Perturbed mitochondrial dynamics, an emerging aspect of epithelial-microbe interactions

Butyrate reduces adherent-invasive E. coli-evoked disruption of epithelial mitochondrial morphology and barrier function: involvement of free fatty acid receptor 3

Gut bacteria provide benefits to the host and have been implicated in inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), where adherent-invasive E. coli (AIEC) pathobionts (e.g., strain LF82) are associated with Crohn's disease. E. coli-LF82 causes fragmentation of the epithelial mitochondrial network, leading to increased epithelial permeability. We hypothesized that butyrate would limit the epithelial mitochondrial disruption caused by E. coli-LF82. Human colonic organoids and the T84 epithelial cell line infected with E. coli-LF82 (MOI = 100, 4 h) showed a significant increase in mitochondrial network fission that was reduced by butyrate (10 mM) co-treatment. Butyrate reduced the loss of mitochondrial membrane potential caused by E. coli-LF82 and increased expression of PGC-1α mRNA, the master regulator of mitochondrial biogenesis. Metabolomics revealed that butyrate significantly altered E. coli-LF82 central carbon metabolism leading to diminished glucose uptake and increased succinate secretion. Correlating with preservation of mitochondrial network form/function, butyrate reduced E. coli-LF82 transcytosis across T84-cell monolayers. The use of the G-protein inhibitor, pertussis toxin, implicated GPCR signaling as critical to the effect of butyrate, and the free fatty acid receptor three (FFAR3, GPR41) agonist, AR420626, reproduced butyrate's effect in terms of ameliorating the loss of barrier function and reducing the mitochondrial fragmentation observed in E. coli-LF82 infected T84-cells and organoids. These data indicate that butyrate helps maintain epithelial mitochondrial form/function when challenged by E. coli-LF82 and that this occurs, at least in part, via FFAR3. Thus, loss of butyrate-producing bacteria in IBD in the context of pathobionts would contribute to loss of epithelial mitochondrial and barrier functions that could evoke disease and/or exaggerate a low-grade inflammation.

Epithelial NAD+ depletion drives mitochondrial dysfunction and contributes to intestinal inflammation

Introduction

We have previously demonstrated that a pathologic downregulation of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma coactivator 1-alpha (PGC1α) within the intestinal epithelium contributes to the pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). However, the mechanism underlying downregulation of PGC1α expression and activity during IBD is not yet clear.

Methods

Mice (male; C57Bl/6, Villincre/+;Pgc1afl/fl mice, and Pgc1afl/fl) were subjected to experimental colitis and treated with nicotinamide riboside. Western blot, high-resolution respirometry, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) quantification, and immunoprecipitation were used to in this study.

Results

We demonstrate a significant depletion in the NAD+ levels within the intestinal epithelium of mice undergoing experimental colitis, as well as humans with ulcerative colitis. While we found no decrease in the levels of NAD+-synthesizing enzymes within the intestinal epithelium of mice undergoing experimental colitis, we did find an increase in the mRNA level, as well as the enzymatic activity, of the NAD+-consuming enzyme poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase-1 (PARP1). Treatment of mice undergoing experimental colitis with an NAD+ precursor reduced the severity of colitis, restored mitochondrial function, and increased active PGC1α levels; however, NAD+ repletion did not benefit transgenic mice that lack PGC1α within the intestinal epithelium, suggesting that the therapeutic effects require an intact PGC1α axis.

Discussion

Our results emphasize the importance of PGC1α expression to both mitochondrial health and homeostasis within the intestinal epithelium and suggest a novel therapeutic approach for disease management. These findings also provide a mechanistic basis for clinical trials of nicotinamide riboside in IBD patients.

