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Liang NE, Parker JB, Lu JM, Januszyk M, Wan DC, Griffin M, Longaker MT. Understanding the Foreign Body Response via Single-Cell Meta-Analysis. BIOLOGY 2024; 13:540. [PMID: 39056733 PMCID: PMC11273435 DOI: 10.3390/biology13070540] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2024] [Revised: 07/12/2024] [Accepted: 07/16/2024] [Indexed: 07/28/2024]
Abstract
Foreign body response (FBR) is a universal reaction to implanted biomaterial that can affect the function and longevity of the implant. A few studies have attempted to identify targets for treating FBR through the use of single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq), though the generalizability of these findings from an individual study may be limited. In our study, we perform a meta-analysis of scRNA-seq data from all available FBR mouse studies and integrate these data to identify gene signatures specific to FBR across different models and anatomic locations. We identify subclusters of fibroblasts and macrophages that emerge in response to foreign bodies and characterize their signaling pathways, gene ontology terms, and downstream mediators. The fibroblast subpopulations enriched in the setting of FBR demonstrated significant signaling interactions in the transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β) signaling pathway, with known pro-fibrotic mediators identified as top expressed genes in these FBR-derived fibroblasts. In contrast, FBR-enriched macrophage subclusters highly expressed pro-fibrotic and pro-inflammatory mediators downstream of tumor necrosis factor (TNF) signaling. Cell-cell interactions were additionally interrogated using CellChat, with identification of key signaling interactions enriched between fibroblasts and macrophages in FBR. By combining multiple FBR datasets, our meta-analysis study identifies common cell-specific gene signatures enriched in foreign body reactions, providing potential therapeutic targets for patients requiring medical implants across a myriad of devices and indications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Norah E. Liang
- Hagey Laboratory of Pediatric Regenerative Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA; (N.E.L.); (J.B.P.); (J.M.L.); (M.J.); (D.C.W.); (M.G.)
- Division of General Surgery, Department of Surgery, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Jennifer B. Parker
- Hagey Laboratory of Pediatric Regenerative Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA; (N.E.L.); (J.B.P.); (J.M.L.); (M.J.); (D.C.W.); (M.G.)
- Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - John M. Lu
- Hagey Laboratory of Pediatric Regenerative Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA; (N.E.L.); (J.B.P.); (J.M.L.); (M.J.); (D.C.W.); (M.G.)
- Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Michael Januszyk
- Hagey Laboratory of Pediatric Regenerative Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA; (N.E.L.); (J.B.P.); (J.M.L.); (M.J.); (D.C.W.); (M.G.)
- Division of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Department of Surgery, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Derrick C. Wan
- Hagey Laboratory of Pediatric Regenerative Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA; (N.E.L.); (J.B.P.); (J.M.L.); (M.J.); (D.C.W.); (M.G.)
- Division of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Department of Surgery, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Michelle Griffin
- Hagey Laboratory of Pediatric Regenerative Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA; (N.E.L.); (J.B.P.); (J.M.L.); (M.J.); (D.C.W.); (M.G.)
- Division of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Department of Surgery, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Michael T. Longaker
- Hagey Laboratory of Pediatric Regenerative Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA; (N.E.L.); (J.B.P.); (J.M.L.); (M.J.); (D.C.W.); (M.G.)
- Division of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Department of Surgery, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
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2
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Miao YR, Rankin EB, Giaccia AJ. Therapeutic targeting of the functionally elusive TAM receptor family. Nat Rev Drug Discov 2024; 23:201-217. [PMID: 38092952 PMCID: PMC11335090 DOI: 10.1038/s41573-023-00846-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/02/2023] [Indexed: 03/07/2024]
Abstract
The TAM receptor family of TYRO3, AXL and MERTK regulates tissue and immune homeostasis. Aberrant TAM receptor signalling has been linked to a range of diseases, including cancer, fibrosis and viral infections. Specifically, the dysregulation of TAM receptors can enhance tumour growth and metastasis due to their involvement in multiple oncogenic pathways. For example, TAM receptors have been implicated in the epithelial-mesenchymal transition, maintaining the stem cell phenotype, immune modulation, proliferation, angiogenesis and resistance to conventional and targeted therapies. Therapeutically, multiple TAM receptor inhibitors are in preclinical and clinical development for cancers and other indications, with those targeting AXL being the most clinically advanced. Although there has been notable clinical advancement in recent years, challenges persist. This Review aims to provide both biological and clinical insights into the current therapeutic landscape of TAM receptor inhibitors, and evaluates their potential for the treatment of cancer and non-malignant diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Rebecca Miao
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Erinn B Rankin
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
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3
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Apostolo D, Ferreira LL, Vincenzi F, Vercellino N, Minisini R, Latini F, Ferrari B, Burlone ME, Pirisi M, Bellan M. From MASH to HCC: the role of Gas6/TAM receptors. Front Immunol 2024; 15:1332818. [PMID: 38298195 PMCID: PMC10827955 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2024.1332818] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2023] [Accepted: 01/02/2024] [Indexed: 02/02/2024] Open
Abstract
Metabolic dysfunction-associated steatohepatitis (MASH) is the replacement term for what used to be called nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH). It is characterized by inflammation and injury of the liver in the presence of cardiometabolic risk factors and may eventually result in the development of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), the most common form of primary liver cancer. Several pathogenic mechanisms are involved in the transition from MASH to HCC, encompassing metabolic injury, inflammation, immune dysregulation and fibrosis. In this context, Gas6 (Growth Arrest-Specific 6) and TAM (Tyro3, Axl, and MerTK) receptors may play important roles. The Gas6/TAM family is involved in the modulation of inflammation, lipid metabolism, fibrosis, tumor progression and metastasis, processes which play an important role in the pathophysiology of acute and chronic liver diseases. In this review, we discuss MASH-associated HCC and the potential involvement of the Gas6/TAM system in disease development and progression. In addition, since therapeutic strategies for MASH and HCC are limited, we also speculate regarding possible future treatments involving the targeting of Gas6 or TAM receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daria Apostolo
- Department of Translational Medicine, Università del Piemonte Orientale, Novara, Italy
| | - Luciana L Ferreira
- Department of Translational Medicine, Università del Piemonte Orientale, Novara, Italy
| | - Federica Vincenzi
- Department of Translational Medicine, Università del Piemonte Orientale, Novara, Italy
| | - Nicole Vercellino
- Department of Translational Medicine, Università del Piemonte Orientale, Novara, Italy
| | - Rosalba Minisini
- Department of Translational Medicine, Università del Piemonte Orientale, Novara, Italy
| | - Federico Latini
- Department of Translational Medicine, Università del Piemonte Orientale, Novara, Italy
| | - Barbara Ferrari
- Department of Translational Medicine, Università del Piemonte Orientale, Novara, Italy
| | - Michela E Burlone
- Department of Internal Medicine, Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria Maggiore Della Carità, Novara, Italy
| | - Mario Pirisi
- Department of Translational Medicine, Università del Piemonte Orientale, Novara, Italy
- Department of Internal Medicine, Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria Maggiore Della Carità, Novara, Italy
- Center on Autoimmune and Allergic Diseases, Università del Piemonte Orientale, Novara, Italy
| | - Mattia Bellan
- Department of Translational Medicine, Università del Piemonte Orientale, Novara, Italy
- Department of Internal Medicine, Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria Maggiore Della Carità, Novara, Italy
- Center on Autoimmune and Allergic Diseases, Università del Piemonte Orientale, Novara, Italy
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4
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Burstyn-Cohen T, Fresia R. TAM receptors in phagocytosis: Beyond the mere internalization of particles. Immunol Rev 2023; 319:7-26. [PMID: 37596991 DOI: 10.1111/imr.13267] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2023] [Accepted: 07/18/2023] [Indexed: 08/21/2023]
Abstract
TYRO3, AXL, and MERTK constitute the TAM family of receptor tyrosine kinases, activated by their ligands GAS6 and PROS1. TAMs are necessary for adult homeostasis in the immune, nervous, reproductive, skeletal, and vascular systems. Among additional cellular functions employed by TAMs, phagocytosis is central for tissue health. TAM receptors are dominant in providing phagocytes with the molecular machinery necessary to engulf diverse targets, including apoptotic cells, myelin debris, and portions of live cells in a phosphatidylserine-dependent manner. Simultaneously, TAMs drive the release of anti-inflammatory and tissue repair molecules. Disruption of the TAM-driven phagocytic pathway has detrimental consequences, resulting in autoimmunity, male infertility, blindness, and disrupted vascular integrity, and which is thought to contribute to neurodegenerative diseases. Although structurally and functionally redundant, the TAM receptors and ligands underlie complex signaling cascades, of which several key aspects are yet to be elucidated. We discuss similarities and differences between TAMs and other phagocytic pathways, highlight future directions and how TAMs can be harnessed therapeutically to modulate phagocytosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tal Burstyn-Cohen
- The Institute for Biomedical and Oral Research, Faculty of Dental Medicine, The Hebrew University, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Roberta Fresia
- The Institute for Biomedical and Oral Research, Faculty of Dental Medicine, The Hebrew University, Jerusalem, Israel
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5
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Apostolo D, Ferreira LL, Di Tizio A, Ruaro B, Patrucco F, Bellan M. A Review: The Potential Involvement of Growth Arrest-Specific 6 and Its Receptors in the Pathogenesis of Lung Damage and in Coronavirus Disease 2019. Microorganisms 2023; 11:2038. [PMID: 37630598 PMCID: PMC10459962 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms11082038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2023] [Revised: 07/31/2023] [Accepted: 08/07/2023] [Indexed: 08/27/2023] Open
Abstract
The tyrosine kinase receptors of the TAM family-Tyro3, Axl and Mer-and their main ligand Gas6 (growth arrest-specific 6) have been implicated in several human diseases, having a particularly important role in the regulation of innate immunity and inflammatory response. The Gas6/TAM system is involved in the recognition of apoptotic debris by immune cells and this mechanism has been exploited by viruses for cell entry and infection. Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a multi-systemic disease, but the lungs are particularly affected during the acute phase and some patients may suffer persistent lung damage. Among the manifestations of the disease, fibrotic abnormalities have been observed among the survivors of COVID-19. The mechanisms of COVID-related fibrosis remain elusive, even though some parallels may be drawn with other fibrotic diseases, such as idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Due to the still limited number of scientific studies addressing this question, in this review we aimed to integrate the current knowledge of the Gas6/TAM axis with the pathophysiological mechanisms underlying COVID-19, with emphasis on the development of a fibrotic phenotype.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daria Apostolo
- Department of Translational Medicine, University of Piemonte Orientale (UPO), 28100 Novara, Italy; (D.A.); (L.L.F.); (A.D.T.); (M.B.)
| | - Luciana L. Ferreira
- Department of Translational Medicine, University of Piemonte Orientale (UPO), 28100 Novara, Italy; (D.A.); (L.L.F.); (A.D.T.); (M.B.)
| | - Alice Di Tizio
- Department of Translational Medicine, University of Piemonte Orientale (UPO), 28100 Novara, Italy; (D.A.); (L.L.F.); (A.D.T.); (M.B.)
- Respiratory Diseases Unit, Medical Department, AOU Maggiore della Carità Hospital, 28100 Novara, Italy
| | - Barbara Ruaro
- Pulmonology Department, University of Trieste, 34128 Trieste, Italy;
| | - Filippo Patrucco
- Respiratory Diseases Unit, Medical Department, AOU Maggiore della Carità Hospital, 28100 Novara, Italy
| | - Mattia Bellan
- Department of Translational Medicine, University of Piemonte Orientale (UPO), 28100 Novara, Italy; (D.A.); (L.L.F.); (A.D.T.); (M.B.)
- Division of Internal Medicine, Medical Department, AOU Maggiore della Carità Hospital, 28100 Novara, Italy
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6
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Staufer K, Huber H, Zessner-Spitzenberg J, Stauber R, Finkenstedt A, Bantel H, Weiss TS, Huber M, Starlinger P, Gruenberger T, Reiberger T, Sebens S, McIntyre G, Tabibiazar R, Giaccia A, Zoller H, Trauner M, Mikulits W. Gas6 in chronic liver disease-a novel blood-based biomarker for liver fibrosis. Cell Death Discov 2023; 9:282. [PMID: 37532736 PMCID: PMC10397215 DOI: 10.1038/s41420-023-01551-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2022] [Revised: 04/18/2023] [Accepted: 07/10/2023] [Indexed: 08/04/2023] Open
Abstract
The expression of the receptor tyrosine kinase Axl and its cleavage product soluble Axl (sAxl) is increased in liver fibrosis, cirrhosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). In this multicenter study, we evaluated the diagnostic value of Gas6, the high-affinity ligand of Axl, in patients with chronic liver disease. Levels of sAxl and Gas6, and their albumin (alb) ratios were analyzed in serum samples of patients with biopsy-proven liver fibrosis, end-stage liver disease, HCC, and healthy controls, and were compared to Fibrosis-4 (FIB-4), enhanced liver fibrosis (ELF™) test, Child-Pugh score (CPS), model of end-stage liver disease (MELD) score, hepatic venous pressure gradient, and α-fetoprotein, respectively. A total of 1111 patients (median age 57.8 y, 67.3% male) was analyzed. Gas6/alb showed high diagnostic accuracy for the detection of significant (≥F2: AUC 0.805) to advanced fibrosis (≥F3: AUC 0.818), and was superior to Fib-4 for the detection of cirrhosis (F4: AUC 0.897 vs. 0.878). In addition, Gas6/alb was highly predictive of liver disease severity (Odds ratios for CPS B/C, MELD ≥ 15, and clinically significant portal hypertension (CSPH) were 16.534, 10.258, and 12.115), and was associated with transplant-free survival (Hazard ratio 1.031). Although Gas6 and Gas6/alb showed high diagnostic accuracy for the detection of HCC in comparison to chronic liver disease patients without cirrhosis (AUC 0.852, 0.868), they failed to discriminate between HCC in cirrhosis versus cirrhosis only. In conclusion, Gas6/alb shows a high accuracy to detect significant to advanced fibrosis and cirrhosis, and predicts severity of liver disease including CSPH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katharina Staufer
- Department of General Surgery, Division of Transplantation, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
- Department of Internal Medicine III, Division of Gastroenterology & Hepatology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Heidemarie Huber
- Center for Cancer Research, Comprehensive Cancer Center Vienna, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Jasmin Zessner-Spitzenberg
- Center for Cancer Research, Comprehensive Cancer Center Vienna, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Rudolf Stauber
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Department of Internal Medicine, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Armin Finkenstedt
- Department of Medicine I, Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Endocrinology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Heike Bantel
- Department of Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Endocrinology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Thomas S Weiss
- Center for Liver Cell Research, Children's University Hospital (KUNO), University of Regensburg Hospital, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Markus Huber
- Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Therapy, Inselspital, University Hospital Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Patrick Starlinger
- Department of Surgery, Division of General Surgery, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Thomas Gruenberger
- Clinicum Favoriten, HPB Center, Vienna Health Network and Sigmund Freud Private University, Vienna, Austria
| | - Thomas Reiberger
- Department of Internal Medicine III, Division of Gastroenterology & Hepatology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
- Christian-Doppler Laboratory for Portal Hypertension and Liver Fibrosis, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Susanne Sebens
- Institute for Experimental Cancer Research, Kiel University and University Hospital Schleswig-Holstein (UKSH) Campus Kiel, Kiel, Germany
| | | | | | | | - Heinz Zoller
- Department of Medicine I, Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Endocrinology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Michael Trauner
- Department of Internal Medicine III, Division of Gastroenterology & Hepatology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Wolfgang Mikulits
- Center for Cancer Research, Comprehensive Cancer Center Vienna, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria.
