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Shatunova S, Aktar R, Peiris M, Lee JYP, Vetter I, Starobova H. The role of the gut microbiome in neuroinflammation and chemotherapy-induced peripheral neuropathy. Eur J Pharmacol 2024; 979:176818. [PMID: 39029779 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2024.176818] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2024] [Revised: 06/05/2024] [Accepted: 07/17/2024] [Indexed: 07/21/2024]
Abstract
Chemotherapy-induced peripheral neuropathy (CIPN) is one of the most debilitating adverse effects caused by chemotherapy drugs such as paclitaxel, oxaliplatin and vincristine. It is untreatable and often leads to the discontinuation of cancer therapy and a decrease in the quality of life of cancer patients. It is well-established that neuroinflammation and the activation of immune and glial cells are among the major drivers of CIPN. However, these processes are still poorly understood, and while many chemotherapy drugs alone can drive the activation of these cells and consequent neuroinflammation, it remains elusive to what extent the gut microbiome influences these processes. In this review, we focus on the peripheral mechanisms driving CIPN, and we address the bidirectional pathways by which the gut microbiome communicates with the immune and nervous systems. Additionally, we critically evaluate literature addressing how chemotherapy-induced dysbiosis and the consequent imbalance in bacterial products may contribute to the activation of immune and glial cells, both of which drive neuroinflammation and possibly CIPN development, and how we could use this knowledge for the development of effective treatment strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Svetlana Shatunova
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, Australia
| | - Rubina Aktar
- Centre for Neuroscience, Surgery and Trauma, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, Queen Mary University of London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Madusha Peiris
- Centre for Neuroscience, Surgery and Trauma, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, Queen Mary University of London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Jia Yu Peppermint Lee
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, Australia
| | - Irina Vetter
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, Australia; The School of Pharmacy, The University of Queensland, Woollsiana, QLD, Australia
| | - Hana Starobova
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, Australia.
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2
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Thomasi B, Valdetaro L, Gulbransen B, Tavares-Gomes AL. Neuroimmune Connectomes in the Gut and Their Implications in Parkinson's Disease. Mol Neurobiol 2024; 61:2081-2098. [PMID: 37840070 PMCID: PMC11151216 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-023-03679-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2022] [Accepted: 09/28/2023] [Indexed: 10/17/2023]
Abstract
The gastrointestinal tract is the largest immune organ and it receives dense innervation from intrinsic (enteric) and extrinsic (sympathetic, parasympathetic, and somatosensory) neurons. The immune and neural systems of the gut communicate with each other and their interactions shape gut defensive mechanisms and neural-controlled gut functions such as motility and secretion. Changes in neuroimmune interactions play central roles in the pathogenesis of diseases such as Parkinson's disease (PD), which is a multicentric disorder that is heterogeneous in its manifestation and pathogenesis. Non-motor and premotor symptoms of PD are common in the gastrointestinal tract and the gut is considered a potential initiation site for PD in some cases. How the enteric nervous system and neuroimmune signaling contribute to PD disease progression is an emerging area of interest. This review focuses on intestinal neuroimmune loops such as the neuroepithelial unit, enteric glial cells and their immunomodulatory effects, anti-inflammatory cholinergic signaling and the relationship between myenteric neurons and muscularis macrophages, and the role of α-synuclein in gut immunity. Special consideration is given to the discussion of intestinal neuroimmune connectomes during PD and their possible implications for various aspects of the disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beatriz Thomasi
- Department of Physiology, Michigan State University, Biomedical and Physical Sciences Building - Gulbransen lab, 567, Wilson Rd, Room 3199, East Lansing, MI, USA.
