expression of H(+)-secreting-related transporters. The effect of ERRα on H(+) secretion is achieved through regulating both the total number of HR cells and the function of individual HR cells. These results demonstrate, for the first time, that ERRα is required for transepithelial H(+) secretion for systemic acid-base homeostasis.

Recent advances in understanding trans-epithelial acid-base regulation and excretion mechanisms in cephalopods

Cephalopods have evolved complex sensory systems and an active lifestyle to compete with fish for similar resources in the marine environment. Their highly active lifestyle and their extensive protein metabolism has led to substantial acid-base regulatory abilities enabling these organisms to cope with CO2 induced acid-base disturbances. In convergence to teleost, cephalopods possess an ontogeny-dependent shift in ion-regulatory epithelia with epidermal ionocytes being the major site of embryonic acid-base regulation and ammonia excretion, while gill epithelia take these functions in adults. Although the basic morphology and excretory function of gill epithelia in cephalopods were outlined almost half a century ago, modern immunohistological and molecular techniques are bringing new insights to the mechanistic basis of acid-base regulation and excretion of nitrogenous waste products (e.g. NH3/NH4 (+)) across ion regulatory epithelia of cephalopods. Using cephalopods as an invertebrate model, recent findings reveal partly conserved mechanisms but also novel aspects of acid-base regulation and nitrogen excretion in these exclusively marine animals. Comparative studies using a range of marine invertebrates will create a novel and exciting research direction addressing the evolution of pH regulatory and excretory systems.

Cortisol Regulates Acid Secretion of H(+)-ATPase-rich Ionocytes in Zebrafish (Danio rerio) Embryos

Systemic acid-base regulation is vital for physiological processes in vertebrates. Freshwater (FW) fish live in an inconstant environment, and thus frequently face ambient acid stress. FW fish have to efficiently modulate their acid secretion processes for body fluid acid-base homeostasis during ambient acid challenge; hormonal control plays an important role in such physiological regulation. The hormone cortisol was previously proposed to be associated with acid base regulation in FW fish; however, the underlying mechanism has not been fully described. In the present study, mRNA expression of acid-secreting related transporters and cyp11b (encoding an enzyme involved in cortisol synthesis) in zebrafish embryos was stimulated by treatment with acidic FW (AFW, pH 4.0) for 3 d. Exogenous cortisol treatment (20 mg/L, 3 d) resulted in upregulated expression of transporters related to acid secretion and increased acid secretion function at the organism level in zebrafish embryos. Moreover, cortisol treatment also significantly increased the acid secretion capacity of H(+)-ATPase-rich cells (HRCs) at the cellular level. In loss-of-function experiments, microinjection of glucocorticoid receptor (GR) morpholino (MO) suppressed the expression of acid-secreting related transporters, and decreased acid secretion function at both the organism and cellular levels; on the other hand, mineralocorticoid receptor (MR) MO did not induce any effects. Such evidence supports the hypothesized role of cortisol in fish acid-base regulation, and provides new insights into the roles of cortisol; cortisol-GR signaling stimulates zebrafish acid secretion function through transcriptional/translational regulation of the transporters and upregulation of acid secretion capacity in each acid-secreting ionocyte.

Transcriptomic Analysis of Trout Gill Ionocytes in Fresh Water and Sea Water Using Laser Capture Microdissection Combined with Microarray Analysis

Fish gills represent a complex organ composed of several cell types that perform multiple physiological functions. Among these cells, ionocytes are implicated in the maintenance of ion homeostasis. However, because the ionocyte represents only a small percent of whole gill tissue, its specific transcriptome can be overlooked among the numerous cell types included in the gill. The objective of this study is to better understand ionocyte functions by comparing the RNA expression of this cell type in freshwater and seawater acclimated rainbow trout. To realize this objective, ionocytes were captured from gill cryosections using laser capture microdissection after immunohistochemistry. Then, transcriptome analyses were performed on an Agilent trout oligonucleotide microarray. Gene expression analysis identified 108 unique annotated genes differentially expressed between freshwater and seawater ionocytes, with a fold change higher than 3. Most of these genes were up-regulated in freshwater cells. Interestingly, several genes implicated in ion transport, extracellular matrix and structural cellular proteins appeared up-regulated in freshwater ionocytes. Among them, several ion transporters, such as CIC2, SLC26A6, and NBC, were validated by qPCR and/or in situ hybridization. The latter technique allowed us to localize the transcripts of these ion transporters in only ionocytes and more particularly in the freshwater cells. Genes involved in metabolism and also several genes implicated in transcriptional regulation, cell signaling and the cell cycle were also enhanced in freshwater ionocytes. In conclusion, laser capture microdissection combined with microarray analysis allowed for the determination of the transcriptional signature of scarce cells in fish gills, such as ionocytes, and aided characterization of the transcriptome of these cells in freshwater and seawater acclimated trout.