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7
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Rizzi M, Tonello S, D’Onghia D, Sainaghi PP. Gas6/TAM Axis Involvement in Modulating Inflammation and Fibrosis in COVID-19 Patients. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24020951. [PMID: 36674471 PMCID: PMC9861142 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24020951] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2022] [Revised: 12/30/2022] [Accepted: 01/01/2023] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Gas6 (growth arrest-specific gene 6) is a widely expressed vitamin K-dependent protein that is involved in many biological processes such as homeostatic regulation, inflammation and repair/fibrotic processes. It is known that it is the main ligand of TAMs, a tyrosine kinase receptor family of three members, namely MerTK, Tyro-3 and Axl, for which it displays the highest affinity. Gas6/TAM axis activation is known to be involved in modulating inflammatory responses as well as fibrotic evolution in many different pathological conditions. Due to the rapidly evolving COVID-19 pandemic, this review will focus on Gas6/TAM axis activation in SARS-CoV-2 infection, where de-regulated inflammatory responses and fibrosis represent a relevant feature of severe disease manifestation. Furthermore, this review will highlight the most recent scientific evidence supporting an unsuspected role of Axl as a SARS-CoV-2 infection driver, and the potential therapeutic advantages of the use of existing Axl inhibitors in COVID-19 management. From a physiological point of view, the Gas6/TAM axis plays a dual role, fostering the tissue repair processes or leading to organ damage and loss of function, depending on the prevalence of its anti-inflammatory or profibrotic properties. This review makes a strong case for further research focusing on the Gas6/TAM axis as a pharmacological target to manage different disease conditions, such as chronic fibrosis or COVID-19.
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8
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Huang H, Jiang J, Chen R, Lin Y, Chen H, Ling Q. The role of macrophage TAM receptor family in the acute-to-chronic progression of liver disease: From friend to foe? Liver Int 2022; 42:2620-2631. [PMID: 35900248 DOI: 10.1111/liv.15380] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2022] [Revised: 07/22/2022] [Accepted: 07/25/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Hepatic macrophages, the key cellular components of the liver, emerge as essential players in liver inflammation, tissue repair and subsequent fibrosis, as well as tumorigenesis. Recently, the TAM receptor tyrosine kinase family, consisting of Tyro3, Axl and MerTK, was found to be a pivotal modulator of macrophages. Activation of macrophage TAM receptor signalling promotes the efferocytosis of apoptotic cells and skews the polarization of macrophages. After briefly reviewing the mechanisms of TAM receptor signalling in macrophage polarization, we focus on their role in liver diseases from acute injury to chronic inflammation, fibrosis and then to tumorigenesis. Notably, macrophage TAM receptor signalling seems to be a two-edged sword for liver diseases. On one hand, the activation of TAM receptor signalling inhibits inflammation and facilitates tissue repair during acute liver injury. On the other hand, continuous activation of the signalling contributes to the process of chronic inflammation into fibrosis and tumorigenesis by evoking hepatic stellate cells and inhibiting anti-tumour immunity. Therefore, targeting macrophage TAM receptors and clarifying its downstream pathways will be exciting prospects for the precaution and treatment of liver diseases, particularly at different stages or statuses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haitao Huang
- Department of Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China.,NHC Key Laboratory of Combined Multi-Organ Transplantation, Hangzhou, China
| | - Jingyu Jiang
- Department of Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China.,NHC Key Laboratory of Combined Multi-Organ Transplantation, Hangzhou, China
| | - Ruihan Chen
- Department of Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China.,NHC Key Laboratory of Combined Multi-Organ Transplantation, Hangzhou, China
| | - Yimou Lin
- Department of Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China.,NHC Key Laboratory of Combined Multi-Organ Transplantation, Hangzhou, China
| | - Hui Chen
- NHC Key Laboratory of Combined Multi-Organ Transplantation, Hangzhou, China
| | - Qi Ling
- Department of Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China.,NHC Key Laboratory of Combined Multi-Organ Transplantation, Hangzhou, China.,Alibaba-Zhejiang University Joint Research Center of Future Digital Healthcare, Hangzhou, China
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9
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Abstract
Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is a challenging disease caused by multiple factors, which may partly explain why it still remains an orphan of adequate therapies. This review highlights the interaction between oxidative stress (OS) and disturbed lipid metabolism. Several reactive oxygen species generators, including those produced in the gastrointestinal tract, contribute to the lipotoxic hepatic (and extrahepatic) damage by fatty acids and a great variety of their biologically active metabolites in a “multiple parallel-hit model”. This leads to inflammation and fibrogenesis and contributes to NAFLD progression. The alterations of the oxidant/antioxidant balance affect also metabolism-related organelles, leading to lipid peroxidation, mitochondrial dysfunction, and endoplasmic reticulum stress. This OS-induced damage is at least partially counteracted by the physiological antioxidant response. Therefore, modulation of this defense system emerges as an interesting target to prevent NAFLD development and progression. For instance, probiotics, prebiotics, diet, and fecal microbiota transplantation represent new therapeutic approaches targeting the gut microbiota dysbiosis. The OS and its counter-regulation are under the influence of individual genetic and epigenetic factors as well. In the near future, precision medicine taking into consideration genetic or environmental epigenetic risk factors, coupled with new OS biomarkers, will likely assist in noninvasive diagnosis and monitoring of NAFLD progression and in further personalizing treatments.
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10
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Abstract
TAM receptors (Tyro3, Axl and MerTK) are a family of tyrosine kinase receptors that are expressed in a variety of cell populations, including liver parenchymal and non-parenchymal cells. These receptors are vital for immune homeostasis, as they regulate the innate immune response by suppressing inflammation via toll-like receptor inhibition and by promoting tissue resolution through efferocytosis. However, there is increasing evidence indicating that aberrant TAM receptor signaling may play a role in pathophysiological processes in the context of liver disease. This review will explore the roles of TAM receptors and their ligands in liver homeostasis as well as a variety of disease settings, including acute liver injury, steatosis, fibrosis, cirrhosis-associated immune dysfunction and hepatocellular carcinoma. A better understanding of our current knowledge of TAM receptors in liver disease may identify new opportunities for disease monitoring as well as novel therapeutic targets. Nonetheless, this review also aims to highlight areas where further research on TAM receptor biology in liver disease is required.
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11
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Exploring the Gamut of Receptor Tyrosine Kinases for Their Promise in the Management of Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease. Biomedicines 2021; 9:biomedicines9121776. [PMID: 34944593 PMCID: PMC8698495 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines9121776] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2021] [Revised: 11/18/2021] [Accepted: 11/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Recently, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) has emerged as a predominant health concern affecting approximately a quarter of the world’s population. NAFLD is a spectrum of liver ailments arising from nascent lipid accumulation and leading to inflammation, fibrosis or even carcinogenesis. Despite its prevalence and severity, no targeted pharmacological intervention is approved to date. Thus, it is imperative to identify suitable drug targets critical to the development and progression of NAFLD. In this quest, a ray of hope is nestled within a group of proteins, receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs), as targets to contain or even reverse NAFLD. RTKs control numerous vital biological processes and their selective expression and activity in specific diseases have rendered them useful as drug targets. In this review, we discuss the recent advancements in characterizing the role of RTKs in NAFLD progression and qualify their suitability as pharmacological targets. Available data suggests inhibition of Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor, AXL, Fibroblast Growth Factor Receptor 4 and Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor Receptor, and activation of cellular mesenchymal-epithelial transition factor and Fibroblast Growth Factor Receptor 1 could pave the way for novel NAFLD therapeutics. Thus, it is important to characterize these RTKs for target validation and proof-of-concept through clinical trials.
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12
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Zhang J, Liu Q, He J, Li Y. Novel Therapeutic Targets in Liver Fibrosis. Front Mol Biosci 2021; 8:766855. [PMID: 34805276 PMCID: PMC8602792 DOI: 10.3389/fmolb.2021.766855] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2021] [Accepted: 10/18/2021] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Liver fibrosis is end-stage liver disease that can be rescued. If irritation continues due to viral infection, schistosomiasis and alcoholism, liver fibrosis can progress to liver cirrhosis and even cancer. The US Food and Drug Administration has not approved any drugs that act directly against liver fibrosis. The only treatments currently available are drugs that eliminate pathogenic factors, which show poor efficacy; and liver transplantation, which is expensive. This highlights the importance of clarifying the mechanism of liver fibrosis and searching for new treatments against it. This review summarizes how parenchymal, nonparenchymal cells, inflammatory cells and various processes (liver fibrosis, hepatic stellate cell activation, cell death and proliferation, deposition of extracellular matrix, cell metabolism, inflammation and epigenetics) contribute to liver fibrosis. We highlight discoveries of novel therapeutic targets, which may provide new insights into potential treatments for liver fibrosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinhang Zhang
- Laboratory of Clinical Pharmacy and Adverse Drug Reaction, National Clinical Research Center for Geriatrics, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Sichuan, China
| | - Qinhui Liu
- Laboratory of Clinical Pharmacy and Adverse Drug Reaction, National Clinical Research Center for Geriatrics, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Sichuan, China
| | - Jinhan He
- Laboratory of Clinical Pharmacy and Adverse Drug Reaction, National Clinical Research Center for Geriatrics, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Sichuan, China.,Department of Pharmacy, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Sichuan, China
| | - Yanping Li
- Laboratory of Clinical Pharmacy and Adverse Drug Reaction, National Clinical Research Center for Geriatrics, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Sichuan, China
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13
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Intrinsic and Extrinsic Control of Hepatocellular Carcinoma by TAM Receptors. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:cancers13215448. [PMID: 34771611 PMCID: PMC8582520 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13215448] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2021] [Revised: 10/22/2021] [Accepted: 10/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Tyro3, Axl, and MerTK are receptor tyrosine kinases of the TAM family, which are activated by their ligands Gas6 and Protein S. TAM receptors have large physiological implications, including the removal of dead cells, activation of immune cells, and prevention of bleeding. In the last decade, TAM receptors have been suggested to play a relevant role in liver fibrogenesis and the development of hepatocellular carcinoma. The understanding of TAM receptor functions in tumor cells and their cellular microenvironment is of utmost importance to advances in novel therapeutic strategies that conquer chronic liver disease including hepatocellular carcinoma. Abstract Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the major subtype of liver cancer, showing high mortality of patients due to limited therapeutic options at advanced stages of disease. The receptor tyrosine kinases Tyro3, Axl and MerTK—belonging to the TAM family—exert a large impact on various aspects of cancer biology. Binding of the ligands Gas6 or Protein S activates TAM receptors causing homophilic dimerization and heterophilic interactions with other receptors to modulate effector functions. In this context, TAM receptors are major regulators of anti-inflammatory responses and vessel integrity, including platelet aggregation as well as resistance to chemotherapy. In this review, we discuss the relevance of TAM receptors in the intrinsic control of HCC progression by modulating epithelial cell plasticity and by promoting metastatic traits of neoplastic hepatocytes. Depending on different etiologies of HCC, we further describe the overt role of TAM receptors in the extrinsic control of HCC progression by focusing on immune cell infiltration and fibrogenesis. Additionally, we assess TAM receptor functions in the chemoresistance against clinically used tyrosine kinase inhibitors and immune checkpoint blockade in HCC progression. We finally address the question of whether inhibition of TAM receptors can be envisaged for novel therapeutic strategies in HCC.