| | - Luisa Valdetaro
- Department of Molecular Pathobiology, NYU College of Dentistry, New York, NY, USA
| | - Brian Gulbransen
- Department of Physiology, Michigan State University, Biomedical and Physical Sciences Building - Gulbransen lab, 567, Wilson Rd, Room 3199, East Lansing, MI, USA
| | - Ana Lúcia Tavares-Gomes
- Programa de Pós-Graduação Em Neurociências, Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niterói, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
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3
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Montalbán-Rodríguez A, Abalo R, López-Gómez L. From the Gut to the Brain: The Role of Enteric Glial Cells and Their Involvement in the Pathogenesis of Parkinson's Disease. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:1294. [PMID: 38279293 PMCID: PMC10816228 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25021294] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2023] [Revised: 01/10/2024] [Accepted: 01/11/2024] [Indexed: 01/28/2024] Open
Abstract
The brain-gut axis has been identified as an important contributor to the physiopathology of Parkinson's disease. In this pathology, inflammation is thought to be driven by the damage caused by aggregation of α-synuclein in the brain. Interestingly, the Braak's theory proposes that α-synuclein misfolding may originate in the gut and spread in a "prion-like" manner through the vagus nerve into the central nervous system. In the enteric nervous system, enteric glial cells are the most abundant cellular component. Several studies have evaluated their role in Parkinson's disease. Using samples obtained from patients, cell cultures, or animal models, the studies with specific antibodies to label enteric glial cells (GFAP, Sox-10, and S100β) seem to indicate that activation and reactive gliosis are associated to the neurodegeneration produced by Parkinson's disease in the enteric nervous system. Of interest, Toll-like receptors, which are expressed on enteric glial cells, participate in the triggering of immune/inflammatory responses, in the maintenance of intestinal barrier integrity and in the configuration of gut microbiota; thus, these receptors might contribute to Parkinson's disease. External factors like stress also seem to be relevant in its pathogenesis. Some authors have studied ways to reverse changes in EGCs with interventions such as administration of Tryptophan-2,3-dioxygenase inhibitors, nutraceuticals, or physical exercise. Some researchers point out that beyond being activated during the disease, enteric glial cells may contribute to the development of synucleinopathies. Thus, it is still necessary to further study these cells and their role in Parkinson's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alba Montalbán-Rodríguez
- Department of Basic Health Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, University Rey Juan Carlos (URJC), 28922 Alcorcon, Spain; (A.M.-R.); (L.L.-G.)
- High Performance Research Group in Physiopathology and Pharmacology of the Digestive System (NeuGut-URJC), University Rey Juan Carlos (URJC), 28922 Alcorcón, Spain
| | - Raquel Abalo
- Department of Basic Health Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, University Rey Juan Carlos (URJC), 28922 Alcorcon, Spain; (A.M.-R.); (L.L.-G.)
- High Performance Research Group in Physiopathology and Pharmacology of the Digestive System (NeuGut-URJC), University Rey Juan Carlos (URJC), 28922 Alcorcón, Spain
- Associated R+D+i Unit to the Institute of Medicinal Chemistry (IQM), Scientific Research Superior Council (CSIC), 28006 Madrid, Spain
- Working Group of Basic Sciences on Pain and Analgesia, Spanish Pain Society, 28046 Madrid, Spain
- Working Group of Basic Sciences on Cannabinoids, Spanish Pain Society, 28046 Madrid, Spain
| | - Laura López-Gómez
- Department of Basic Health Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, University Rey Juan Carlos (URJC), 28922 Alcorcon, Spain; (A.M.-R.); (L.L.-G.)