Aquaporin 1 Is Involved in Acid Secretion by Ionocytes of Zebrafish Embryos through Facilitating CO2 Transport

Mammalian aquaporin 1 (AQP1) is well known to function as a membrane channel for H₂O and CO₂ transport. Zebrafish AQP1a.1 (the homologue of mammalian AQP1) was recently identified in ionocytes of embryos; however its role in ionocytes is still unclear. In this study, we hypothesized that zebrafish AQP1a.1 is involved in the acid secretion by ionocytes through facilitating H₂O and CO₂ diffusion. A real-time PCR showed that mRNA levels of AQP1a.1 in embryos were induced by exposure to 1% CO₂ hypercapnia for 3 days. In situ hybridization and immunohistochemistry showed that the AQP1a.1 transcript was highly expressed by acid-secreting ionocytes, i.e., H⁺-ATPase-rich (HR) cells. A scanning ion-selective electrode technique (SIET) was applied to analyze CO₂-induced H⁺ secretion by individual ionocytes in embryos. H⁺ secretion by HR cells remarkably increased after a transient loading of CO₂ (1% for 10 min). AQP1a.1 knockdown with morpholino oligonucleotides decreased the H⁺ secretion of HR cells by about half and limited the CO₂ stimulated increase. In addition, exposure to an AQP inhibitor (PCMB) for 10 min also suppressed CO₂-induced H⁺ secretion. Results from this study support our hypothesis and provide in vivo evidence of the physiological role of AQP1 in CO₂ transport.

Osmoregulation in zebrafish: ion transport mechanisms and functional regulation

Fish, like mammals, have to maintain their body fluid ionic and osmotic homeostasis through sophisticated iono-/osmoregulation mechanisms, which are conducted mainly by ionocytes of the gill (the skin in embryonic stages), instead of the renal tubular cells in mammals. Given the advantages in terms of genetic database availability and manipulation, zebrafish is an emerging model for research into regulatory and integrative physiology. At least five types of ionocytes, HR, NaR, NCC, SLC26, and KS cells, have been identified to carry out Na(+) uptake/H(+) secretion/NH4 (+) excretion, Ca(2+) uptake, Na(+)/Cl(-) uptake, K(+) secretion, and Cl(-) uptake/HCO3 (-) secretion, respectively, through distinct sets of transporters. Several hormones, namely isotocin, prolactin, cortisol, stanniocalcin-1, calcitonin, endothelin-1, vitamin D, parathyorid hormone 1, catecholamines, and the renin-angiotensin-system, have been demonstrated to positively or negatively regulate ion transport through specific receptors at different ionocytes stages, at either the transcriptional/translational or posttranslational level. The knowledge obtained using zebrafish answered many long-term contentious or unknown issues in the field of fish iono-/osmoregulation. The homology of ion transport pathways and hormone systems also means that the zebrafish model informs studies on mammals or other animal species, thereby providing insights into related fields.

Induction of Phosphoenolpyruvate Carboxykinase (PEPCK) during Acute Acidosis and Its Role in Acid Secretion by V-ATPase-Expressing Ionocytes

Vacuolar-Type H⁺-ATPase (V-ATPase) takes the central role in pumping H⁺ through cell membranes of diverse organisms, which is essential for surviving acid-base fluctuating lifestyles or environments. In mammals, although glucose is believed to be an important energy source to drive V-ATPase, and phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (PEPCK), a key enzyme for gluconeogenesis, is known to be activated in response to acidosis, the link between acid secretion and PEPCK activation remains unclear. In the present study, we used zebrafish larva as an in vivo model to show the role of acid-inducible PEPCK activity in glucose production to support higher rate of H⁺ secretion via V-ATPase, by utilizing gene knockdown, glucose supplementation, and non-invasive scanning ion-selective electrode technique (SIET). Zebrafish larvae increased V-ATPase-mediated acid secretion and transiently expression of Pck1, a zebrafish homolog of PEPCK, in response to acid stress. When pck1 gene was knocked down by specific morpholino, the H⁺ secretion via V-ATPase decreased, but this effect was rescued by supplementation of glucose into the yolk. By assessing changes in amino acid content and gene expression of respective enzymes, glutamine and glutamate appeared to be the major source for replenishment of Krebs cycle intermediates, which are subtracted by Pck1 activity. Unexpectedly, pck1 knockdown did not affect glutamine/glutamate catalysis, which implies that Pck1 does not necessarily drive this process. The present study provides the first in vivo evidence that acid-induced PEPCK provides glucose for acid-base homeostasis at an individual level, which is supported by rapid pumping of H⁺ via V-ATPase at the cellular level.