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Zhang S, Liu Y, Wang X, An N, Ouyang X. STAT1/SOCS1/3 Are Involved in the Inflammation-Regulating Effect of GAS6/AXL in Periodontal Ligament Cells Induced by Porphyromonas gingivalis Lipopolysaccharide In Vitro. J Immunol Res 2021; 2021:9577695. [PMID: 34734092 PMCID: PMC8560282 DOI: 10.1155/2021/9577695] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2021] [Accepted: 10/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Periodontitis involves chronic inflammation of the tissues around the teeth caused by plaque and the corresponding immune response. Growth arrest-specific protein 6 (GAS6) and AXL receptor tyrosine kinase (AXL) are known to be involved in inflammatory diseases, while signal transducer and activator of transcription-1 (STAT1) and suppressor of cytokine signaling (SOCS) are related to inflammatory processes. Moreover, miRNA34a directly targets AXL to regulate the AXL expression. However, the specific roles of GAS6 and AXL in periodontitis remain unclear. This study was designed to explore the effect and mechanism of AXL on the expression of inflammatory cytokines induced by Porphyromonas gingivalis lipopolysaccharide (P. gingivalis LPS) in human periodontal ligament cells (hPDLCs). The effects of different concentrations of P. gingivalis LPS on the expression of GAS6/AXL in hPDLCs were observed. Additionally, the effect of LPS on AXL was investigated by transfection of the miRNA34a inhibitor. AXL was knocked down or overexpressed to observe the release of inflammatory cytokines interleukin- (IL-) 8 and IL-6. The results showed that the expression levels of GAS6 and AXL decreased after P. gingivalis LPS infection. Transfection of a miR-34a inhibitor to hPDLCs demonstrated a role of miR-34a in the downregulation of AXL expression induced by LPS. Moreover, AXL knockdown or overexpression influencing the expression of IL-8 and IL-6 was investigated under LPS stimulation. AXL knockdown decreased the expression of STAT1 and SOCS1/3. Overall, these results demonstrate that AXL inhibits the expression of LPS-induced inflammatory cytokines in hPDLCs and that STAT1 and SOCS1/3 are involved in the regulation of inflammation by GAS6/AXL.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shengnan Zhang
- Department of Periodontology, Peking University School and Hospital of Stomatology, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Yingjun Liu
- Department of General Dentistry II, Peking University School and Hospital of Stomatology, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Xuekui Wang
- Department of Periodontology, Peking University School and Hospital of Stomatology, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Na An
- Department of General Dentistry II, Peking University School and Hospital of Stomatology, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Xiangying Ouyang
- Department of Periodontology, Peking University School and Hospital of Stomatology, Beijing 100081, China
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Abstract
Tyro3, Axl and Mertk are members of the TAM family of tyrosine kinase receptors. TAMs are activated by two structurally homologous ligands GAS6 and PROS1. TAM receptors and ligands are widely distributed and often co-expressed in the same cells allowing diverse functions across many systems including the immune, reproductive, vascular, and the developing as well as adult nervous systems. This review will focus specifically on TAM signaling in the nervous system, highlighting the essential roles this pathway fulfills in maintaining cell survival and homeostasis, cellular functions such as phagocytosis, immunity and tissue repair. Dysfunctional TAM signaling can cause complications in development, disruptions in homeostasis which can rouse autoimmunity, neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration. The development of therapeutics modulating TAM activities in the nervous system has great prospects, however, foremost we need a complete understanding of TAM signaling pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tal Burstyn-Cohen
- Institute for Dental Sciences, Faculty of Dental Medicine, The Hebrew University-Hadassah, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Arielle Hochberg
- Institute for Dental Sciences, Faculty of Dental Medicine, The Hebrew University-Hadassah, Jerusalem, Israel
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16
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Li T, Su G, Zhao Y. Anti-hepatic fibrosis effects of AD-2 affecting the Raf-MEK signaling pathway and inflammatory factors in thioacetamide-induced liver injury. J Food Sci 2021; 86:2753-2765. [PMID: 33928646 DOI: 10.1111/1750-3841.15731] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2020] [Revised: 02/12/2021] [Accepted: 03/22/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
25-Hydroxylprotopanaxadiol-3β, 12β, 20-triol (25-OH-PPD or AD-2) belongs to dammarane ginsenoside, and is commonly obtained from the acidic hydrolysate of total ginsensides of Panax ginseng. This study investigated the potential mechanism of AD-2 toward improving thioacetamide (TAA)-induced hepatic fibrosis in mice. Mice were divided into seven groups: control group, TAA model group, TAA + AD-2 (5, 10, and 20 mg/kg) groups, TAA + silymarin (100 mg/kg) group, and TAA + Fu Fang Biejia (FFBj; 300 mg/kg) group. All mice were treated to intraperitoneal TAA injection to establish a hepatic fibrosis model, and drugs were administered orally. The mechanism and related pathways underlying the AD-2-mediated action against hepatic fibrosis were explored by Western blotting and immunohistochemical staining. After AD-2 treatment, the expression levels of Lipin-1, SREBP1, and F4/80 significantly decreased, meanwhile the protein expressions levels of IL1β, IL1R1, IL18, Bax, Bid, Bcl-2, and cFlips also decreased. Furthermore, AD-2 inhibited RAF and MEK pathways. The results demonstrate that AD-2 can alleviate hepatic fibrosis. The mechanism is likely related to the regulation of lipid accumulation, inflammatory response, apoptosis pathway, and Raf-MEK signaling pathways, which provide a basis for clinical research for the treatment of hepatic fibrosis. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Ginsenoside is one of the main active ingredients of ginseng, and can alleviate the symptoms of various diseases, for example, hepatic fibrosis. This paper mainly used Western blotting to explore its possible mechanism of action. The goal was to provide a reference for the development of traditional Chinese medicines for hepatic fibrosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tao Li
- Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang, China
| | - GuangYue Su
- Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang, China
| | - YuQing Zhao
- Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang, China
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17
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Hayashi M, Abe K, Fujita M, Takahashi A, Hashimoto Y, Ohira H. Serum Gas6 and Axl as non-invasive biomarkers of advanced histological stage in primary biliary cholangitis. Hepatol Res 2020; 50:1337-1346. [PMID: 32885557 DOI: 10.1111/hepr.13568] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2020] [Revised: 08/10/2020] [Accepted: 08/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
AIM Advanced histological stage is an important factor in individual risk stratification in patients with primary biliary cholangitis (PBC). Non-invasive biomarkers for advanced histological stage are needed. We assessed the utility of Gas6 and Axl as biomarkers for advanced histological stage in patients with PBC. METHODS A total of 113 biopsy-proven PBC patients and 20 healthy controls were included in this study. Serum Axl and Gas6 were measured using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. The Gas6 / albumin ratio and Axl / albumin ratio were also evaluated as biomarkers of histological stage. RESULTS Serum Axl (42.6 ng/mL vs. 30.6 ng/mL, P < 0.001) and Gas6 (21.1 ng/mL vs. 18.8 ng/mL, P = 0.007) levels in PBC patients were significantly higher than those in healthy controls. The Axl / albumin ratio was 10.4, and the Gas6 / albumin ratio was 7.6 in patients with PBC. Gas6 and Axl were significantly correlated with aspartate aminotransferase, bilirubin, albumin, and platelets. Gas6 and Axl levels in patients with an advanced Scheuer stage and an advanced Nakanuma stage were significantly higher than those in other patients. The area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUROC) of Axl, Gas6, Axl / albumin, and Gas6 / albumin for diagnosing Scheuer stage 4 was 0.733, 0.837, 0.845, and 0.893, respectively. The AUROC of Axl, Gas6, Axl / albumin, and Gas6 / albumin for diagnosing Nakanuma stage 4 was 0.794, 0.834, 0.869, and 0.898, respectively. CONCLUSION High levels of Gas6 and Axl were associated with advanced histological stage in PBC patients. Furthermore, the Gas6 / albumin ratio and the Axl / albumin ratio showed a high AUROC for diagnosing advanced histological stage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manabu Hayashi
- Department of Gastroenterology, Fukushima Medical University, Fukushima, Japan
| | - Kazumichi Abe
- Department of Gastroenterology, Fukushima Medical University, Fukushima, Japan
| | - Masashi Fujita
- Department of Gastroenterology, Fukushima Medical University, Fukushima, Japan
| | - Atsushi Takahashi
- Department of Gastroenterology, Fukushima Medical University, Fukushima, Japan
| | - Yuko Hashimoto
- Department of Diagnostic Pathology, Fukushima Medical University, Fukushima, Japan
| | - Hiromasa Ohira
- Department of Gastroenterology, Fukushima Medical University, Fukushima, Japan
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DuBois JC, Ray AK, Davies P, Shafit-Zagardo B. Anti-Axl antibody treatment reduces the severity of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. J Neuroinflammation 2020; 17:324. [PMID: 33121494 PMCID: PMC7599105 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-020-01982-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2020] [Accepted: 10/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Multiple sclerosis is an immune-mediated disease of the central nervous system (CNS) characterized by inflammation, oligodendrocytes loss, demyelination, and damaged axons. Tyro3, Axl, and MerTK belong to a family of receptor tyrosine kinases that regulate innate immune responses and CNS homeostasis. During experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), the mRNA expression of MerTK, Gas6, and Axl significantly increase, whereas Tyro3 and ProS1 remain unchanged. We have shown that Gas6 is neuroprotective during EAE, and since Gas6 activation of Axl may be necessary for conferring neuroprotection, we sought to determine whether α-Axl or α-MerTK antibodies, shown by others to activate their respective receptors in vivo, could effectively reduce inflammation and neurodegeneration. METHODS Mice received either α-Axl, α-MerTK, IgG isotype control, or PBS before the onset of EAE symptoms. EAE clinical course, axonal damage, demyelination, cytokine production, and immune cell activation in the CNS were used to determine the severity of EAE. RESULTS α-Axl antibody treatment significantly decreased the EAE clinical indices of female mice during chronic EAE and of male mice during both acute and chronic phases. The number of days mice were severely paralyzed also significantly decreased with α-Axl treatment. Inflammatory macrophages/microglia and the extent of demyelination significantly decreased in the spinal cords of α-Axl-treated mice during chronic EAE, with no differences in the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines. α-MerTK antibody did not influence EAE induction or progression. CONCLUSION Our data suggests that the beneficial effect of Gas6/Axl signaling observed in mice administered with Gas6 can be partially preserved by administering an activating α-Axl antibody, but not α-MerTK.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juwen C. DuBois
- Department of Pathology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, 1300 Morris Park Ave., Bronx, NY 10461 USA
| | - Alex K. Ray
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY USA
| | - Peter Davies
- North Shore-LIJ Health System, Feinstein Institute for Medical Research, Manhasset, NY USA
| | - Bridget Shafit-Zagardo
- Department of Pathology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, 1300 Morris Park Ave., Bronx, NY 10461 USA
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Zagórska A, Través PG, Jiménez-García L, Strickland JD, Oh J, Tapia FJ, Mayoral R, Burrola P, Copple BL, Lemke G. Differential regulation of hepatic physiology and injury by the TAM receptors Axl and Mer. Life Sci Alliance 2020; 3:e202000694. [PMID: 32571802 PMCID: PMC7335405 DOI: 10.26508/lsa.202000694] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2020] [Revised: 05/28/2020] [Accepted: 05/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Genome-wide association studies have implicated the TAM receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) Mer in liver disease, yet our understanding of the role that Mer and its related RTKs Tyro3 and Axl play in liver homeostasis and the response to acute injury is limited. We find that Mer and Axl are most prominently expressed in hepatic Kupffer and endothelial cells and that as mice lacking these RTKs age, they develop profound liver disease characterized by apoptotic cell accumulation and immune activation. We further find that Mer is critical to the phagocytosis of apoptotic hepatocytes generated in settings of acute hepatic injury, and that Mer and Axl act in concert to inhibit cytokine production in these settings. In contrast, we find that Axl is uniquely important in mitigating liver damage during acetaminophen intoxication. Although Mer and Axl are protective in acute injury models, we find that Axl exacerbates fibrosis in a model of chronic injury. These divergent effects have important implications for the design and implementation of TAM-directed therapeutics that might target these RTKs in the liver.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Zagórska
- Molecular Neurobiology Laboratory, The Salk Institute, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Paqui G Través
- Molecular Neurobiology Laboratory, The Salk Institute, La Jolla, CA, USA
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas Alberto Sols (CSIC-UAM), Madrid, Spain
| | | | - Jenna D Strickland
- Department of Pharmacology & Toxicology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA
| | - Joanne Oh
- Molecular Neurobiology Laboratory, The Salk Institute, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Francisco J Tapia
- Molecular Neurobiology Laboratory, The Salk Institute, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Rafael Mayoral
- Division of Endocrinology & Metabolism, Department of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Patrick Burrola
- Molecular Neurobiology Laboratory, The Salk Institute, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Bryan L Copple
- Department of Pharmacology & Toxicology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA
| | - Greg Lemke
- Molecular Neurobiology Laboratory, The Salk Institute, La Jolla, CA, USA
- Immunobiology and Microbial Pathogenesis Laboratory, The Salk Institute, La Jolla, CA, USA
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20
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Role of Gas6 and TAM Receptors in the Identification of Cardiopulmonary Involvement in Systemic Sclerosis and Scleroderma Spectrum Disorders. DISEASE MARKERS 2020; 2020:2696173. [PMID: 32454903 PMCID: PMC7240795 DOI: 10.1155/2020/2696173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2019] [Accepted: 04/24/2020] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Background Few biomarkers are available for early identification of pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) and interstitial lung disease (ILD) in systemic sclerosis (SS) and scleroderma spectrum disorders (SSD). Aims To evaluate Gas6, sAxl, and sMer as biomarkers for cardiopulmonary complications of SS and SSD. Methods In a cross-sectional observational study, we recruited 125 consecutive patients, affected by SS and SSD and referred to a tertiary-level pulmonary hypertension outpatient clinic. All patients underwent a comprehensive evaluation for identification of PAH and ILD. Gas6, sMer, and sAxl concentrations were measured with ELISA protocols, and concentrations were compared according to PAH or ILD. Results Nineteen subjects had pulmonary hypertension (PH) (14 PAH), and 39 had ILD (6 severe). Plasma sMer was increased in PAH (18.6 ng/ml IQR [11.7-20.3]) with respect to the absence (12.4 [8.0-15.8]) or other form of pulmonary hypertension (9.6 [7.4-12.5]; K–W variance p < 0.04). Conversely, Gas6 and sAxl levels were slightly increased in mild ILD (25.8 ng/ml [19.5-32.1] and 24.6 [20.1-32.5]) and reduced in severe ILD (16.6 [15.0-22.1] and 15.5 [14.9-22.4]) in comparison to no evidence of ILD (23.4 [18.8-28.1] and 21.6 [18.1-28.4]; K–W, p ≤ 0.05). Plasma sMer ≥ 19 ng/ml has 50% sensitivity and 92% specificity in PAH identification (area under the ROC curve (AUC) 0.697, p < 0.03). Values of Gas6 ≤ 24.5 ng/ml and of sAxl ≤ 15.5 ng/ml have 100% and 67% sensitivity and 47% and 86% specificity, respectively, in identifying severe ILD (Gas6 AUC 0.787, p < 0.001; sAxl AUC 0.705, p < 0.05). Conclusions The assay of Gas6 sAxl and sMer may be useful to help in the identification of PAH and ILD in SS and SSD patients. The Gas6/TAM system seems to be relevant in cardiopulmonary complications of SS and SSD and merits further investigations.