- High Performance Research Group in Physiopathology and Pharmacology of the Digestive System (NeuGut-URJC), University Rey Juan Carlos (URJC), 28922 Alcorcón, Spain
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4
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Dos Santos JCC, Rebouças CDSM, Oliveira LF, Cardoso FDS, Nascimento TDS, Oliveira AV, Lima MPP, de Andrade GM, de Castro Brito GA, de Barros Viana GS. The role of gut-brain axis in a rotenone-induced rat model of Parkinson's disease. Neurobiol Aging 2023; 132:185-197. [PMID: 37837734 DOI: 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2023.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2023] [Revised: 07/06/2023] [Accepted: 07/06/2023] [Indexed: 10/16/2023]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a widespread neurodegenerative condition affecting millions globally. This investigation centered on the gut-brain axis in a rotenone-induced PD rat model. Researchers monitored behavioral shifts, histological modifications, neurodegeneration, and inflammation markers throughout the rats' bodies. Results revealed that rotenone-treated rats displayed reduced exploration (p = 0.004) and motor coordination (p < 0.001), accompanied by decreased Nissl staining and increased alpha-synuclein immunoreactivity in the striatum (p = 0.009). Additionally, these rats exhibited weight loss (T3, mean = 291.9 ± 23.67; T19, mean = 317.5 ± 17.53; p < 0.05) and substantial intestinal histological alterations, such as shortened villi, crypt architecture loss, and inflammation. In various regions, researchers noted elevated immunoreactivity to ionized binding adapter molecule (IBA)-1 (p < 0.05) and reduced immunoreactivity to glial fibrillary acidic protein (p < 0.05) and S100B (p < 0.001), indicating altered glial cell activity. Overall, these findings imply that PD is influenced by gut-brain axis changes and may originate in the intestine, impacting bidirectional gut-brain communication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Júlio César Claudino Dos Santos
- Medical School of the Christus University Center-UNICHRISTUS, Fortaleza, CE, Brazil; Graduate Program in Morphofunctional Sciences, Federal University of Ceará-UFC, Fortaleza, CE, Brazil.
| | - Conceição da Silva Martins Rebouças
- Graduate Program in Morphofunctional Sciences, Federal University of Ceará-UFC, Fortaleza, CE, Brazil; Morphology Department of the Federal University of Ceará-UFC, Fortaleza, CE, Brazil
| | | | - Fabrizio Dos Santos Cardoso
- Laboratory of Neuroanatomy and Neuropsychobiology, Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine of Ribeirão Preto of the University of São Paulo (FMRP-USP), Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil; Hospital do Câncer de Muriaé, Fundação Cristiano Varella (FCV), Muriaé, MG, Brazil
| | | | - Alfaete Vieira Oliveira
- Physiology and Pharmacology Department of the Federal University of Ceará-UFC, Fortaleza, CE, Brazil
| | | | - Geanne Matos de Andrade
- Physiology and Pharmacology Department of the Federal University of Ceará-UFC, Fortaleza, CE, Brazil
| | - Gerly Anne de Castro Brito
- Morphology Department of the Federal University of Ceará-UFC, Fortaleza, CE, Brazil; Physiology and Pharmacology Department of the Federal University of Ceará-UFC, Fortaleza, CE, Brazil
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Cohen G, Gover O, Schwartz B. Phytocannabinoids Reduce Inflammation of Primed Macrophages and Enteric Glial Cells: An In Vitro Study. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:14628. [PMID: 37834076 PMCID: PMC10572654 DOI: 10.3390/ijms241914628] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2023] [Revised: 09/20/2023] [Accepted: 09/25/2023] [Indexed: 10/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Intestinal inflammation is mediated by a subset of cells populating the intestine, such as enteric glial cells (EGC) and macrophages. Different studies indicate that phytocannabinoids could play a possible role in the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) by relieving the symptoms involved in the disease. Phytocannabinoids act through the endocannabinoid system, which is distributed throughout the mammalian body in the cells of the immune system and in the intestinal cells. Our in vitro study analyzed the putative anti-inflammatory effect of nine selected pure cannabinoids in J774A1 macrophage cells and EGCs triggered to undergo inflammation with lipopolysaccharide (LPS). The anti-inflammatory effect of several phytocannabinoids was measured by their ability to reduce TNFα transcription and translation in J774A1 macrophages and to diminish S100B and GFAP secretion and transcription in EGCs. Our results demonstrate that THC at the lower concentrations tested exerted the most effective anti-inflammatory effect in both J774A1 macrophages and EGCs compared to the other phytocannabinoids tested herein. We then performed RNA-seq analysis of EGCs exposed to LPS in the presence or absence of THC or THC-COOH. Transcriptomic analysis of these EGCs revealed 23 differentially expressed genes (DEG) compared to the treatment with only LPS. Pretreatment with THC resulted in 26 DEG, and pretreatment with THC-COOH resulted in 25 DEG. To evaluate which biological pathways were affected by the different phytocannabinoid treatments, we used the Ingenuity platform. We show that THC treatment affects the mTOR and RAR signaling pathway, while THC-COOH mainly affects the IL6 signaling pathway.