The zebrafish merovingian mutant reveals a role for pH regulation in hair cell toxicity and function

Control of the extracellular environment of inner ear hair cells by ionic transporters is crucial for hair cell function. In addition to inner ear hair cells, aquatic vertebrates have hair cells on the surface of their body in the lateral line system. The ionic environment of these cells also appears to be regulated, although the mechanisms of this regulation are less understood than those of the mammalian inner ear. We identified the merovingian mutant through genetic screening in zebrafish for genes involved in drug-induced hair cell death. Mutants show complete resistance to neomycin-induced hair cell death and partial resistance to cisplatin-induced hair cell death. This resistance is probably due to impaired drug uptake as a result of reduced mechanotransduction ability, suggesting that the mutants have defects in hair cell function independent of drug treatment. Through genetic mapping we found that merovingian mutants contain a mutation in the transcription factor gcm2. This gene is important for the production of ionocytes, which are cells crucial for whole body pH regulation in fish. We found that merovingian mutants showed an acidified extracellular environment in the vicinity of both inner ear and lateral line hair cells. We believe that this acidified extracellular environment is responsible for the defects seen in hair cells of merovingian mutants, and that these mutants would serve as a valuable model for further study of the role of pH in hair cell function.

Using the zebrafish lateral line to uncover novel mechanisms of action and prevention in drug-induced hair cell death

The majority of hearing loss and balance disorders are caused by the permanent loss of mechanosensory hair cells of the inner ear. Identification of genes and compounds that modulate susceptibility to hair cell death is frequently confounded by the difficulties of assaying for such complex phenomena in mammalian models. The zebrafish has emerged as a powerful animal model for genetic and chemical screening in many contexts. Several characteristics of the zebrafish, such as its small size and external location of mechanosensory hair cells within the lateral line sensory organ, uniquely position it as an ideal model organism for the study of hair cell toxicity. We have used this model to screen for genes and compounds that affect hair cell survival during ototoxin exposure and have identified agents that would not be expected to play a role in this process based on a priori knowledge of their function. The identification of such agents yields better understanding of hair cell death and holds promise to stem hearing loss and balance disorders in the human population.

Anion exchanger 1b in stereocilia is required for the functioning of mechanotransducer channels in lateral-line hair cells of zebrafish

The anion exchanger (AE) plays critical roles in physiological processes including CO2 transport and volume regulation in erythrocytes and acid-base regulation in renal tubules. Although expression of the AE in inner-ear hair cells was reported, its specific localization and function are still unclear. Using in situ hybridization, we found that the AE1b transcript is expressed in lateral-line hair cells of zebrafish larvae. An immunohistochemical analysis with a zebrafish-specific antibody localized AE1b to stereocilia of hair cells, and the expression was eliminated by morpholino knockdown of AE1b. A non-invasive, scanning ion-selective electrode technique was applied to analyze mechanotransducer (MET) channel-mediated Ca2+ influx at stereocilia of hair cells of intact fish. Ca2+ influx was effectively suppressed by AE1b morpholino knockdown and inhibitor (DIDS) treatment. Elevating external Ca2+ (0.2 to 2 mM) neutralized the inhibition of DIDS. Taken together, this study provides solid evidence to show that AE1b in stereocilia is required for the proper functioning of MET channels.