Cell surface ATP synthase-released H+ and ATP play key roles in cocoa butter intake-mediated regulation of gut immunity through releases of cytokines in rat

Proper food intake is important for maintaining good health in humans. Chocolate is known to exert anti-inflammatory effects; however, the mechanisms remain unclear. In this study, we aimed to investigate the effects of cocoa butter intake on gut immunity in rats and rabbits. Cocoa butter intake increased the lymph flow, cell density, and IL-1β, IL-6 and IL-10 levels in mesenteric lymph. Clodronate, a macrophage depletion compound, significantly enhanced the release of all cytokines. The immunoreactivities of macrophage markers CD68 and F4/80 in the jejunal villi were significantly decreased with clodronate. Piceatannol, a selective cell surface ATP synthase inhibitor significantly reduced the cocoa butter intake-mediated releases of IL-1β, IL-6 and IL-10. The immunoreactivities of cell surface ATP synthase were observed in rat jejunal villi. Shear stress stimulation on the myofibroblast cells isolated from rat jejunum released ATP and carbon dioxide depended with H+ release. In rabbit in vivo experiments, cocoa butter intake increased the concentrations of ATP and H+ in the portal vein. The in vitro experiments with isolated cells of rat jejunal lamina propria the pH of 3.0 and 5.0 in the medium released significantly IL-1β and IL-6. ATP selectively released IL-10. These findings suggest that cocoa butter intake regulates the gut immunity through the release and transport of IL-1β, IL-6, and IL-10 into mesenteric lymph vessels in a negative feedback system. In addition, the H+ and ATP released from cell surface ATP synthase in jejunal villi play key roles in the cocoa butter intake-mediated regulation of gut immunity.

Obesogenic diet leads to luminal overproduction of the complex IV inhibitor H2 S and mitochondrial dysfunction in mouse colonocytes

Obesity is characterized by systemic low-grade inflammation associated with disturbances of intestinal homeostasis and microbiota dysbiosis. Mitochondrial metabolism sustains epithelial homeostasis by providing energy to colonic epithelial cells (CEC) but can be altered by dietary modulations of the luminal environment. Our study aimed at evaluating whether the consumption of an obesogenic diet alters the mitochondrial function of CEC in mice. Mice were fed for 22 weeks with a 58% kcal fat diet (diet-induced obesity [DIO] group) or a 10% kcal fat diet (control diet, CTRL). Colonic crypts were isolated to assess mitochondrial function while colonic content was collected to characterize microbiota and metabolites. DIO mice developed obesity, intestinal hyperpermeability, and increased endotoxemia. Analysis of isolated colonic crypt bioenergetics revealed a mitochondrial dysfunction marked by decreased basal and maximal respirations and lower respiration linked to ATP production in DIO mice. Yet, CEC gene expression of mitochondrial respiration chain complexes and mitochondrial dynamics were not altered in DIO mice. In parallel, DIO mice displayed increased colonic bile acid concentrations, associated with higher abundance of Desulfovibrionaceae. Sulfide concentration was markedly increased in the colon content of DIO mice. Hence, chronic treatment of CTRL mouse colon organoids with sodium sulfide provoked mitochondrial dysfunction similar to that observed in vivo in DIO mice while acute exposure of isolated mitochondria from CEC of CTRL mice to sodium sulfide diminished complex IV activity. Our study provides new insights into colon mitochondrial dysfunction in obesity by revealing that increased sulfide production by DIO-induced dysbiosis impairs complex IV activity in mouse CEC.

Membrane Vesicles of Toxigenic Clostridioides difficile Affect the Metabolism of Liver HepG2 Cells

Clostridioides difficile infection (CDI) appears to be associated with different liver diseases. C. difficile secretes membrane vesicles (MVs), which may be involved in the development of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NALFD) and drug-induced liver injury (DILI). In this study, we investigated the presence of C. difficile-derived MVs in patients with and without CDI, and analyzed their effects on pathways related to NAFLD and DILI in HepG2 cells. Fecal extracellular vesicles from CDI patients showed an increase of Clostridioides MVs. C. difficile-derived MVs that were internalized by HepG2 cells. Toxigenic C. difficile-derived MVs decreased mitochondrial membrane potential and increased intracellular ROS compared to non-toxigenic C. difficile-derived MVs. In addition, toxigenic C. difficile-derived MVs upregulated the expression of genes related to mitochondrial fission (FIS1 and DRP1), antioxidant status (GPX1), apoptosis (CASP3), glycolysis (HK2, PDK1, LDHA and PKM2) and β-oxidation (CPT1A), as well as anti- and pro-inflammatory genes (IL-6 and IL-10). However, non-toxigenic C. difficile-derived MVs did not produce changes in the expression of these genes, except for CPT1A, which was also increased. In conclusion, the metabolic and mitochondrial changes produced by MVs obtained from toxigenic C. difficile present in CDI feces are common pathophysiological features observed in the NAFLD spectrum and DILI.