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Bubeck M, Becker C, Patankar JV. Guardians of the gut: influence of the enteric nervous system on the intestinal epithelial barrier. Front Med (Lausanne) 2023; 10:1228938. [PMID: 37692784 PMCID: PMC10485265 DOI: 10.3389/fmed.2023.1228938] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2023] [Accepted: 07/24/2023] [Indexed: 09/12/2023] Open
Abstract
The intestinal mucosal surface forms one of the largest areas of the body, which is in direct contact with the environment. Co-ordinated sensory functions of immune, epithelial, and neuronal cells ensure the timely detection of noxious queues and potential pathogens and elicit proportional responses to mitigate the threats and maintain homeostasis. Such tuning and maintenance of the epithelial barrier is constantly ongoing during homeostasis and its derangement can become a gateway for systemic consequences. Although efforts in understanding the gatekeeping functions of immune cells have led the way, increasing number of studies point to a crucial role of the enteric nervous system in fine-tuning and maintaining this delicate homeostasis. The identification of immune regulatory functions of enteric neuropeptides and glial-derived factors is still in its infancy, but has already yielded several intriguing insights into their important contribution to the tight control of the mucosal barrier. In this review, we will first introduce the reader to the current understanding of the architecture of the enteric nervous system and the epithelial barrier. Next, we discuss the key discoveries and cellular pathways and mediators that have emerged as links between the enteric nervous, immune, and epithelial systems and how their coordinated actions defend against intestinal infectious and inflammatory diseases. Through this review, the readers will gain a sound understanding of the current neuro-immune-epithelial mechanisms ensuring intestinal barrier integrity and maintenance of intestinal homeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marvin Bubeck
- Department of Medicine 1, Universitätsklinikum Erlangen, Erlangen, Germany
- Deutsches Zentrum Immuntherapie (DZI), Erlangen, Germany
| | - Christoph Becker
- Department of Medicine 1, Universitätsklinikum Erlangen, Erlangen, Germany
- Deutsches Zentrum Immuntherapie (DZI), Erlangen, Germany
| | - Jay V. Patankar
- Department of Medicine 1, Universitätsklinikum Erlangen, Erlangen, Germany
- Deutsches Zentrum Immuntherapie (DZI), Erlangen, Germany
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7
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Lefèvre MA, Soret R, Pilon N. Harnessing the Power of Enteric Glial Cells' Plasticity and Multipotency for Advancing Regenerative Medicine. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:12475. [PMID: 37569849 PMCID: PMC10419543 DOI: 10.3390/ijms241512475] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2023] [Revised: 07/31/2023] [Accepted: 08/03/2023] [Indexed: 08/13/2023] Open
Abstract
The enteric nervous system (ENS), known as the intrinsic nervous system of the gastrointestinal tract, is composed of a diverse array of neuronal and glial cell subtypes. Fascinating questions surrounding the generation of cellular diversity in the ENS have captivated ENS biologists for a considerable time, particularly with recent advancements in cell type-specific transcriptomics at both population and single-cell levels. However, the current focus of research in this field is predominantly restricted to the study of enteric neuron subtypes, while the investigation of enteric glia subtypes significantly lags behind. Despite this, enteric glial cells (EGCs) are increasingly recognized as equally important regulators of numerous bowel functions. Moreover, a subset of postnatal EGCs exhibits remarkable plasticity and multipotency, distinguishing them as critical entities in the context of advancing regenerative medicine. In this review, we aim to provide an updated overview of the current knowledge on this subject, while also identifying key questions that necessitate future exploration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie A. Lefèvre