Physiological impacts of elevated carbon dioxide and ocean acidification on fish

Most fish studied to date efficiently compensate for a hypercapnic acid-base disturbance; however, many recent studies examining the effects of ocean acidification on fish have documented impacts at CO2 levels predicted to occur before the end of this century. Notable impacts on neurosensory and behavioral endpoints, otolith growth, mitochondrial function, and metabolic rate demonstrate an unexpected sensitivity to current-day and near-future CO2 levels. Most explanations for these effects seem to center on increases in Pco2 and HCO3− that occur in the body during pH compensation for acid-base balance; however, few studies have measured these parameters at environmentally relevant CO2 levels or directly related them to reported negative endpoints. This compensatory response is well documented, but noted variation in dynamic regulation of acid-base transport pathways across species, exposure levels, and exposure duration suggests that multiple strategies may be utilized to cope with hypercapnia. Understanding this regulation and changes in ion gradients in extracellular and intracellular compartments during CO2 exposure could provide a basis for predicting sensitivity and explaining interspecies variation. Based on analysis of the existing literature, the present review presents a clear message that ocean acidification may cause significant effects on fish across multiple physiological systems, suggesting that pH compensation does not necessarily confer tolerance as downstream consequences and tradeoffs occur. It remains difficult to assess if acclimation responses during abrupt CO2 exposures will translate to fitness impacts over longer timescales. Nonetheless, identifying mechanisms and processes that may be subject to selective pressure could be one of many important components of assessing adaptive capacity.

A new model for fish ion regulation: identification of ionocytes in freshwater- and seawater-acclimated medaka (Oryzias latipes)

The ion regulation mechanisms of fishes have been recently studied in zebrafish (Danio rerio), a stenohaline species. However, recent advances using this organism are not necessarily applicable to euryhaline fishes. The euryhaline species medaka (Oryzias latipes), which, like zebrafish, is genetically well categorized and amenable to molecular manipulation, was proposed as an alternative model for studying osmoregulation during acclimation to different salinities. To establish its suitability as an alternative, the present study was conducted to (1) identify different types of ionocytes in the embryonic skin and (2) analyze gene expressions of the transporters during seawater acclimation. Double/triple in situ hybridization and/or immunocytochemistry revealed that freshwater (FW) medaka contain three types of ionocyte: (1) Na(+)/H(+) exchanger 3 (NHE3) cells with apical NHE3 and basolateral Na(+)-K(+)-2Cl(-) cotransporter (NKCC), Na(+)-K(+)-ATPase (NKA) and anion exchanger (AE); (2) Na(+)-Cl(-) cotransporter (NCC) cells with apical NCC and basolateral H(+)-ATPase; and (3) epithelial Ca(2+) channel (ECaC) cells [presumed accessory (AC) cells] with apical ECaC. On the other hand, seawater (SW) medaka has a single predominant ionocyte type, which possesses apical cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) and NHE3 and basolateral NKCC and NKA and is accompanied by smaller AC cells that express lower levels of basolateral NKA. Reciprocal gene expressions of decreased NHE3, AE, NCC and ECaC and increased CFTR and NKCC in medaka gills during SW were revealed by quantative PCR analysis.

Endothelin-1 regulates H⁺-ATPase-dependent transepithelial H⁺ secretion in zebrafish

Endothelin-1 (EDN1) is an important regulator of H⁺ secretion in the mammalian kidney. EDN1 enhances renal tubule H⁺-ATPase activity, but the underlying mechanism remains unclear. To further elucidate the role of EDN1 in vertebrates' acid-base regulation, the present study used zebrafish as the model to examine the effects of EDN1 and its receptors on transepithelial H⁺ secretion. Expression of EDN1 and one of its receptors, EDNRAa, was stimulated in zebrafish acclimated to acidic water. A noninvasive scanning ion-selective electrode technique was used to show that edn1 overexpression enhances H⁺ secretion in embryonic skin at 3 days post fertilization. EDNRAa loss of function significantly decreased EDN1- and acid-induced H⁺ secretion. Abrogation of EDN1-enhanced H⁺ secretion by a vacuolar H⁺-ATPase inhibitor (bafilomycin A1) suggests that EDN1 exerts its action by regulating the H⁺-ATPase-mediated H⁺ secretion. EDN1 does not appear to affect H⁺ secretion through either altering the abundance of H⁺-ATPase or affecting the cell differentiation of H⁺-ATPase-rich ionocytes, because the reduction in secretion upon ednraa knockdown was not accompanied by decreased expression of H⁺-ATPase or reduced H⁺-ATPase-rich cell density. These findings provide evidence that EDN1 signaling is involved in acid-base regulation in zebrafish and enhance our understanding of EDN1 regulation of transepithelial H⁺ secretion in vertebrates.