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21
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Zhao M, Jung Y, Jiang Z, Svensson KJ. Regulation of Energy Metabolism by Receptor Tyrosine Kinase Ligands. Front Physiol 2020; 11:354. [PMID: 32372975 PMCID: PMC7186430 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2020.00354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2019] [Accepted: 03/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Metabolic diseases, such as diabetes, obesity, and fatty liver disease, have now reached epidemic proportions. Receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) are a family of cell surface receptors responding to growth factors, hormones, and cytokines to mediate a diverse set of fundamental cellular and metabolic signaling pathways. These ligands signal by endocrine, paracrine, or autocrine means in peripheral organs and in the central nervous system to control cellular and tissue-specific metabolic processes. Interestingly, the expression of many RTKs and their ligands are controlled by changes in metabolic demand, for example, during starvation, feeding, or obesity. In addition, studies of RTKs and their ligands in regulating energy homeostasis have revealed unexpected diversity in the mechanisms of action and their specific metabolic functions. Our current understanding of the molecular, biochemical and genetic control of energy homeostasis by the endocrine RTK ligands insulin, FGF21 and FGF19 are now relatively well understood. In addition to these classical endocrine signals, non-endocrine ligands can govern local energy regulation, and the intriguing crosstalk between the RTK family and the TGFβ receptor family demonstrates a signaling network that diversifies metabolic process between tissues. Thus, there is a need to increase our molecular and mechanistic understanding of signal diversification of RTK actions in metabolic disease. Here we review the known and emerging molecular mechanisms of RTK signaling that regulate systemic glucose and lipid metabolism, as well as highlighting unexpected roles of non-classical RTK ligands that crosstalk with other receptor pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meng Zhao
- Department of Pathology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, United States.,Stanford Diabetes Research Center, Stanford, CA, United States
| | - Yunshin Jung
- Department of Pathology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, United States.,Stanford Diabetes Research Center, Stanford, CA, United States
| | - Zewen Jiang
- Department of Pathology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, United States.,Stanford Diabetes Research Center, Stanford, CA, United States
| | - Katrin J Svensson
- Department of Pathology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, United States.,Stanford Diabetes Research Center, Stanford, CA, United States
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22
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Ireland L, Luckett T, Schmid MC, Mielgo A. Blockade of Stromal Gas6 Alters Cancer Cell Plasticity, Activates NK Cells, and Inhibits Pancreatic Cancer Metastasis. Front Immunol 2020; 11:297. [PMID: 32174917 PMCID: PMC7056881 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.00297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2019] [Accepted: 02/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDA) is one of the deadliest cancers due to its aggressive and metastatic nature. PDA is characterized by a rich tumor stroma with abundant macrophages, fibroblasts, and collagen deposition that can represent up to 90% of the tumor mass. Activation of the tyrosine kinase receptor AXL and expression of its ligand growth arrest-specific protein 6 (Gas6) correlate with a poor prognosis and increased metastasis in pancreatic cancer patients. Gas6 is a multifunctional protein that can be secreted by several cell types and regulates multiple processes, including cancer cell plasticity, angiogenesis, and immune cell functions. However, the role of Gas6 in pancreatic cancer metastasis has not been fully investigated. In these studies we find that, in pancreatic tumors, Gas6 is mainly produced by tumor associated macrophages (TAMs) and cancer associated fibroblasts (CAFs) and that pharmacological blockade of Gas6 signaling partially reverses epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) of tumor cells and supports NK cell activation, thereby inhibiting pancreatic cancer metastasis. Our data suggest that Gas6 simultaneously acts on both the tumor cells and the NK cells to support pancreatic cancer metastasis. This study supports the rationale for targeting Gas6 in pancreatic cancer and use of NK cells as a potential biomarker for response to anti-Gas6 therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Ainhoa Mielgo
- Department of Molecular and Clinical Cancer Medicine, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
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23
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Zahoor A, Yang Y, Yang C, Akhtar M, Guo Y, Shaukat A, Guo MY, Deng G. Gas6 negatively regulates the Staphylococcus aureus-induced inflammatory response via TLR signaling in the mouse mammary gland. J Cell Physiol 2020; 235:7081-7093. [PMID: 32052456 DOI: 10.1002/jcp.29604] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2019] [Accepted: 01/13/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus)-induced mastitis is the most frequent, pathogenic, and prevalent infection of the mammary gland. The ligand growth arrest-specific 6 (Gas6) is a secretory protein that binds to and activates Tyro3, Axl, and MerTK receptors. This study explored the role of Gas6 in S. aureus-induced mastitis. Our results revealed that TLR receptors initiate the innate immune response in mammary gland tissues and epithelial cells and that introducing S. aureus activates TLR2 and TLR6 to drive multiple intracellular mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB) pathways. Moreover, S. aureus also induces Gas6, which then activates the TAM receptor kinase pathway, which is related to the inhibition of TLR2- and TLR6-mediated inflammatory pathways through SOCS1 and SOCS3 induction. Gas6 absence alone was found to be involved in the downregulation of TAM receptor-mediated anti-inflammatory effects by inducing significantly prominent expression of TRAF6 and low protein and messenger RNA expression of SOCS1 and SOCS3. S. aureus-induced MAPK and NF-ĸB p65 phosphorylation were also dependent on Gas6, which negatively regulated the production of Pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α) in S. aureus-treated mammary tissues and mammary epithelial cells. Our in vivo and in vitro study uncovered the Gas6-mediated negative feedback mechanism, which inhibits TLR2- and TLR6-mediated MAPK and NF-ĸB signaling by activating TAM receptor kinase (MerTK, Axl, and Tyro3) through the induction of SOCS1/SOCS3 proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arshad Zahoor
- Department of Clinical Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, People's Republic of China
| | - Yaping Yang
- Department of Clinical Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, People's Republic of China
| | - Chao Yang
- Department of Clinical Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, People's Republic of China
| | - Muhammad Akhtar
- Department of Clinical Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, People's Republic of China
| | - Yingfang Guo
- Department of Clinical Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, People's Republic of China
| | - Aftab Shaukat
- Department of Clinical Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, People's Republic of China
| | - Meng-Yao Guo
- Department of Clinical Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, People's Republic of China
| | - Ganzhen Deng
- Department of Clinical Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, People's Republic of China
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Cai B, Dongiovanni P, Corey KE, Wang X, Shmarakov IO, Zheng Z, Kasikara C, Davra V, Meroni M, Chung RT, Rothlin CV, Schwabe RF, Blaner WS, Birge RB, Valenti L, Tabas I. Macrophage MerTK Promotes Liver Fibrosis in Nonalcoholic Steatohepatitis. Cell Metab 2020; 31:406-421.e7. [PMID: 31839486 PMCID: PMC7004886 DOI: 10.1016/j.cmet.2019.11.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 139] [Impact Index Per Article: 34.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2019] [Revised: 10/07/2019] [Accepted: 11/13/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) is emerging as a leading cause of chronic liver disease. However, therapeutic options are limited by incomplete understanding of the mechanisms of NASH fibrosis, which is mediated by activation of hepatic stellate cells (HSCs). In humans, human genetic studies have shown that hypomorphic variations in MERTK, encoding the macrophage c-mer tyrosine kinase (MerTK) receptor, provide protection against liver fibrosis, but the mechanisms remain unknown. We now show that holo- or myeloid-specific Mertk targeting in NASH mice decreases liver fibrosis, congruent with the human genetic data. Furthermore, ADAM metallopeptidase domain 17 (ADAM17)-mediated MerTK cleavage in liver macrophages decreases during steatosis to NASH transition, and mice with a cleavage-resistant MerTK mutant have increased NASH fibrosis. Macrophage MerTK promotes an ERK-TGFβ1 pathway that activates HSCs and induces liver fibrosis. These data provide insights into the role of liver macrophages in NASH fibrosis and provide a plausible mechanism underlying MERTK as a genetic risk factor for NASH fibrosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bishuang Cai
- Department of Medicine, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA.
| | - Paola Dongiovanni
- General Medicine and Metabolic Diseases, Fondazione Ca' Granda IRCCS Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Milano 20122, Italy
| | - Kathleen E Corey
- Liver Center, Gastrointestinal Division, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114, USA; Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Xiaobo Wang
- Department of Medicine, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Igor O Shmarakov
- Department of Medicine, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Ze Zheng
- Department of Medicine, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Canan Kasikara
- Department of Medicine, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Viralkumar Davra
- Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Rutgers University, New Jersey Medical School Cancer Center, Newark, NJ 07103, USA
| | - Marica Meroni
- General Medicine and Metabolic Diseases, Fondazione Ca' Granda IRCCS Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Milano 20122, Italy
| | - Raymond T Chung
- Liver Center, Gastrointestinal Division, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114, USA; Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Carla V Rothlin
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale University School of Medicine and Department of Pharmacology, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Robert F Schwabe
- Department of Medicine, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA; Institute of Human Nutrition, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - William S Blaner
- Department of Medicine, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Raymond B Birge
- Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Rutgers University, New Jersey Medical School Cancer Center, Newark, NJ 07103, USA
| | - Luca Valenti
- Department of Pathophysiology and Transplantation, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milano 20122, Italy; Translational Medicine - Transfusion Medicine and Hematology, Fondazione Ca' Granda IRCCS Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Milano 20122, Italy
| | - Ira Tabas
- Department of Medicine, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA; Departments of Pathology & Cell Biology and Physiology & Cellular Biophysics, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA.
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Cubero FJ. Staging NAFLD: Diagnostic and Therapeutic Value of TAM Signaling. Cell Mol Gastroenterol Hepatol 2019; 9:545-546. [PMID: 31881182 PMCID: PMC7078440 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcmgh.2019.11.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2019] [Revised: 11/25/2019] [Accepted: 11/26/2019] [Indexed: 12/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Francisco Javier Cubero
- Correspondence Address correspondence to: Francisco Javier Cubero, PhD, Department of Immunology, Ophthalmology and ENT, Complutense University School of Medicine, c/Doctor Severo Ochoa, 9, Madrid 28040, Spain.
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Gas6/TAM System: A Key Modulator of the Interplay between Inflammation and Fibrosis. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20205070. [PMID: 31614787 PMCID: PMC6834320 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20205070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2019] [Revised: 10/01/2019] [Accepted: 10/08/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Fibrosis is the result of an overly abundant deposition of extracellular matrix (ECM) due to the fact of repetitive tissue injuries and/or dysregulation of the repair process. Fibrogenesis is a pathogenetic phenomenon which is involved in different chronic human diseases, accounting for a high burden of morbidity and mortality. Despite being triggered by different causative factors, fibrogenesis follows common pathways, the knowledge of which is, however, still unsatisfactory. This represents a significant limit for the development of effective antifibrotic drugs. In the present paper, we aimed to review the current evidence regarding the potential role played in fibrogenesis by growth arrest-specific 6 (Gas6) and its receptors Tyro3 protein tyrosine kinase (Tyro3), Axl receptor tyrosine kinase (Axl), and Mer tyrosine kinase protooncogene (MerTK) (TAM). Moreover, we aimed to review data about the pathogenetic role of this system in the development of different human diseases characterized by fibrosis. Finally, we aimed to explore the potential implications of these findings in diagnosis and treatment.
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Gas6/TAM Signaling Components as Novel Biomarkers of Liver Fibrosis. DISEASE MARKERS 2019; 2019:2304931. [PMID: 31583026 PMCID: PMC6754881 DOI: 10.1155/2019/2304931] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2019] [Revised: 06/20/2019] [Accepted: 08/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Liver fibrosis consists in the accumulation of extracellular matrix components mainly derived from activated hepatic stellate cells. This is commonly the result of chronic liver injury repair and represents an important health concern. As liver biopsy is burdened with many drawbacks, not surprisingly there is great interest to find new reliable noninvasive methods. Among the many are new potential fibrosis biomarkers under study, some of the most promising represented by the growth arrest-specific gene 6 (Gas6) serum protein and its family of tyrosine kinase receptors, namely, Tyro3, Axl, and MERTK (TAM). Gas6/TAM system (mainly, Axl and MERTK) has in fact recently emerged as an important player in the progression of liver fibrosis. This review is aimed at giving an overall perspective of the roles played by these molecules in major chronic liver diseases. The most promising findings up to date acknowledge that both Gas6 and its receptor serum levels (such as sAxl and, probably, sMERTK) have been shown to potentially allow for easy and accurate measurement of hepatic fibrosis progression, also providing indicative parameters of hepatic dysfunction. Although most of the current scientific evidence is still preliminary and there are no in vivo validation studies on large patient series, it still looks very promising to imagine a possible future prognostic role for these biomarkers in the multidimensional assessment of a liver patient. One may also speculate on a potential role for this system targeting (e.g., with small molecule inhibitors against Axl) as a therapeutic strategy for liver fibrosis management, always bearing in mind that any such therapeutic approach might face toxicity.