- Département des Sciences Biologiques, Université du Québec à Montréal (UQAM), Montreal, QC H3C 3P8, Canada;
- Centre D’excellence en Recherche Sur Les Maladies Orphelines—Fondation Courtois (CERMO-FC), Université du Québec à Montréal, Montreal, QC H2X 3Y7, Canada
| | - Rodolphe Soret
- Département des Sciences Biologiques, Université du Québec à Montréal (UQAM), Montreal, QC H3C 3P8, Canada;
- Centre D’excellence en Recherche Sur Les Maladies Orphelines—Fondation Courtois (CERMO-FC), Université du Québec à Montréal, Montreal, QC H2X 3Y7, Canada
| | - Nicolas Pilon
- Département des Sciences Biologiques, Université du Québec à Montréal (UQAM), Montreal, QC H3C 3P8, Canada;
- Centre D’excellence en Recherche Sur Les Maladies Orphelines—Fondation Courtois (CERMO-FC), Université du Québec à Montréal, Montreal, QC H2X 3Y7, Canada
- Département de Pédiatrie, Université de Montréal, Montreal, QC H3T 1C5, Canada
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8
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Zhang LM, Xin Y, Song RX, Zheng WC, Hu JS, Wang JX, Wu ZY, Zhang DX. CORM-3 alleviates the intestinal injury in a rodent model of hemorrhage shock and resuscitation: roles of GFAP-positive glia. J Mol Histol 2023; 54:271-282. [PMID: 37335421 DOI: 10.1007/s10735-023-10133-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2022] [Accepted: 06/11/2023] [Indexed: 06/21/2023]
Abstract
Hemorrhagic shock and resuscitation (HSR) can induce severe intestinal damages, thereby leading to sepsis and long-term complications including dysbacteriosis and pulmonary injury. The NOD-like receptor protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome facilitates inflammation-associated cell recruitment in the gastrointestinal tract, and participates in many inflammatory bowel diseases. Previous studies have shown that exogenous carbon monoxide (CO) exerts neuroprotective effects against pyroptosis after HSR. We aimed to investigate whether carbon monoxide-releasing molecules-3 (CORM-3), an exogenous CO compound, could attenuate HSR-induced intestinal injury and the potential underlying mechanism.Rats were subjected to a HSR model by bleeding and re-infusion. Following resuscitation, 4 mg/kg of CORM-3 was administered intravenously into femoral vein. At 24 h and 7 d after HSR modeling, the pathological changes in intestinal tissues were evaluated by H&E staining. The intestinal pyroptosis, glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP)-positive glial pyroptosis, DAO (diamine oxidase) content, intestine tight junction proteins including zonula occludens-1 (ZO-1) and claudin-1 were further detected by immunofluorescence, western blot and chemical assays at 7 d after HSR. CORM-3 administration led to significantly mitigated HSR-induced intestinal injury, aggravation of intestinal pyroptosis indicated by cleaved caspase-1, IL-1β and IL-18, upregulation of GFAP-positive glial pyroptosis, decreased intensity of ZO-1 and claudin-1 in the jejunum, and increased of DAO in the serum. Nigericin, an agonist of NLRP3, significantly reversed the protective effects of CORM-3. CORM-3 alleviates the intestinal barrier dysfunction in a rodent model of HSR, and the potential mechanism may be associated with inhibition of NLRP3-associated pyroptosis. CORM-3 administration could be a promising therapeutic strategy for intestinal injury after hemorrhagic shock.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li-Min Zhang
- Department of Anesthesiology, Hebei Province Cangzhou Hospital of Integrated Traditional and Western Medicine (Cangzhou No.2 Hospital), Cangzhou, China.