Molecular cloning and functional characterization of zebrafish Slc4a3/Ae3 anion exchanger

The zebrafish genome encodes two slc4a1 genes, one expressed in erythroid tissues and the other in the HR (H(+)-ATPase-rich) type of embryonic skin ionocytes, and two slc4a2 genes, one in proximal pronephric duct and the other in several extrarenal tissues of the embryo. We now report cDNA cloning and functional characterization of zebrafish slc4a3/ae3 gene products. The single ae3 gene on chromosome 9 generates at least two low-abundance ae3 transcripts differing only in their 5'-untranslated regions and encoding a single definitive Ae3 polypeptide of 1170 amino acids. The 7 kb upstream of the apparent initiator Met in ae3 exon 3 comprises multiple diverse, mobile repeat elements which disrupt and appear to truncate the Ae3 N-terminal amino acid sequence that would otherwise align with brain Ae3 of other species. Embryonic ae3 mRNA expression was detected by whole mount in situ hybridization only in fin buds at 24-72 hpf, but was detectable by RT-PCR across a range of embryonic and adult tissues. Epitope-tagged Ae3 polypeptide was expressed at or near the surface of Xenopus oocytes, and mediated low rates of DIDS-sensitive (36)Cl(-)/Cl(-) exchange in influx and efflux assays. As previously reported for Ae2 polypeptides, (36)Cl(-) transport by Ae3 was inhibited by both extracellular and intracellular acidic pH, and stimulated by alkaline pH. However, zebrafish Ae3 differed from Ae2 polypeptides in its insensitivity to NH4Cl and to hypertonicity. We conclude that multiple repeat elements have disrupted the 5'-end of the zebrafish ae3 gene, associated with N-terminal truncation of the protein and reduced anion transport activity.

The physiology of fish at low pH: the zebrafish as a model system

Ionic regulation and acid–base balance are fundamental to the physiology of vertebrates including fish. Acidification of freshwater ecosystems is recognized as a global environmental problem, and the physiological responses to acid exposure in a few fish species are well characterized. However, the underlying mechanisms promoting ionic and acid–base balance for most fish species that have been investigated remain unclear. Zebrafish (Danio rerio) has emerged as a powerful model system to elucidate the molecular basis of ionic and acid–base regulation. The utility of zebrafish is related to the ease with which it can be genetically manipulated, its suitability for state-of-the-art molecular and cellular approaches, and its tolerance to diverse environmental conditions. Recent studies have identified several key regulatory mechanisms enabling acclimation of zebrafish to acidic environments, including activation of the sodium/hydrogen exchanger (NHE) and H+-ATPase for acid secretion and Na+ uptake, cortisol-mediated regulation of transcellular and paracellular Na+ movements, and ionocyte proliferation controlled by specific cell-fate transcription factors. These integrated physiological responses ultimately contribute to ionic and acid–base homeostasis in zebrafish exposed to acidic water. In the present review, we provide an overview of the general effects of acid exposure on freshwater fish, the adaptive mechanisms promoting extreme acid tolerance in fishes native to acidic environments, and the mechanisms regulating ionic and acid–base balance during acid exposure in zebrafish.

Transcriptome and expression profiling analysis of Leuciscus waleckii: an exploration of the alkali-adapted mechanisms of a freshwater teleost

The strategies by which freshwater teleosts maintain acid-base homeostasis under alkaline stress are attractive and have been explored for a long time. In this study, a cyprinid fish that tolerates extremely alkaline environments (pH 9.6), Leuciscus waleckii, was used as a model to explore the molecular mechanisms of acid-base regulation. Using a lab-controlled alkaline challenge test and 454 sequencing, the transcriptomes of their gills and kidney were profiled and compared. mRNA profiling produced 1 826 022 reads, generated 30 606 contigs with an average length of 1022 bp, of which 19 196 were annotated successfully. Comparative analysis of the expression profiles between alkaline and freshwater L. waleckii habitats revealed approximately 4647 and 7184 genes that were differentially expressed (p < 0.05) in gills and kidney, respectively, of which 2398 and 5127 had more than twofold changes in expression. Gene ontology analysis and KEGG enrichment analysis were conducted. Comprehensive analysis found that genes involved in ion transportation, ammonia transportation, and arachidonic acid metabolism pathways changed dramatically and played important roles in acid-base homeostasis in fish under alkaline stress. These results support the existing hypotheses about candidate genes involved in acid-base regulation under alkaline stress and prompt several new hypotheses. The large transcriptome dataset collected in this study is a useful resource for the exploration of homeostasis modulation in other fish species.