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Espindola MS, Habiel DM, Narayanan R, Jones I, Coelho AL, Murray LA, Jiang D, Noble PW, Hogaboam CM. Targeting of TAM Receptors Ameliorates Fibrotic Mechanisms in Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2019; 197:1443-1456. [PMID: 29634284 DOI: 10.1164/rccm.201707-1519oc] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
RATIONALE Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) is characterized by aberrant lung remodeling, which progressively abolishes lung function in an RTK (receptor tyrosine kinase)-dependent manner. Gas6 (growth arrest-specific 6) ligand, Tyro3 (TYRO3 protein tyrosine kinase 3), and Axl (anexelekto) RTK expression and activity are increased in IPF. OBJECTIVES To determine if targeting these RTK pathways would inhibit fibroblast activation and the development of pulmonary fibrosis. METHODS Quantitative genomic, proteomic, and functional analyses were used to determine Gas6/TAM (Tyro3, Axl, and Mertk [MER proto-oncogene, tyrosine kinase]) RTK expression and activation in tissues and fibroblasts from normal and IPF lungs. The profibrotic impact of these RTK pathways were also examined in bleomycin-induced pulmonary fibrosis and in SCID/Bg mice that developed pulmonary fibrosis after the intravenous administration of primary IPF fibroblasts. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS Gas6, Axl, and Tyro3 were increased in both rapidly and slowly progressive IPF compared with normal lung samples and fibroblasts. Targeting these pathways with either specific antibodies directed at Gas6 or Axl, or with small-molecule TAM inhibitors indicated that the small molecule-mediated targeting approach was more efficacious in both in vitro and in vivo studies. Specifically, the TAM receptor inhibitor R428 (also known as BGB324) significantly inhibited the synthetic, migratory, and proliferative properties of IPF fibroblasts compared with the other Gas6/TAM receptor targeting agents. Finally, loss of Gas6 expression decreased lung fibrotic responses to bleomycin and treatment with R428 inhibited pulmonary fibrosis in humanized SCID/Bg mice. CONCLUSIONS Gas6/TAM receptor activity contributes to the activation of pulmonary fibroblasts in IPF, suggesting that targeting this RTK pathway might be an effective antifibrotic strategy in this disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Milena S Espindola
- 1 Department of Medicine, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, California; and
| | - David M Habiel
- 1 Department of Medicine, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, California; and
| | - Rohan Narayanan
- 1 Department of Medicine, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, California; and
| | - Isabelle Jones
- 1 Department of Medicine, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, California; and
| | - Ana L Coelho
- 1 Department of Medicine, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, California; and
| | - Lynne A Murray
- 2 Respiratory, Inflammation and Autoimmunity, MedImmune Ltd., Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Dianhua Jiang
- 1 Department of Medicine, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, California; and
| | - Paul W Noble
- 1 Department of Medicine, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, California; and
| | - Cory M Hogaboam
- 1 Department of Medicine, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, California; and
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Li W, Xie L, Ma J, Yang M, Wang B, Xu Y, Fan L, Mu G, Shi T, Chen W. Genetic loss of Gas6/Mer pathway attenuates silica-induced lung inflammation and fibrosis in mice. Toxicol Lett 2019; 313:178-187. [PMID: 31284023 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2019.07.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2019] [Revised: 07/04/2019] [Accepted: 07/04/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Long-term inhalation of crystalline silica particles leads to silicosis characterized by pulmonary inflammation and interstitial fibrosis. The growth arrest-specific protein 6 (Gas6) and its tyrosine receptor Mer have been implicated to involve in the regulation of inflammation, innate immunity and tissue repair. However, the role of Gas6 or Mer in silica-induced lung inflammation and fibrosis has not been investigated previously. In this study, we observed a remarkable increase of Gas6 in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) from wild-type C57BL/6 mice after silica intratracheal administration. Then, we investigated whether genetic loss of Gas6 or Mer could attenuate silica-induced lung inflammation and fibrosis. Our results showed that Gas6-/- and Mer-/- mice exhibited reduced lung inflammation response from days 7 to 84 after silica exposure. We also uncovered an overexpression of the suppressor of cytokine signaling protein 1 in silica-treated deficient mice. Moreover, Gas6 or Mer deficiency attenuated silica-induced collagen deposition by inhibiting the expression of transforming growth factor-β. We conclude that gene absence of Gas6 or Mer is protective against silica-induced lung inflammation and fibrosis in mice. Targeting Gas6/Mer pathway may be a potential therapeutic approach to treat pulmonary fibrosis in patients with silicosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Li
- Department of Occupational & Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, 430030, China; Key Laboratory of Environment and Health, Ministry of Education & Ministry of Environmental Protection, State Key Laboratory of Environmental Health (Incubating), School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, 430030, China
| | - Li Xie
- Department of Occupational & Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, 430030, China; Key Laboratory of Environment and Health, Ministry of Education & Ministry of Environmental Protection, State Key Laboratory of Environmental Health (Incubating), School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, 430030, China
| | - Jixuan Ma
- Department of Occupational & Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, 430030, China; Key Laboratory of Environment and Health, Ministry of Education & Ministry of Environmental Protection, State Key Laboratory of Environmental Health (Incubating), School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, 430030, China
| | - Meng Yang
- Department of Occupational & Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, 430030, China; Key Laboratory of Environment and Health, Ministry of Education & Ministry of Environmental Protection, State Key Laboratory of Environmental Health (Incubating), School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, 430030, China
| | - Bin Wang
- Department of Occupational & Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, 430030, China; Key Laboratory of Environment and Health, Ministry of Education & Ministry of Environmental Protection, State Key Laboratory of Environmental Health (Incubating), School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, 430030, China
| | - Yiju Xu
- Department of Occupational & Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, 430030, China; Key Laboratory of Environment and Health, Ministry of Education & Ministry of Environmental Protection, State Key Laboratory of Environmental Health (Incubating), School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, 430030, China
| | - Lieyang Fan
- Department of Occupational & Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, 430030, China; Key Laboratory of Environment and Health, Ministry of Education & Ministry of Environmental Protection, State Key Laboratory of Environmental Health (Incubating), School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, 430030, China
| | - Ge Mu
- Department of Occupational & Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, 430030, China; Key Laboratory of Environment and Health, Ministry of Education & Ministry of Environmental Protection, State Key Laboratory of Environmental Health (Incubating), School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, 430030, China
| | - Tingming Shi
- Department of Occupational & Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, 430030, China; Institute of Health Surveillance, Analysis and Protection, Hubei Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Wuhan, Hubei, 430079, China.
| | - Weihong Chen
- Department of Occupational & Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, 430030, China; Key Laboratory of Environment and Health, Ministry of Education & Ministry of Environmental Protection, State Key Laboratory of Environmental Health (Incubating), School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, 430030, China.
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30
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Dynamics of Axl Receptor Shedding in Hepatocellular Carcinoma and Its Implication for Theranostics. Int J Mol Sci 2018; 19:ijms19124111. [PMID: 30567378 PMCID: PMC6321118 DOI: 10.3390/ijms19124111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2018] [Revised: 12/14/2018] [Accepted: 12/17/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Signaling of the receptor tyrosine kinase Axl and its ligand Gas6 is crucially involved in the development of liver fibrosis and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) by activation of hepatic stellate cells and modulation of hepatocyte differentiation. Shedding of Axl’s ectodomain leads to the release of soluble Axl (sAxl), which is increased in advanced fibrosis and in early-to-late stage HCC in the presence and absence of cirrhosis. Here, we focus on the dynamics of Axl receptor shedding and delineate possible scenarios how Axl signaling might act as driver of fibrosis progression and HCC development. Based on experimental and clinical data, we discuss the consequences of modifying Axl signaling by sAxl cleavage, as well as cellular strategies to escape from antagonizing effects of Axl shedding by the involvement of the hepatic microenvironment. We emphasize a correlation between free Gas6 and free sAxl levels favoring abundant Gas6/Axl signaling in advanced fibrosis and HCC. The raised scenario provides a solid basis for theranostics allowing the use of sAxl as an accurate diagnostic biomarker of liver cirrhosis and HCC, as well as Axl receptor signaling for therapeutic intervention in stratified HCC patients.
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31
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Bellan M, Castello LM, Pirisi M. Candidate Biomarkers of Liver Fibrosis: A Concise, Pathophysiology-oriented Review. J Clin Transl Hepatol 2018; 6:317-325. [PMID: 30271745 PMCID: PMC6160308 DOI: 10.14218/jcth.2018.00006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2018] [Revised: 04/25/2018] [Accepted: 05/03/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Repair of sustained liver injury results in fibrosis (i.e. the accumulation of extracellular matrix proteins), and ultimately the complete distortion of parenchymal architecture of the liver, which we call cirrhosis. Detecting and staging of fibrosis is thus a mainstay in the management of chronic liver diseases, since many clinically relevant decisions, such as starting treatment and/or monitoring for complications including hepatocellular carcinoma, may depend on it. The gold standard for fibrosis staging is liver biopsy, the role of which, however, is questioned nowadays because of cost, hazards and poor acceptance by patients. On the other hand, imaging techniques and/or measurement of direct and indirect serum markers have not proved to be completely satisfactory under all circumstances as alternatives to liver biopsy. Making progress in this field is now more crucial than ever, since treatments for established fibrosis appear on the horizon. Fine dissection of the pathways involved in the pathophysiology of liver diseases has put forward several novel candidate biomarkers of liver fibrosis, such as growth arrest-specific6, Mac-2-binding protein, osteopontin, placental growth factor, growth/differentiation factor 15 and hepatocyte growth factor. All molecules have been suggested to have potential to complement or substitute methods currently used to stage liver diseases. Here, we review the pros and cons for their use in this setting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mattia Bellan
- Department of Translational Medicine, Università del Piemonte Orientale UPO, Novara, Italy
- Division of Internal Medicine, “Sant’Andrea Hospital”, Vercelli, Italy
- IRCAD, Interdisciplinary Research Center of Autoimmune Diseases, Novara, Italy
- *Correspondence to: Mattia Bellan, Department of Translational Medicine, Università del Piemonte Orientale UPO, via Solaroli 17, Novara (NO) 28100, Italy. Tel: +39-321-3733966, Fax: +39-321-3733361, E-mail:
| | - Luigi Mario Castello
- Department of Translational Medicine, Università del Piemonte Orientale UPO, Novara, Italy
- Emergency Medicine Department, “AOU Maggiore della Carità”, Novara, Italy
| | - Mario Pirisi
- Department of Translational Medicine, Università del Piemonte Orientale UPO, Novara, Italy
- Division of Internal Medicine, “AOU Maggiore della Carità, Novara, Italy
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32
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Law LA, Graham DK, Di Paola J, Branchford BR. GAS6/TAM Pathway Signaling in Hemostasis and Thrombosis. Front Med (Lausanne) 2018; 5:137. [PMID: 29868590 PMCID: PMC5954114 DOI: 10.3389/fmed.2018.00137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2018] [Accepted: 04/23/2018] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The GAS6/TYRO3-AXL-MERTK (TAM) signaling pathway is essential for full and sustained platelet activation, as well as thrombus stabilization. Inhibition of this pathway decreases platelet aggregation, shape change, clot retraction, aggregate formation under flow conditions, and surface expression of activation markers. Transgenic mice deficient in GAS6, or any of the TAM family of receptors that engage this ligand, exhibit in vivo protection against arterial and venous thrombosis but do not demonstrate either spontaneous or prolonged bleeding compared to their wild-type counterparts. Comparable results are observed in wild-type mice treated with pharmacological inhibitors of the GAS6-TAM pathway. Thus, GAS6/TAM inhibition offers an attractive novel therapeutic option that may allow for a moderate reduction in platelet activation and decreased thrombosis while still permitting the primary hemostatic function of platelet plug formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luke A Law
- Department of Anesthesiology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, United States
| | - Douglas K Graham
- Section of Hematology/Oncology, Department of Pediatrics, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Jorge Di Paola
- Section of Hematology/Oncology, Department of Pediatrics, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO, United States.,University of Colorado Hemophilia and Thrombosis Center, Aurora, CO, United States
| | - Brian R Branchford
- Section of Hematology/Oncology, Department of Pediatrics, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO, United States.,University of Colorado Hemophilia and Thrombosis Center, Aurora, CO, United States
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33
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Han J, Bae J, Choi CY, Choi SP, Kang HS, Jo EK, Park J, Lee YS, Moon HS, Park CG, Lee MS, Chun T. Autophagy induced by AXL receptor tyrosine kinase alleviates acute liver injury via inhibition of NLRP3 inflammasome activation in mice. Autophagy 2017; 12:2326-2343. [PMID: 27780404 DOI: 10.1080/15548627.2016.1235124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Severe hepatic inflammation is a common cause of acute or chronic liver disease. Macrophages are one of the key mediators which regulate the progress of hepatic inflammation. Increasing evidence shows that the TAM (TYRO3, AXL and MERTK) family of RTKs (receptor tyrosine kinases), which is expressed in macrophages, alleviates inflammatory responses through a negative feedback loop. However, the functional contribution of each TAM family member to the progression of hepatic inflammation remains elusive. In this study, we explore the role of individual TAM family proteins during autophagy induction and evaluate their contribution to hepatic inflammation. Among the TAM family of RTKs, AXL (AXL receptor tyrosine kinase) only induces autophagy in macrophages after interaction with its ligand, GAS6 (growth arrest specific 6). Based on our results, autophosphorylation of 2 tyrosine residues (Tyr815 and Tyr860) in the cytoplasmic domain of AXL in mice is required for autophagy induction and AXL-mediated autophagy induction is dependent on MAPK (mitogen-activated protein kinase)14 activity. Furthermore, induction of AXL-mediated autophagy prevents CASP1 (caspase 1)-dependent IL1B (interleukin 1, β) and IL18 (interleukin 18) maturation by inhibiting NLRP3 (NLR family, pyrin domain containing 3) inflammasome activation. In agreement with these observations, axl-/- mice show more severe symptoms than do wild-type (Axl+/+) mice following acute hepatic injury induced by administration of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) or carbon tetrachloride (CCl4). Hence, GAS6-AXL signaling-mediated autophagy induction in murine macrophages ameliorates hepatic inflammatory responses by inhibiting NLRP3 inflammasome activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jihye Han