Tissue imaging reveals disruption of epithelial mitochondrial networks and loss of mitochondria-associated cytochrome-C in inflamed human and murine colon

Mitochondrial dysfunction as defined by transcriptomic and proteomic analysis of biopsies or ultra-structure in transmission electron microscopy occurs in inflammatory bowel disease (IBD); however, mitochondrial dynamics in IBD have received minimal attention, with most investigations relying on cell-based in vitro models. We build on these studies by adapting the epithelial cell immunofluorescence workflow to imaging mitochondrial networks in normal and inflamed colonic tissue (i.e., murine di-nitrobenzene sulphonic acid (DNBS)-induced colitis, human ulcerative colitis). Using antibodies directed to TOMM20 (translocase of outer mitochondrial membrane 20) and cytochrome-C, we have translated the cell-based protocol for high-fidelity imaging to examine epithelial mitochondria networks in intact intestine. In epithelia of non-inflamed small or large intestinal tissue, the mitochondrial networks were dense and compact. This pattern was more pronounced in the basal region of the cell compared to that between the nucleus and apical surface facing the gut lumen. In comparison, mitochondrial networks in inflamed tissue displayed substantial loss of TOMM20⁺ staining. The remaining networks were less dense and fragmented, and contained isolated spherical mitochondrial fragments. The degree of mitochondrial network fragmentation mirrored the severity of inflammation, as assessed by blinded semi-quantitative scoring. As an indication of poor cell 'health' or viability, cytosolic cytochrome-C was observed in enterocytes with highly fragmented mitochondria. Thus, high-resolution and detailed visualization of mitochondrial networks in tissue is a feasible and valuable approach to assess disease, suited to characterizing mitochondrial abnormalities in tissue. We speculate that drugs that maintain a functional remodelling mitochondrial network and limit excess fragmentation could be a valuable addition to current therapies for IBD.

Efficacy of clofazimine and nitazoxanide combination in treating intestinal cryptosporidiosis and enhancing intestinal cellular regeneration in immunocompromised mice

Cryptosporidium is a widely distributed food and water-borne enteric protozoan that affects a wide range of vertebrates, resulting in life-threatening consequences, particularly in immunocompromised hosts. The lack of effective anti-cryptosporidial drugs may be related to the parasite's unique intestinal location, plus the lack of studies on the process by which the protozoan is able to impair intestinal cellular function. The present work aimed to assess the effect of clofazimine (CFZ), an FDA-approved drug for the treatment of leprosy, as an anti-cryptosporidial drug, using transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and an immunocompromised mouse model. The affected intestinal mucosa with parasitic stages in the infected non-treated group showed signs of severe cellular degeneration, including the loss of tight junctions, deformed and damaged microvilli and irregularly distributed nuclei with a severely vacuolated cytoplasm. Comparatively, nitazoxanide (NTZ) monotherapy showed the lowest efficacy as the drug was associated with the lowest rate of oocyst shedding. In addition, NTZ treatment failed to achieve the return of complete cellular function; abnormalities were evident in the microvilli, cytoplasmic organelles and nuclear features. Clofazimine demonstrated an improvement of the mucosal cellular components, including mitochondria and significantly reduced oocyst shedding. Combined treatment with low-dose CFZ and half-dose NTZ resulted in a significant improvement in the enterocyte cellular structures with an absence of intracellular parasitic stages. These results indicate that CFZ, a safe and readily prescribed drug, effectively reduces cryptosporidiosis when used in combination with only half the dose of NTZ. Used in combination, these drugs were shown to be efficient in regaining intestinal cellular activity following Cryptosporidium-induced functional damage in an immunocompromised mouse model.