| | - Yue Xin
- Department of Anesthesiology, Hebei Province Cangzhou Hospital of Integrated Traditional and Western Medicine (Cangzhou No.2 Hospital), Cangzhou, China
| | - Rong-Xin Song
- Department of Anesthesiology, Cangzhou Central Hospital, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, China
| | - Wei-Chao Zheng
- Department of Anesthesiology, Hebei Province Cangzhou Hospital of Integrated Traditional and Western Medicine (Cangzhou No.2 Hospital), Cangzhou, China
| | - Jin-Shu Hu
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Cangzhou Central Hospital, Cangzhou, China
| | - Jie-Xia Wang
- Department of Anesthesiology, Cangzhou Central Hospital, Shijiazhuang, China
| | - Zhi-You Wu
- Department of Neurosurgery, Cangzhou Central Hospital, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, China
| | - Dong-Xue Zhang
- Department of Gerontology, Cangzhou Central Hospital, Cangzhou, China
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9
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Cirillo G, Negrete-Diaz F, Yucuma D, Virtuoso A, Korai SA, De Luca C, Kaniusas E, Papa M, Panetsos F. Vagus Nerve Stimulation: A Personalized Therapeutic Approach for Crohn's and Other Inflammatory Bowel Diseases. Cells 2022; 11:cells11244103. [PMID: 36552867 PMCID: PMC9776705 DOI: 10.3390/cells11244103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2022] [Revised: 12/03/2022] [Accepted: 12/13/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Inflammatory bowel diseases, including Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis, are incurable autoimmune diseases characterized by chronic inflammation of the gastrointestinal tract. There is increasing evidence that inappropriate interaction between the enteric nervous system and central nervous system and/or low activity of the vagus nerve, which connects the enteric and central nervous systems, could play a crucial role in their pathogenesis. Therefore, it has been suggested that appropriate neuroprosthetic stimulation of the vagus nerve could lead to the modulation of the inflammation of the gastrointestinal tract and consequent long-term control of these autoimmune diseases. In the present paper, we provide a comprehensive overview of (1) the cellular and molecular bases of the immune system, (2) the way central and enteric nervous systems interact and contribute to the immune responses, (3) the pathogenesis of the inflammatory bowel disease, and (4) the therapeutic use of vagus nerve stimulation, and in particular, the transcutaneous stimulation of the auricular branch of the vagus nerve. Then, we expose the working hypotheses for the modulation of the molecular processes that are responsible for intestinal inflammation in autoimmune diseases and the way we could develop personalized neuroprosthetic therapeutic devices and procedures in favor of the patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giovanni Cirillo
- Division of Human Anatomy, Neuronal Morphology Networks & Systems Biology Lab, Department of Mental and Physical Health and Preventive Medicine, University of Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli, 80138 Naples, Italy
| | - Flor Negrete-Diaz
- Neurocomputing & Neurorobotics Research Group, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain
- Instituto de Investigaciones Sanitarias (IdISSC), Hospital Clinico San Carlos de Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - Daniela Yucuma
- Neurocomputing & Neurorobotics Research Group, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain
- Andalusian School of Public Health, University of Granada, 18011 Granada, Spain
| | - Assunta Virtuoso
- Division of Human Anatomy, Neuronal Morphology Networks & Systems Biology Lab, Department of Mental and Physical Health and Preventive Medicine, University of Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli, 80138 Naples, Italy
| | - Sohaib Ali Korai
- Division of Human Anatomy, Neuronal Morphology Networks & Systems Biology Lab, Department of Mental and Physical Health and Preventive Medicine, University of Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli, 80138 Naples, Italy
| | - Ciro De Luca
- Division of Human Anatomy, Neuronal Morphology Networks & Systems Biology Lab, Department of Mental and Physical Health and Preventive Medicine, University of Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli, 80138 Naples, Italy
| | | | - Michele Papa
- Division of Human Anatomy, Neuronal Morphology Networks & Systems Biology Lab, Department of Mental and Physical Health and Preventive Medicine, University of Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli, 80138 Naples, Italy
- SYSBIO Centre of Systems Biology ISBE-IT, University of Milano-Bicocca, 20126 Milan, Italy
- Correspondence: (M.P.); (F.P.)