- a Department of Biotechnology , College of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Korea University , Seoul , Korea
| | - Joonbeom Bae
- a Department of Biotechnology , College of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Korea University , Seoul , Korea
| | - Chang-Yong Choi
- a Department of Biotechnology , College of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Korea University , Seoul , Korea
| | - Sang-Pil Choi
- a Department of Biotechnology , College of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Korea University , Seoul , Korea
| | - Hyung-Sik Kang
- b School of Biological Sciences and Technology, Biotechnology Research Institute, Chonnam National University , Kwangju , Korea
| | - Eun-Kyeong Jo
- c Infection Signaling Network Research Center , Department of Microbiology , College of Medicine, Chungnam National University , Daejeon , Korea
| | - Jongsun Park
- d Department of Pharmacology , Metabolic Diseases and Cell Signaling Laboratory, Research Institute for Medical Sciences, College of Medicine, Chungnam National University , Daejeon , Korea
| | - Young Sik Lee
- a Department of Biotechnology , College of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Korea University , Seoul , Korea
| | - Hyun-Seuk Moon
- a Department of Biotechnology , College of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Korea University , Seoul , Korea
| | - Chung-Gyu Park
- e Department of Microbiology and Immunology , Seoul National University College of Medicine , Seoul , Korea
| | - Myung-Shik Lee
- f Severance Biomedical Science Institute , Department of Internal Medicine , College of Medicine, Yonsei University , Seoul , Korea
| | - Taehoon Chun
- a Department of Biotechnology , College of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Korea University , Seoul , Korea
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34
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Uchida M, Miyoshi T, Miyamoto Y. Pharmacological effects of a vitamin K 1 2,3-epoxide reductase (VKOR) inhibitor, 3-acetyl-5-methyltetronic acid, on cisplatin-induced fibrosis in rats. J Vet Med Sci 2017; 79:1507-1515. [PMID: 28717059 PMCID: PMC5627320 DOI: 10.1292/jvms.17-0216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Cisplatin (CDDP) is a chemotherapeutic agent that is widely used in the treatment of lymphomas and solid malignancies. However, its clinical usage is limited by its severe side effects in the kidneys. Glomerular and tubular
injuries in the kidneys commonly progress to interstitial fibrosis and, ultimately, the end stage of renal failure. We previously reported that 3-acetyl-5-methyltetronic acid (AMT) had inhibitory effects on rat renal vitamin
K1 2,3-epoxide reductase (VKOR) in vitro and also suppressed mesangial cell proliferation and, consequently, the formation of fibrosis via the vitamin K-dependent activation of the growth
arrest-specific 6 (Gas6)/Axl pathway in anti-Thy-1 glomerulonephritis (Thy-1 GN) in rats. In the present study, we demonstrated that AMT alleviated the progression of renal fibrosis in CDDP-treated rats. The repeated intravenous
administration of AMT for 28 days dose-dependently suppressed increases in plasma urea nitrogen and plasma creatinine levels as well as creatinine clearance in CDDP-treated rats. Furthermore, the treatment suppressed the
expression of α-smooth muscle actin (SMA)-positive cells and ameliorated the extracellular matrix accumulation of collagen III, indicating an antifibrotic effect. In conclusion, our toxicological and histopathological results
demonstrated quantitatively the pharmacological inhibitory effects of AMT on the progression of renal fibrosis in CDDP-treated rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masashi Uchida
- Toxicology and Pharmacokinetics Laboratories, Pharmaceutical Research Laboratories, Toray Industries, Inc., 6-10-1 Tebiro, Kamakura, Kanagawa 248-8555, Japan
| | - Tomoya Miyoshi
- Toxicology and Pharmacokinetics Laboratories, Pharmaceutical Research Laboratories, Toray Industries, Inc., 6-10-1 Tebiro, Kamakura, Kanagawa 248-8555, Japan
| | - Yohei Miyamoto
- Toxicology and Pharmacokinetics Laboratories, Pharmaceutical Research Laboratories, Toray Industries, Inc., 6-10-1 Tebiro, Kamakura, Kanagawa 248-8555, Japan.,Pharmaceutical Clinical Research Department, Toray Industries, Inc., 1-1, Nihonbashi-muromachi 2-chome, Chuo-ku, Tokyo 103-8666, Japan
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Dengler M, Staufer K, Huber H, Stauber R, Bantel H, Weiss KH, Starlinger P, Pock H, Klöters-Plachky P, Gotthardt DN, Rauch P, Lackner C, Stift J, Brostjan C, Gruenberger T, Kumada T, Toyoda H, Tada T, Weiss TS, Trauner M, Mikulits W. Soluble Axl is an accurate biomarker of cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma development: results from a large scale multicenter analysis. Oncotarget 2017; 8:46234-46248. [PMID: 28526812 PMCID: PMC5542263 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.17598] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2016] [Accepted: 04/06/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Patients with chronic liver disease (CLD) and cirrhosis are at high risk for hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Current diagnostic tools for HCC detection include imaging techniques and serum biomarkers such as α-fetoprotein (AFP). Yet, these methods are limited in sensitivity and specificity to accurately detect early HCC. Here we focused on the potential of soluble Axl (sAxl) as a biomarker in CLD patients by analyzing serum samples of 1067 patients and healthy controls from centers in Europe and Asia. We show that serum concentrations of sAxl were significantly increased at early (82.57 ng/mL) and later stages of HCC (114.50 ng/mL) as compared to healthy controls (40.15 ng/mL). Notably, no elevated sAxl levels were detected in patients with CLD including chronic viral hepatitis, autoimmune hepatitis, cholestatic liver disease, or non-alcoholic fatty liver disease versus healthy controls. Furthermore, sAxl did not rise in liver adenomas or cholangiocarcinoma (CCA). Yet, patients with advanced fibrosis (F3) or cirrhosis (F4) showed enhanced sAxl concentrations (F3: 54.67 ng/mL; F4: 94.74 ng/mL). Hepatic myofibroblasts exhibited an increased release of sAxl, suggesting that elevated sAxl levels arise from these cells during fibrosis. Receiver operating characteristic curve analysis of sAxl displayed a strongly increased sensitivity and specificity to detect both cirrhosis (80.8%/92.0%) and HCC (83.3%/86.7%) with an area under the curve of 0.935/0.903 as compared to AFP. In conclusion, sAxl shows high diagnostic accuracy at early stage HCC as well as cirrhosis, thereby outperforming AFP. Importantly, sAxl remains normal in most common CLDs, liver adenomas and CCA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mirko Dengler
- Department of Medicine I, Institute of Cancer Research, Comprehensive Cancer Center Vienna, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Katharina Staufer
- Department of Surgery, Division of Transplantation, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
- Department of Internal Medicine III, Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Heidemarie Huber
- Department of Medicine I, Institute of Cancer Research, Comprehensive Cancer Center Vienna, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Rudolf Stauber
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Department of Internal Medicine, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Heike Bantel
- Department of Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Endocrinology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | | | - Patrick Starlinger
- Department of Surgery, Division of General Surgery, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Hannelore Pock
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Department of Internal Medicine, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | | | | | - Peter Rauch
- Candor Bioscience GmbH, Wangen im Allgäu, Germany
| | - Carolin Lackner
- Institute of Pathology, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Judith Stift
- Clinical Institute of Pathology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Christine Brostjan
- Department of Surgery, Division of General Surgery, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Thomas Gruenberger
- Department of Surgery, Division of General Surgery, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Takashi Kumada
- Department of Gastroenterology, Ogaki Municipal Hospital, Ogaki, Japan
| | - Hidenori Toyoda
- Department of Gastroenterology, Ogaki Municipal Hospital, Ogaki, Japan
| | - Toshifumi Tada
- Department of Gastroenterology, Ogaki Municipal Hospital, Ogaki, Japan
| | - Thomas S. Weiss
- Center for Liver Cell Research, Children's University Hospital (KUNO), University of Regensburg Hospital, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Michael Trauner
- Department of Internal Medicine III, Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Wolfgang Mikulits
- Department of Medicine I, Institute of Cancer Research, Comprehensive Cancer Center Vienna, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
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Musso G, Cassader M, De Michieli F, Paschetta E, Pinach S, Saba F, Bongiovanni D, Framarin L, Berrutti M, Leone N, Corvisieri S, Parente R, Molinaro F, Sircana A, Bo S, Gambino R. MERTK rs4374383 variant predicts incident nonalcoholic fatty liver disease and diabetes: role of mononuclear cell activation and adipokine response to dietary fat. Hum Mol Genet 2017; 26:1747-1758. [DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddw400] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2016] [Accepted: 11/21/2016] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
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Bellan M, Pogliani G, Marconi C, Minisini R, Franzosi L, Alciato F, Magri A, Avanzi GC, Pirisi M, Sainaghi PP. Gas6 as a putative noninvasive biomarker of hepatic fibrosis. Biomark Med 2016; 10:1241-1249. [PMID: 27924629 DOI: 10.2217/bmm-2016-0210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
AIM To evaluate serum growth arrest-specific gene 6 (Gas6) concentration as a biomarker of liver fibrosis progression. MATERIALS & METHODS One hundred and thirteen consecutive patients affected by chronic liver disease underwent transient elastography, Gas6 measurement and, if clinically indicated, liver biopsy. RESULTS Gas6 concentration was directly correlated to liver stiffness (r = 0.67; p < 0.0001) and was significantly higher in patients with advanced fibrosis (Ishak 4-5; p < 0.001). A plasma concentration <30 ng/ml Gas6 ruled out fibrosis with 84% sensitivity and 56% specificity, while values >42 ng/ml identified severe fibrosis with a sensitivity of 64% and a specificity of 95%; the diagnostic accuracy was comparable to that of transient elastography. CONCLUSION Gas6 is a novel biomarker of liver fibrosis, with a potential clinical and pathophysiological relevance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mattia Bellan
- Department of Translational Medicine, Università del Piemonte Orientale UPO, via Solaroli 17, 28100 Novara, Italy.,Division of Internal Medicine, "AOU Maggiore della Carità", Corso Mazzini 18, 28100 Novara, Italy
| | - Gabriele Pogliani
- Department of Translational Medicine, Università del Piemonte Orientale UPO, via Solaroli 17, 28100 Novara, Italy.,Division of Internal Medicine, "AOU Maggiore della Carità", Corso Mazzini 18, 28100 Novara, Italy
| | - Cecilia Marconi
- Department of Translational Medicine, Università del Piemonte Orientale UPO, via Solaroli 17, 28100 Novara, Italy.,Division of Internal Medicine, "AOU Maggiore della Carità", Corso Mazzini 18, 28100 Novara, Italy
| | - Rosalba Minisini
- Department of Translational Medicine, Università del Piemonte Orientale UPO, via Solaroli 17, 28100 Novara, Italy.,Division of Internal Medicine, "AOU Maggiore della Carità", Corso Mazzini 18, 28100 Novara, Italy
| | - Lisa Franzosi
- Department of Translational Medicine, Università del Piemonte Orientale UPO, via Solaroli 17, 28100 Novara, Italy.,Division of Internal Medicine, "AOU Maggiore della Carità", Corso Mazzini 18, 28100 Novara, Italy
| | - Federica Alciato
- Department of Translational Medicine, Università del Piemonte Orientale UPO, via Solaroli 17, 28100 Novara, Italy
| | - Andrea Magri
- Department of Translational Medicine, Università del Piemonte Orientale UPO, via Solaroli 17, 28100 Novara, Italy.,Division of Internal Medicine, "AOU Maggiore della Carità", Corso Mazzini 18, 28100 Novara, Italy
| | - Gian Carlo Avanzi
- Department of Translational Medicine, Università del Piemonte Orientale UPO, via Solaroli 17, 28100 Novara, Italy.,Emergency Medicine Department, "AOU Maggiore della Carità", Corso Mazzini 18, Novara, Italy
| | - Mario Pirisi
- Department of Translational Medicine, Università del Piemonte Orientale UPO, via Solaroli 17, 28100 Novara, Italy.,Division of Internal Medicine, "AOU Maggiore della Carità", Corso Mazzini 18, 28100 Novara, Italy.,IRCAD, Interdisciplinary Research Center of Autoimmune Diseases, via Solaroli 17, Novara, Italy
| | - Pier Paolo Sainaghi
- Division of Internal Medicine, "AOU Maggiore della Carità", Corso Mazzini 18, 28100 Novara, Italy.,IRCAD, Interdisciplinary Research Center of Autoimmune Diseases, via Solaroli 17, Novara, Italy
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Li SJ, Liu CH, Chu HP, Mersmann HJ, Ding ST, Chu CH, Wang CY, Chen CY. The high-fat diet induces myocardial fibrosis in the metabolically healthy obese minipigs-The role of ER stress and oxidative stress. Clin Nutr 2016; 36:760-767. [PMID: 27342749 DOI: 10.1016/j.clnu.2016.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2015] [Revised: 04/27/2016] [Accepted: 06/01/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The cellular mechanisms of obesity-induced cardiomyopathy are multiple and not completely elucidated. The objective of this study was to differentiate two obesity-associated cardiomyopathy miniature pig models: one with the metabolic syndrome (MetS), and one with a metabolically healthy obesity (MHO). The cellular responses during the development of obesity-induced cardiomyopathy were investigated. METHODS Five-month-old Lee-Sung (MetS) and Lanyu (MHO) minipigs were made obese by feeding a high-fat diet (HFD) for 6 months. RESULTS Obese pigs exhibited a greater heart weight than control pigs. Interstitial and perivascular fibrosis developed in the myocardium of obese pigs. The HFD induced cardiac lipid accumulation and oxidative stress and also decreased the antioxidant defense in MetS pigs. This diet activated oxidative stress without changing cardiac antioxidant defense and lipid content in MHO pigs. The HFD upregulated the expression of Grp94, CHOP, caspase 12, p62, and LC3II, and increased the ratio of LC3II to LC3I in the left ventricle (LV) of MetS pigs. Compared to obese MetS pigs, less Grp94 and elevated CHOP expression was found in the obese MHO heart. The HFD did not change the ratio of LC3II to LC3I and p62 expression in obese MHO pigs. The obese MetS pigs had an extensive and greater inflammatory response in the plasma than the obese MHO pigs, which had a lesser and milder inflammation. CONCLUSION Oxidative stress and ER stress were involved in the progression of MHO-related cardiomyopathy. Inflammation, autophagy, ER stress, oxidative stress, and lipotoxicity participated in the pathological mechanism of MetS-related cardiomyopathy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sin-Jin Li
- Department of Animal Science and Technology, National Taiwan University, No. 50, Lane 155, Sec 3, Keelung Rd, Taipei, 10672, Taiwan
| | - Chia-Hsin Liu
- Department of Animal Science and Technology, National Taiwan University, No. 50, Lane 155, Sec 3, Keelung Rd, Taipei, 10672, Taiwan
| | - Hsien-Pin Chu
- Taitung Animal Propagation Station, Livestock Research Institute Council of Agriculture, No. 30, Binlang Vil., Beinan Township, Taitung County, 95444, Taiwan
| | - Harry J Mersmann
- Department of Animal Science and Technology, National Taiwan University, No. 50, Lane 155, Sec 3, Keelung Rd, Taipei, 10672, Taiwan
| | - Shih-Torng Ding
- Department of Animal Science and Technology, National Taiwan University, No. 50, Lane 155, Sec 3, Keelung Rd, Taipei, 10672, Taiwan
| | - Chun-Han Chu
- Department of Animal Science and Technology, National Taiwan University, No. 50, Lane 155, Sec 3, Keelung Rd, Taipei, 10672, Taiwan
| | - Chia-Yu Wang
- Department of Animal Science and Technology, National Taiwan University, No. 50, Lane 155, Sec 3, Keelung Rd, Taipei, 10672, Taiwan
| | - Ching-Yi Chen
- Department of Animal Science and Technology, National Taiwan University, No. 50, Lane 155, Sec 3, Keelung Rd, Taipei, 10672, Taiwan.