Impact of experimental colitis on mitochondrial bioenergetics in intestinal epithelial cells

Intestinal homeostasis is highly dependent on optimal epithelial barrier function and permeability. Intestinal epithelial cells (IEC) regulate these properties acting as cellular gatekeepers by selectively absorbing nutrients and controlling the passage of luminal bacteria. These functions are energy demanding processes that are presumably met through mitochondrial-based processes. Routine methods for examining IEC mitochondrial function remain sparse, hence, our objective is to present standardized methods for quantifying mitochondrial energetics in an immortalized IEC line. Employing the murine IEC^4.1 cell line, we present adapted methods and protocols to examine mitochondrial function using two well-known platforms: the Seahorse Extracellular Flux Analyzer and Oxygraph-2 k. To demonstrate the applicability of these protocols and instruments, IEC were treated with and without the murine colitogenic agent, dextran sulfate sodium (DSS, 2% w/v). Profound impairments with DSS treatment were found with both platforms, however, the Oxygraph-2 k allowed greater resolution of affected pathways including short-chain fatty acid metabolism. Mitochondrial functional analysis is a novel tool to explore the relationship between IEC energetics and functional consequences within the contexts of health and disease. The outlined methods offer an introductory starting point for such assessment and provide the investigator with insights into platform-specific capabilities.

Limosilactobacillus fermentum, Current Evidence on the Antioxidant Properties and Opportunities to be Exploited as a Probiotic Microorganism

The unbalance in the production and removal of oxygen-reactive species in the human organism leads to oxidative stress, a physiological condition commonly linked to the occurrence of cancer, neurodegenerative, inflammatory, and metabolic disorders. The implications of oxidative stress in the gut have been associated with gut microbiota impairments and gut dysbiosis. Some lactobacilli strains have shown an efficient antioxidant system capable of protecting against oxidative stress and related-chronic diseases. Recently, in vitro and experimental studies and some clinical trials have demonstrated the efficacy of the administration of various Limosilactobacillus fermentum strains to modulate beneficially the host antioxidant system resulting in the amelioration of a variety of systemic diseases phenotypes. This review presents and discusses the currently available studies on identifying L. fermentum strains with anti-oxidant properties, their sources, range of the administered doses, and duration of the intervention in experiments with animals and clinical trials. This review strives to serve as a relevant and well-cataloged reference of L. fermentum strains with capabilities of inducing anti-oxidant effects and health-promoting benefits to the host, envisaging their broad applicability to disease control.

The role of FUNDC1 in mitophagy, mitochondrial dynamics and human diseases

Mitochondria are the principal sites of energy metabolism and provide most of the energy needed for normal cellular function. They are dynamic organelles that constantly undergo fission, fusion and mitophagy to maintain their homeostasis and function. However, dysregulated mitochondrial dynamics and mitophagy leads to reduced ATP generation and mutation of their DNA, which ultimately leads to cell death. Increasing evidence has shown that the FUN14 domain-containing protein 1 (FUNDC1), a novel mitophagy receptor, participates in the process of mitochondrial dynamics and mitophagy and plays a critical role in various human diseases. Herein, we review the role of FUNDC1 in mitophagy and mitochondrial dynamics, thus providing a better understanding of the relationship between the two processes. Moreover, we summarize the treatments targeting FUNDC1, and suggest that FUNDC1 may represent a promising therapeutic target for the treatment of several human diseases such as cardiovascular diseases, metabolic syndrome, cancer and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD).

Type III secreted effectors that target mitochondria

A type III secretion system (T3SS) is used by Gram-negative bacterial pathogens to secrete and translocate a battery of proteins, termed effectors, from the bacteria directly into the host cells. These effectors, which are thought to play a key role in bacterial virulence, hijack and modify the activity of diverse host cell organelles, including mitochondria. Mitochondria-the energy powerhouse of the cell-are important cell organelles that play role in numerous critical cellular processes, including the initiation of apoptosis and the induction of innate immunity. Therefore, it is not surprising that pathogenic bacteria use mitochondrially targeted effectors to control host cell death and immunity pathways. Surprisingly, however, we found that despite their importance, only a limited number of type III secreted effectors have been characterised to target host mitochondria, and the mechanisms underlying their mitochondrial activity have not been sufficiently analysed. These include effectors secreted by the enteric attaching and effacing (A/E), Salmonella and Shigella bacterial pathogens. Here we give an overview of key findings, present gaps in knowledge and hypotheses concerning the mode by which these type III secreted effectors control the host and the bacterial cell life (and death) through targeting mitochondria.