| | - Fivos Panetsos
- Neurocomputing & Neurorobotics Research Group, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain
- Instituto de Investigaciones Sanitarias (IdISSC), Hospital Clinico San Carlos de Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain
- Silk Biomed SL, 28260 Madrid, Spain
- Correspondence: (M.P.); (F.P.)
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10
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Li N, Xu J, Gao H, Zhang Y, Li Y, Chang H, Tan S, Li S, Wang Q. Effect of Reactive EGCs on Intestinal Motility and Enteric Neurons During Endotoxemia. J Mol Neurosci 2022; 72:1831-1845. [PMID: 35773377 DOI: 10.1007/s12031-022-02044-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2022] [Accepted: 06/14/2022] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
Paralytic ileus is common in patients with septic shock, causing high morbidity and mortality. Enteric neurons and enteric glial cells (EGCs) regulate intestinal motility. However, little is known about their interaction in endotoxemia. This study aimed to investigate whether reactive EGCs had harmful effects on enteric neurons and participated in intestinal motility disorder in mice during endotoxemia. Endotoxemia was induced by the intraperitoneal injection of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in mice. Fluorocitrate (FC) was administered before LPS injection to inhibit the reactive EGCs. The effects of reactive EGCs on intestinal motility were analyzed by motility assays in vivo and colonic migrating motor complexes ex vivo. The number of enteric neurons was evaluated by immunofluorescent staining of HuCD, nNOS, and ChAT in vivo. In addition, we stimulated EGCs with IL-1β and TNF-α in vitro and cultured the primary enteric neurons in the conditioned medium, detecting the apoptosis and morphology of neurons through staining TUNEL, cleaved caspase-3 protein, and anti-β-III tubulin. Intestinal motility and peristaltic reflex were improved by inhibiting reactive EGCs in vivo. The density of the neuronal population in the colonic myenteric plexus increased significantly, while the reactive EGCs were inhibited, especially the nitrergic neurons. In vitro, the enteric neurons cultured in the conditioned medium of reactive EGCs had a considerably higher apoptotic rate, less dendritic complexity, and fewer primary neurites. Reactive enteric glial cells probably participated in paralytic ileus by damaging enteric neurons during endotoxemia. They might provide a novel therapeutic strategy for intestinal motility disorders during endotoxemia or sepsis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Na Li
- Department of Anesthesiology & Center for Brain Science, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710061, Shaanxi, China
| | - Jing Xu
- Department of Anesthesiology & Center for Brain Science, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710061, Shaanxi, China
| | - Hui Gao
- Department of Anesthesiology & Center for Brain Science, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710061, Shaanxi, China
| | - Yuxin Zhang
- Department of Anesthesiology & Center for Brain Science, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710061, Shaanxi, China
| | - Yansong Li
- Department of Anesthesiology & Center for Brain Science, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710061, Shaanxi, China
| | - Haiqing Chang
- Department of Anesthesiology & Center for Brain Science, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710061, Shaanxi, China
| | - Shuwen Tan
- Department of Anesthesiology & Center for Brain Science, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710061, Shaanxi, China
| | - Shuang Li
- Department of Anesthesiology & Center for Brain Science, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710061, Shaanxi, China
| | - Qiang Wang
- Department of Anesthesiology & Center for Brain Science, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710061, Shaanxi, China.