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Mukherjee SK, Wilhelm A, Antoniades CG. TAM receptor tyrosine kinase function and the immunopathology of liver disease. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2016; 310:G899-905. [PMID: 26867565 PMCID: PMC4935487 DOI: 10.1152/ajpgi.00382.2015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2015] [Accepted: 01/28/2016] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Tyro3, Axl, MERTK (TAM) receptor tyrosine kinases are implicated in the regulation of the innate immune response through clearance of apoptotic cellular debris and control of cytokine signaling cascades. As a result they are pivotal in regulating the inflammatory response to tissue injury. Within the liver, immune regulatory signaling is employed to prevent the overactivation of innate immunity in response to continual antigenic challenge from the gastrointestinal tract. In this review we appraise current understanding of the role of TAM receptor function in the regulation of both innate and adaptive immunity, with a focus on its impact upon hepatic inflammatory pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- S. K. Mukherjee
- 1Division of Digestive Diseases, Department of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom; and
| | - A. Wilhelm
- 1Division of Digestive Diseases, Department of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom; and
| | - C. G. Antoniades
- 1Division of Digestive Diseases, Department of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom; and ,2Division of Transplantation Immunology & Mucosal Biology, Institute of Liver Sciences, King's College London, London, United Kingdom
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40
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Kaesler N, Immendorf S, Ouyang C, Herfs M, Drummen N, Carmeliet P, Vermeer C, Floege J, Krüger T, Schlieper G. Gas6 protein: its role in cardiovascular calcification. BMC Nephrol 2016; 17:52. [PMID: 27230889 PMCID: PMC4880820 DOI: 10.1186/s12882-016-0265-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2016] [Accepted: 05/16/2016] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cardiovascular calcifications can be prevented by vitamin K and are accelerated by vitamin K antagonists. These effects are believed to be mainly mediated by the vitamin K-dependent matrix Gla protein. Another vitamin K-dependent protein, Gas6, is also expressed in vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMC). In vitro Gas6 expression was shown to be regulated in VSMC calcification and apoptotic processes. METHODS We investigated the role of Gas6 in vitro using VSMC cultures and in vivo in young and old Gas6-deficient (Gas6(-/-)) and wildtype (WT) mice. In addition, Gas6(-/-) and WT mice were challenged by (a) warfarin administration, (b) uninephrectomy (UniNX) plus high phosphate diet, or (c) UniNX plus high phosphate plus electrocautery of the residual kidney. RESULTS In vitro VSMC from WT and Gas6(-/-) mice exposed to warfarin showed increased apoptosis and calcified similarly. In vivo, aortic, cardiac and renal calcium content in all groups was similar, except for a lower cardiac calcium content in Gas6(-/-) mice (group a). Von Kossa staining revealed small vascular calcifications in both WT and Gas6(-/-) mice (groups a-c). In aging, non-manipulated mice, no significant differences in vascular calcification were identified between Gas6(-/-) and WT mice. Gas6(-/-) mice exhibited no upregulation of matrix Gla protein in any group. Cardiac output was similar in all treatment groups. CONCLUSIONS Taken together, in our study Gas6 fails to aggravate calcification against the previous assumption.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Chun Ouyang
- Uniklinik RWTH Aachen, Nephrology, Aachen, Germany
| | - Marjolein Herfs
- University of Maastricht, R&D Group, Maastricht, Netherlands
| | - Nadja Drummen
- University of Maastricht, R&D Group, Maastricht, Netherlands
| | - Peter Carmeliet
- University of Leuven, Vesalius Research Center, VIB, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Cees Vermeer
- University of Maastricht, R&D Group, Maastricht, Netherlands
| | | | - Thilo Krüger
- Uniklinik RWTH Aachen, Nephrology, Aachen, Germany
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41
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Petta S, Marra F. Reply to 'Genetic and clinical data reinforce the role of GAS6 and TAM receptors in liver fibrosis'. J Hepatol 2016; 64:984-5. [PMID: 26812076 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhep.2016.01.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2016] [Accepted: 01/21/2016] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Salvatore Petta
- Sezione di Gastroenterologia, DiBiMIS, University of Palermo, Italy.
| | - Fabio Marra
- Dipartimento di Medicina Sperimentale e Clinica, Università degli Studi di Firenze, Italy
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42
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Petta S, Valenti L, Marra F, Grimaudo S, Tripodo C, Bugianesi E, Cammà C, Cappon A, Di Marco V, Di Maira G, Dongiovanni P, Rametta R, Gulino A, Mozzi E, Orlando E, Maggioni M, Pipitone RM, Fargion S, Craxì A. MERTK rs4374383 polymorphism affects the severity of fibrosis in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. J Hepatol 2016; 64:682-90. [PMID: 26596542 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhep.2015.10.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2015] [Revised: 09/16/2015] [Accepted: 10/12/2015] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND & AIM Homozygosity for a common non-coding rs4374383 G>A polymorphism in MERTK (myeloid-epithelial-reproductive tyrosine kinase) has been associated with the protection against fibrosis progression in chronic hepatitis C. The main study objective was to assess whether MERTK AA genotype influences liver fibrosis, and secondarily MERTK expression in patients with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). We also investigated whether MERTK is expressed in human hepatic stellate cells (HSC) and in murine models of fibrogenesis. METHODS We considered 533 consecutive patients who underwent liver biopsy for suspected non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) without severe obesity from two Italian cohorts. As controls, we evaluated 158 patients with normal liver enzymes and without metabolic disturbances. MERTK rs4374383 genotype was assessed by 5'-nuclease assays. MERTK expression was analysed in mouse models of fibrosis, and the effect of the MERTK ligand GAS6 were investigated in human HSC. RESULTS Clinically significant fibrosis (stage F2-F4) was observed in 19% of patients with MERTK AA compared to 30% in those with MERTK GG/GA (OR 0.43, CI 0.21-0.88, p=0.02; adjusted for centre, and genetic, clinical-metabolic and histological variables). The protective rs4374383 AA genotype was associated with lower MERTK hepatic expression. MERTK was overexpressed in the liver of NAFLD patients with F2-F4 fibrosis and in in vivo models of fibrogenesis. Furthermore, exposure of cultured human HSC to the MERTK ligand GAS6, increased cell migration and induced procollagen expression. These effects were counteracted by inhibition of MERTK activity, which also resulted in apoptotic death of HSC. CONCLUSIONS The rs4374383 AA genotype, associated with lower intrahepatic expression of MERTK, is protective against F2-F4 fibrosis in patients with NAFLD. The mechanism may involve modulation of HSC activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Salvatore Petta
- Sezione di Gastroenterologia, DiBiMIS, University of Palermo, Italy.
| | - Luca Valenti
- Department of Pathophysiology and Transplantation, Università degli Studi, Internal Medicine, Fondazione Ca' Granda IRCCS Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Milano, Italy
| | - Fabio Marra
- Dipartimento di Medicina Sperimentale e Clinica, Università degli Studi di Firenze, Italy
| | | | - Claudio Tripodo
- Cattedra di Anatomia Patologica, University of Palermo, Italy
| | - Elisabetta Bugianesi
- Division of Gastro-Hepatology, Department of Medical Sciences, San Giovanni Battista Hospital, University of Torino, Torino, Italy
| | - Calogero Cammà
- Sezione di Gastroenterologia, DiBiMIS, University of Palermo, Italy
| | - Andrea Cappon
- Dipartimento di Medicina Sperimentale e Clinica, Università degli Studi di Firenze, Italy
| | - Vito Di Marco
- Sezione di Gastroenterologia, DiBiMIS, University of Palermo, Italy
| | - Giovanni Di Maira
- Dipartimento di Medicina Sperimentale e Clinica, Università degli Studi di Firenze, Italy
| | - Paola Dongiovanni
- Department of Pathophysiology and Transplantation, Università degli Studi, Internal Medicine, Fondazione Ca' Granda IRCCS Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Milano, Italy
| | - Raffaela Rametta
- Department of Pathophysiology and Transplantation, Università degli Studi, Internal Medicine, Fondazione Ca' Granda IRCCS Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Milano, Italy
| | | | - Enrico Mozzi
- Department of Pathophysiology and Transplantation, Università degli Studi, Internal Medicine, Fondazione Ca' Granda IRCCS Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Milano, Italy
| | - Emanuele Orlando
- Sezione di Gastroenterologia, DiBiMIS, University of Palermo, Italy
| | - Marco Maggioni
- Pathology, Fondazione IRCCS Ca' Granda Policlinico, Milano, Italy
| | | | - Silvia Fargion
- Department of Pathophysiology and Transplantation, Università degli Studi, Internal Medicine, Fondazione Ca' Granda IRCCS Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Milano, Italy
| | - Antonio Craxì
- Sezione di Gastroenterologia, DiBiMIS, University of Palermo, Italy
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Bárcena C, Stefanovic M, Tutusaus A, Joannas L, Menéndez A, García-Ruiz C, Sancho-Bru P, Marí M, Caballeria J, Rothlin CV, Fernández-Checa JC, de Frutos PG, Morales A. Gas6/Axl pathway is activated in chronic liver disease and its targeting reduces fibrosis via hepatic stellate cell inactivation. J Hepatol 2015; 63:670-8. [PMID: 25908269 PMCID: PMC4543529 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhep.2015.04.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2014] [Revised: 04/07/2015] [Accepted: 04/10/2015] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND & AIMS Liver fibrosis, an important health concern associated to chronic liver injury that provides a permissive environment for cancer development, is characterized by accumulation of extracellular matrix components mainly derived from activated hepatic stellate cells (HSCs). Axl, a receptor tyrosine kinase and its ligand Gas6, are involved in cell differentiation, immune response and carcinogenesis. METHODS HSCs were obtained from WT and Axl(-/-) mice, treated with recombinant Gas6 protein (rGas6), Axl siRNAs or the Axl inhibitor BGB324, and analyzed by western blot and real-time PCR. Experimental fibrosis was studied in CCl4-treated WT and Axl(-/-) mice, and in combination with Axl inhibitor. Gas6 and Axl serum levels were measured in alcoholic liver disease (ALD) and hepatitis C virus (HCV) patients. RESULTS In primary mouse HSCs, Gas6 and Axl levels paralleled HSC activation. rGas6 phosphorylated Axl and AKT prior to HSC phenotypic changes, while Axl siRNA silencing reduced HSC activation. Moreover, BGB324 blocked Axl/AKT phosphorylation and diminished HSC activation. In addition, Axl(-/-) mice displayed decreased HSC activation in vitro and liver fibrogenesis after chronic damage by CCl4 administration. Similarly, BGB324 reduced collagen deposition and CCl4-induced liver fibrosis in mice. Importantly, Gas6 and Axl serum levels increased in ALD and HCV patients, inversely correlating with liver functionality. CONCLUSIONS The Gas6/Axl axis is required for full HSC activation. Gas6 and Axl serum levels increase in parallel to chronic liver disease progression. Axl targeting may be a therapeutic strategy for liver fibrosis management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristina Bárcena
- Liver Unit, Hospital Clinic, IDIBAPS-CIBEK, CIBEREHD, Barcelona, Catalonia, Sain,Department of Cell Death and Proliferation, IIBB-CSIC, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
| | - Milica Stefanovic
- Liver Unit, Hospital Clinic, IDIBAPS-CIBEK, CIBEREHD, Barcelona, Catalonia, Sain,Department of Cell Death and Proliferation, IIBB-CSIC, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
| | - Anna Tutusaus
- Liver Unit, Hospital Clinic, IDIBAPS-CIBEK, CIBEREHD, Barcelona, Catalonia, Sain,Department of Cell Death and Proliferation, IIBB-CSIC, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
| | - Leonel Joannas
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Anghara Menéndez
- Department of Cell Death and Proliferation, IIBB-CSIC, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
| | - Carmen García-Ruiz
- Liver Unit, Hospital Clinic, IDIBAPS-CIBEK, CIBEREHD, Barcelona, Catalonia, Sain,Department of Cell Death and Proliferation, IIBB-CSIC, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
| | - Pau Sancho-Bru
- Liver Unit, Hospital Clinic, IDIBAPS-CIBEK, CIBEREHD, Barcelona, Catalonia, Sain
| | - Montserrat Marí
- Liver Unit, Hospital Clinic, IDIBAPS-CIBEK, CIBEREHD, Barcelona, Catalonia, Sain,Department of Cell Death and Proliferation, IIBB-CSIC, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
| | - Joan Caballeria
- Liver Unit, Hospital Clinic, IDIBAPS-CIBEK, CIBEREHD, Barcelona, Catalonia, Sain
| | - Carla V. Rothlin
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - José C. Fernández-Checa
- Liver Unit, Hospital Clinic, IDIBAPS-CIBEK, CIBEREHD, Barcelona, Catalonia, Sain,Department of Cell Death and Proliferation, IIBB-CSIC, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain,Research Center for Alcoholic Liver and Pancreatic Diseases, Keck School of Medicine of the University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA USA
| | | | - Albert Morales
- Liver Unit, Hospital Clinic, IDIBAPS-CIBEK, CIBEREHD, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain; Department of Cell Death and Proliferation, IIBB-CSIC, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain.