Functional and population genomic divergence within and between two species of killifish adapted to different osmotic niches

Adaptation to salinity affects species distributions, promotes speciation, and guides many evolutionary patterns in fishes. To uncover the basis of a complex trait like osmoregulation, genome-level analyses are sensible. We combine population genomic scans with genome expression profiling to discover candidate genes and pathways associated with divergence between osmotic environments. We compared transcriptome sequence divergence between multiple freshwater and saltwater populations of the rainwater killifish, Lucania parva. We also compared sequence divergence between L. parva and its sister species, Lucania goodei, a freshwater specialist. We found highly differentiated single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) between freshwater and saltwater L. parva populations in cell junction and ion transport genes, including V-type H(+) ATPase. Between species, we found divergence in reproduction and osmotic stress genes. Genes that were differentially expressed between species during osmotic acclimation included genes involved in ion transport and cell volume regulation. Gene sets that were divergent in coding sequence and divergent in expression did not overlap, although they did converge in function. Like many studies using genomic scans, our approach may miss some loci that contribute to adaptation but have complicated patterns of allelic variation. Our study suggests that gene expression and coding sequence may evolve independently as populations adapt to a complex physiological challenge.

The SLC4 family of bicarbonate (HCO₃⁻) transporters

The SLC4 family consists of 10 genes (SLC4A1-5; SLC4A7-11). All encode integral membrane proteins with very similar hydropathy plots-consistent with 10-14 transmembrane segments. Nine SLC4 members encode proteins that transport HCO3(-) (or a related species, such as CO3(2-)) across the plasma membrane. Functionally, eight of these proteins fall into two major groups: three Cl-HCO3 exchangers (AE1-3) and five Na(+)-coupled HCO3(-) transporters (NBCe1, NBCe2, NBCn1, NBCn2, NDCBE). Two of the Na(+)-coupled transporters (NBCe1, NBCe2) are electrogenic; the other three Na(+)-coupled HCO3(-) transporters and all three AEs are electroneutral. In addition, two other SLC4 members (AE4, SLC4A9 and BTR1, SLC4A11) do not yet have a firmly established function. Most, though not all, SLC4 members are functionally inhibited by 4,4'-diisothiocyanatostilbene-2,2'-disulfonate (DIDS). SLC4 proteins play important roles many modes of acid-base homeostasis: the carriage of CO2 by erythrocytes, the transport of H(+) or HCO3(-) by several epithelia, as well as the regulation of cell volume and intracellular pH.

Compensatory regulation of Na+ absorption by Na+/H+ exchanger and Na+-Cl- cotransporter in zebrafish (Danio rerio)

INTRODUCTION

In mammals, internal Na+ homeostasis is maintained through Na+ reabsorption via a variety of Na+ transport proteins with mutually compensating functions, which are expressed in different segments of the nephrons. In zebrafish, Na+ homeostasis is achieved mainly through the skin/gill ionocytes, namely Na+/H+ exchanger (NHE3b)-expressing H+-ATPase rich (HR) cells and Na+-Cl- cotransporter (NCC)-expressing NCC cells, which are functionally homologous to mammalian proximal and distal convoluted tubular cells, respectively. The present study aimed to investigate whether or not the functions of HR and NCC ionocytes are differentially regulated to compensate for disruptions of internal Na+ homeostasis and if the cell differentiation of the ionocytes is involved in this regulation pathway.

RESULTS

Translational knockdown of ncc caused an increase in HR cell number and a resulting augmentation of Na+ uptake in zebrafish larvae, while NHE3b loss-of-function caused an increase in NCC cell number with a concomitant recovery of Na+ absorption. Environmental acid stress suppressed nhe3b expression in HR cells and decreased Na+ content, which was followed by up-regulation of NCC cells accompanied by recovery of Na+ content. Moreover, knockdown of ncc resulted in a significant decrease of Na+ content in acid-acclimated zebrafish.

CONCLUSIONS

These results provide evidence that HR and NCC cells exhibit functional redundancy in Na+ absorption, similar to the regulatory mechanisms in mammalian kidney, and suggest this functional redundancy is a critical strategy used by zebrafish to survive in a harsh environment that disturbs body fluid Na+ homeostasis.