Metabolic and behavioral features of acute hyperpurinergia and the maternal immune activation mouse model of autism spectrum disorder

Since 2012, studies in mice, rats, and humans have suggested that abnormalities in purinergic signaling may be a final common pathway for many genetic and environmental causes of autism spectrum disorder (ASD). The current study in mice was conducted to characterize the bioenergetic, metabolomic, breathomic, and behavioral features of acute hyperpurinergia triggered by systemic injection of the purinergic agonist and danger signal, extracellular ATP (eATP). Responses were studied in C57BL/6J mice in the maternal immune activation (MIA) model and controls. Basal metabolic rates and locomotor activity were measured in CLAMS cages. Plasma metabolomics measured 401 metabolites. Breathomics measured 98 volatile organic compounds. Intraperitoneal eATP dropped basal metabolic rate measured by whole body oxygen consumption by 74% ± 6% (mean ± SEM) and rectal temperature by 6.2˚ ± 0.3˚C in 30 minutes. Over 200 metabolites from 37 different biochemical pathways where changed. Breathomics showed an increase in exhaled carbon monoxide, dimethylsulfide, and isoprene. Metabolomics revealed an acute increase in lactate, citrate, purines, urea, dopamine, eicosanoids, microbiome metabolites, oxidized glutathione, thiamine, niacinamide, and pyridoxic acid, and decreased folate-methylation-1-carbon intermediates, amino acids, short and medium chain acyl-carnitines, phospholipids, ceramides, sphingomyelins, cholesterol, bile acids, and vitamin D similar to some children with ASD. MIA animals were hypersensitive to postnatal exposure to eATP or poly(IC), which produced a rebound increase in body temperature that lasted several weeks before returning to baseline. Acute hyperpurinergia produced metabolic and behavioral changes in mice. The behaviors and metabolic changes produced by ATP injection were associated with mitochondrial functional changes that were profound but reversible.

Crohn's Disease Pathobiont Adherent-Invasive E coli Disrupts Epithelial Mitochondrial Networks With Implications for Gut Permeability

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Adherent-invasive Escherichia coli are implicated in inflammatory bowel disease, and mitochondrial dysfunction has been observed in biopsy specimens from patients with inflammatory bowel disease. As a novel aspect of adherent-invasive E coli-epithelial interaction, we hypothesized that E coli (strain LF82) would elicit substantial disruption of epithelial mitochondrial form and function.

METHODS

Monolayers of human colon-derived epithelial cell lines were exposed to E coli-LF82 or commensal E coli and RNA sequence analysis, mitochondrial function (adenosine triphosphate synthesis) and dynamics (mitochondrial network imaging, immunoblotting for fission and fusion proteins), and epithelial permeability (transepithelial resistance, flux of fluorescein isothiocyanate-dextran and bacteria) were assessed.

RESULTS

E coli-LF82 significantly affected epithelial expression of ∼8600 genes, many relating to mitochondrial function. E coli-LF82-infected epithelia showed swollen mitochondria, reduced mitochondrial membrane potential and adenosine triphosphate, and fragmentation of the mitochondrial network: events not observed with dead E coli-LF82, medium from bacterial cultures, or control E coli. Treatment with Mitochondrial Division Inhibitor 1 (Mdivi1, inhibits dynamin-related peptide 1, guanosine triphosphatase principally responsible for mitochondrial fission) or P110 (prevents dynamin-related peptide 1 binding to mitochondrial fission 1 protein) partially reduced E coli-LF82-induced mitochondrial fragmentation in the short term. E coli-LF82-infected epithelia showed loss of the long isoform of optic atrophy factor 1, which mediates mitochondrial fusion. Mitochondrial Division Inhibitor 1 reduced the magnitude of E coli-LF82-induced increased transepithelial flux of fluorescein isothiocyanate dextran. By 8 hours after infection, increased cytosolic cytochrome C and DNA fragmentation were apparent without evidence of caspase-3 or apoptosis inducing factor activation.

CONCLUSIONS

Epithelial mitochondrial fragmentation caused by E coli-LF82 could be targeted to maintain cellular homeostasis and mitigate infection-induced loss of epithelial barrier function. Data have been deposited in NCBI's Gene Expression Omnibus and are accessible through GEO series accession numbers GSE154121 and GSE154122 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/geo/query/acc.cgi?acc=GSE154121).