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Effect of Common Genetic Variants of Growth Arrest-Specific 6 Gene on Insulin Resistance, Obesity and Type 2 Diabetes in an Asian Population. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0135681. [PMID: 26284522 PMCID: PMC4540485 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0135681] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2014] [Accepted: 07/26/2015] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Objectives Growth arrest-specific 6 (Gas6), a vitamin K-dependent protein, has been implicated in systemic inflammation, obesity, and insulin resistance (IR). Data from recent studies suggest that polymorphisms in the Gas6 gene are associated with cardiovascular disorders and type 2 diabetes (T2D). However, the association of Gas6 gene variants with obesity, IR, and T2D development has not been explored. Materials and Methods Four common single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the Gas6 gene were genotyped in 984 participants from the Stanford Asia-Pacific Program for Hypertension and Insulin Resistance (SAPPHIRe) family cohort. An insulin suppression test was performed to determine IR based on steady-state plasma glucose (SSPG). Associations between IR indices and obesity, and SNP genotypes, based on previously-reported data for this cohort (Phase I), were analyzed. In the present follow-up study (Phase II), the effects of gene variants of Gas6 on the progression to T2D were explored in individuals who were free of T2D in Phase I. The mean follow-up period for Phase II was 5.7 years. Results The mean age of the study population in Phase I was 49.5 years and 16.7% of individuals developed T2D during follow-up. After adjusting for covariates, three SNPs (rs8191973, rs8197974, and rs7323932) were found to be associated with SSPG levels (p = 0.007, p = 0.03, and p = 0.011, respectively). This association remained significant after multiple testing and showed a significant interaction with physical activity for SNP rs8191973. However, no other significant correlations were observed between Gas6 polymorphisms and other indices of IR or obesity. A specific haplotype, AACG (from rs8191974, rs7323932, rs7331124, and rs8191973), was positively associated with SSPG levels (p = 0.0098). None of the polymorphisms were associated with an increased risk of T2D development. Conclusions Our results suggest that Gas6 gene variants are associated with IR, although their effects on subsequent progression to T2D were minimal in this prospective Asian cohort.
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45
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Larsen MC, Bushkofsky JR, Gorman T, Adhami V, Mukhtar H, Wang S, Reeder SB, Sheibani N, Jefcoate CR. Cytochrome P450 1B1: An unexpected modulator of liver fatty acid homeostasis. Arch Biochem Biophys 2015; 571:21-39. [PMID: 25703193 DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2015.02.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2014] [Revised: 01/23/2015] [Accepted: 02/10/2015] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Cytochrome P450 1b1 (Cyp1b1) expression is absent in mouse hepatocytes, but present in liver endothelia and activated stellate cells. Increased expression during adipogenesis suggests a role of Cyp1b1 metabolism in fatty acid homeostasis. Wild-type C57BL/6j (WT) and Cyp1b1-null (Cyp1b1-ko) mice were provided low or high fat diets (LFD and HFD, respectively). Cyp1b1-deletion suppressed HFD-induced obesity, improved glucose tolerance and prevented liver steatosis. Suppression of lipid droplets in sinusoidal hepatocytes, concomitant with enhanced glycogen granules, was a consistent feature of Cyp1b1-ko mice. Cyp1b1 deletion altered the in vivo expression of 560 liver genes, including suppression of PPARγ, stearoyl CoA desaturase 1 (Scd1) and many genes stimulated by PPARα, each consistent with this switch in energy storage mechanism. Ligand activation of PPARα in Cyp1b1-ko mice by WY-14643 was, nevertheless, effective. Seventeen gene changes in Cyp1b1-ko mice correspond to mouse transgenic expression that attenuated diet-induced diabetes. The absence of Cyp1b1 in mouse hepatocytes indicates participation in energy homeostasis through extra-hepatocyte signaling. Extensive sexual dimorphism in hepatic gene expression suggests a developmental impact of estrogen metabolism by Cyp1b1. Suppression of Scd1 and increased leptin turnover support enhanced leptin participation from the hypothalamus. Cyp1b1-mediated effects on vascular cells may underlie these changes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michele Campaigne Larsen
- Department of Cell and Regenerative Biology, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706, United States
| | - Justin R Bushkofsky
- Molecular and Environmental Toxicology Center, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706, United States; Endocrinology and Reproductive Physiology Program, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706, United States
| | - Tyler Gorman
- Department of Cell and Regenerative Biology, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706, United States
| | - Vaqar Adhami
- Department of Dermatology, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706, United States
| | - Hasan Mukhtar
- Department of Dermatology, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706, United States
| | - Suqing Wang
- Department of Cell and Regenerative Biology, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706, United States
| | - Scott B Reeder
- Department of Radiology, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706, United States; Department of Medical Physics, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706, United States; Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706, United States; Department of Medicine, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706, United States; Department of Emergency Medicine, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706, United States
| | - Nader Sheibani
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706, United States
| | - Colin R Jefcoate
- Department of Cell and Regenerative Biology, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706, United States; Molecular and Environmental Toxicology Center, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706, United States; Endocrinology and Reproductive Physiology Program, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706, United States.
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Shibata T, Ismailoglu UB, Kittan NA, Moreira AP, Coelho AL, Chupp GL, Kunkel SL, Lukacs NW, Hogaboam CM. Role of growth arrest-specific gene 6 in the development of fungal allergic airway disease in mice. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 2015; 51:615-25. [PMID: 24810144 DOI: 10.1165/rcmb.2014-0049oc] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Growth arrest-specific gene (Gas)6 is a secreted vitamin K-dependent protein with pleiotropic effects via activation of receptor tyrosine kinase Tyro3, Axl, and Mertk receptors, but little is known about its role in allergic airway disease. We investigated the role of Gas6 in the development of fungal allergic airway disease in mice. The immune response was evaluated in Gas6-deficient (Gas6-/-) and wild-type (WT) mice and in recombinant Gas6-treated WT mice during Aspergillus fumigatus-induced allergic airway disease. Gas6 plasma levels were significantly elevated in adult clinical asthma of all severities compared with subjects without asthma. In a murine model of fungal allergic airway disease, increased protein expression of Axl and Mertk were observed in the lung. Airway hyperresponsiveness (AHR), whole lung Th2 cytokine levels, goblet cell metaplasia, and peribronchial fibrosis were ameliorated in Gas6-/- mice compared with WT mice with fungal allergic airway disease. Intranasal Gas6 administration into WT mice had a divergent effect on airway inflammation and AHR. Specifically, a total dose of 2 μg of exogenous Gas6 (i.e., low dose) significantly increased whole lung Th2 cytokine levels and subsequent AHR, whereas a total dose of 7 μg of exogenous Gas6 (i.e., high dose) significantly suppressed Th1 and Th2 cytokines and AHR compared with appropriate control groups. Mechanistically, Gas6 promoted Th2 activation via its highest affinity receptor Axl expressed by myeloid DCs. Intranasal administration of Gas6 consistently exacerbated airway remodeling compared with control WT groups. These results demonstrate that Gas6 enhances several features of fungal allergic airway disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takehiko Shibata
- 1 Immunology Program, Department of Pathology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, Michigan
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Abstract
The control of cellular growth and proliferation is key to the maintenance of homeostasis. Survival, proliferation, and arrest are regulated, in part, by Growth Arrest Specific 6 (Gas6) through binding to members of the TAM receptor tyrosine kinase family. Activation of the TAM receptors leads to downstream signaling through common kinases, but the exact mechanism within each cellular context varies and remains to be completely elucidated. Deregulation of the TAM family, due to its central role in mediating cellular proliferation, has been implicated in multiple diseases. Axl was cloned as the first TAM receptor in a search for genes involved in the progression of chronic to acute-phase leukemia, and has since been established as playing a critical role in the progression of cancer. The oncogenic nature of Axl is demonstrated through its activation of signaling pathways involved in proliferation, migration, inhibition of apoptosis, and therapeutic resistance. Despite its recent discovery, significant progress has been made in the development of effective clinical therapeutics targeting Axl. In order to accurately define the role of Axl in normal and diseased processes, it must be analyzed in a cell type-specific context.
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Abstract
Abstract
TAM receptors (Tyro3, Axl, and Mer) belong to a family of receptor tyrosine kinases that have important effects on hemostasis and inflammation. Also, they affect cell proliferation, survival, adhesion, and migration. TAM receptors can be activated by the vitamin K–dependent proteins Gas6 and protein S. Protein S is more commonly known as an important cofactor for protein C as well as a direct inhibitor of multiple coagulation factors. To our knowledge, the functions of Gas6 are limited to TAM receptor activation. When activated, the TAM receptors have effects on primary hemostasis and coagulation and display an anti-inflammatory or a proinflammatory effect, depending on cell type. To comprehend the effects that the TAM receptors and their ligands have on hemostasis and inflammation, we compare studies that report the different phenotypes displayed by mice with deficiencies in the genes of this receptor family and its ligands (protein S+/−, Gas6−/−, TAM−/−, and variations of these). In this manner, we aim to display which features are attributable to the different ligands. Because of the effects TAM receptors have on hemostasis, inflammation, and cancer growth, their modulation could make interesting therapeutic targets in thromboembolic disease, atherosclerosis, sepsis, autoimmune disease, and cancer.
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Luo XY, Takahara T, Kawai K, Fujino M, Sugiyama T, Tsuneyama K, Tsukada K, Nakae S, Zhong L, Li XK. IFN-γ deficiency attenuates hepatic inflammation and fibrosis in a steatohepatitis model induced by a methionine- and choline-deficient high-fat diet. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2013; 305:G891-9. [PMID: 24136786 DOI: 10.1152/ajpgi.00193.2013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Cytokines play important roles in all stages of steatohepatitis, including hepatocyte injury, the inflammatory response, and the altered function of sinusoidal cells. This study examined the involvement of a major inflammatory cytokine, interferon-γ (IFN-γ), in the progression of steatohepatitis. In a steatohepatitis model by feeding a methionine- and choline-deficient high-fat (MCDHF) diet to both wild-type and IFN-γ-deficient mice, the liver histology, expression of genes encoding inflammatory cytokines, and fibrosis-related markers were examined. To analyze the effects of IFN-γ on Kupffer cells in vitro, we examined the tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) production by a mouse macrophage cell line. Forty two days of MCDHF diet resulted in weight loss, elevated aminotransferases, liver steatosis, and inflammation in wild-type mice. However, the IFN-γ-deficient mice exhibited less extensive changes. RT-PCR revealed that the expression of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), transforming growth factor-β, inducible nitric oxide synthase, interleukin-4 and osteopontin were increased in wild-type mice, although they were suppressed in IFN-γ-deficient mice. Seventy days of MCDHF diet induced much more liver fibrosis in wild-type mice than in IFN-γ-deficient mice. The expression levels of fibrosis-related genes, α-smooth muscle actin, type I collagen, tissue inhibitor of matrix metalloproteinase-1, and matrix metalloproteinase-2, were dramatically increased in wild-type mice, whereas they were significantly suppressed in IFN-γ-deficient mice. Moreover, in vitro experiments showed that, when RAW 264.7 macrophages were treated with IFN-γ, they produced TNF-α in a dose-dependent manner. The present study showed that IFN-γ deficiency might inhibit the inflammatory response of macrophages cells and subsequently suppress stellate cell activation and liver fibrosis. These findings highlight the critical role of IFN-γ in the progression of steatohepatitis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao-Yu Luo
- Division of Transplantation Immunology, National Research Institute for Child Health and Development, 2-10-1 Okura, Setagaya-ku, Tokyo, 157-8535 Japan.
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van den Brand BT, Abdollahi-Roodsaz S, Vermeij EA, Bennink MB, Arntz OJ, Rothlin CV, van den Berg WB, van de Loo FAJ. Therapeutic efficacy of Tyro3, Axl, and Mer tyrosine kinase agonists in collagen-induced arthritis. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2013. [PMID: 23203851 DOI: 10.1002/art.37786] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Hyperactivation of innate immunity by Toll-like receptors (TLRs) can contribute to the development of autoinflammatory or autoimmune diseases. This study evaluated the activation of Tyro3, Axl, Mer (TAM) receptors, physiologic negative regulators of TLRs, by their agonists, growth arrest-specific protein 6 (GAS-6) and protein S, in the prevention of collagen-induced arthritis (CIA). METHODS Adenoviruses overexpressing GAS-6 and protein S were injected intravenously or intraarticularly into mice during CIA. Splenic T helper cell subsets from intravenously injected mice were studied by flow cytometry, and the knee joints of mice injected intravenously and intraarticularly were assessed histologically. Synovium from mice injected intraarticularly was evaluated for cytokine and suppressor of cytokine signaling (SOCS) expression. RESULTS Protein S significantly reduced ankle joint swelling when overexpressed systemically. Further analysis of knee joints revealed a moderate reduction in pathologic changes in the joint and a significant reduction in the number of splenic Th1 cells when protein S was overexpressed systemically. Local overexpression of GAS-6 decreased joint inflammation and joint pathology. Protein S treatment showed a similar trend of protection. Consistently, GAS-6 and protein S reduced cytokine production in the synovium. Moreover, levels of messenger RNA for interleukin-12 (IL-12) and IL-23 were reduced by GAS-6 and protein S treatment, with a corresponding decrease in the production of interferon-γ and IL-17. TAM ligand overexpression was associated with an increase in SOCS-3 levels, which likely contributed to the amelioration of arthritis. CONCLUSION This study provides the first evidence that TAM receptor stimulation by GAS-6 and protein S can be used to ameliorate arthritis when applied systemically or locally. TAM receptor stimulation limits proinflammatory signaling and adaptive immunity. This pathway provides a novel strategy by which to combat rheumatoid arthritis.
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Affiliation(s)
- B T van den Brand
- Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
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