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11
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Hacene S, Le Friec A, Desmoulin F, Robert L, Colitti N, Fitremann J, Loubinoux I, Cirillo C. Present and future avenues of cell-based therapy for brain injury: The enteric nervous system as a potential cell source. Brain Pathol 2022; 32:e13105. [PMID: 35773942 PMCID: PMC9425017 DOI: 10.1111/bpa.13105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2022] [Accepted: 06/09/2022] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Cell therapy is a promising strategy in the field of regenerative medicine; however, several concerns limit the effective clinical use, namely a valid cell source. The gastrointestinal tract, which contains a highly organized network of nerves called the enteric nervous system (ENS), is a valuable reservoir of nerve cells. Together with neurons and neuronal precursor cells, it contains glial cells with a well described neurotrophic potential and a newly identified neurogenic one. Recently, enteric glia is looked at as a candidate for cell therapy in intestinal neuropathies. Here, we present the therapeutic potential of the ENS as cell source for brain repair, too. The example of stroke is introduced as a brain injury where cell therapy appears promising. This disease is the first cause of handicap in adults. The therapies developed in recent years allow a partial response to the consequences of the disease. The only prospect of recovery in the chronic phase is currently based on rehabilitation. The urgency to offer other treatments is therefore tangible. In the first part of the review, some elements of stroke pathophysiology are presented. An update on the available therapeutic strategies is provided, focusing on cell‐ and biomaterial‐based approaches. Following, the ENS is presented with its anatomical and functional characteristics, focusing on glial cells. The properties of these cells are depicted, with particular attention to their neurotrophic and, recently identified, neurogenic properties. Finally, preliminary data on a possible therapeutic approach combining ENS‐derived cells and a biomaterial are presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sirine Hacene
- National Veterinary School of Toulouse, University of Toulouse, Toulouse, France.,Toulouse NeuroImaging Center (ToNIC), Inserm, University of Toulouse-Paul Sabatier, Toulouse, France
| | - Alice Le Friec
- Toulouse NeuroImaging Center (ToNIC), Inserm, University of Toulouse-Paul Sabatier, Toulouse, France.,Department of Biological and Chemical Engineering-Medical Biotechnology, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Franck Desmoulin
- Toulouse NeuroImaging Center (ToNIC), Inserm, University of Toulouse-Paul Sabatier, Toulouse, France
| | - Lorenne Robert
- Toulouse NeuroImaging Center (ToNIC), Inserm, University of Toulouse-Paul Sabatier, Toulouse, France
| | - Nina Colitti
- Toulouse NeuroImaging Center (ToNIC), Inserm, University of Toulouse-Paul Sabatier, Toulouse, France
| | - Juliette Fitremann
- Laboratoire des IMRCP, CNRS UMR 5623, University of Toulouse-Paul Sabatier, Toulouse, France
| | - Isabelle Loubinoux
- Toulouse NeuroImaging Center (ToNIC), Inserm, University of Toulouse-Paul Sabatier, Toulouse, France
| | - Carla Cirillo
- Toulouse NeuroImaging Center (ToNIC), Inserm, University of Toulouse-Paul Sabatier, Toulouse, France
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12
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Liu C, Yang J. Enteric Glial Cells in Immunological Disorders of the Gut. Front Cell Neurosci 2022; 16:895871. [PMID: 35573829 PMCID: PMC9095930 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2022.895871] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2022] [Accepted: 04/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Enteric glial cells (EGCs) are one of the major cell types of neural crest lineage distributed in the gastrointestinal tract. EGCs represent an integral part of the enteric nervous system (ENS) and significantly outnumber ENS neurons. Studies have suggested that EGCs would exert essential roles in supporting the survival and functions of the ENS neurons. Notably, recent evidence has begun to reveal that EGCs could possess multiple immune functions and thereby may participate in the immune homeostasis of the gut. In this review article, we will summarize the current evidence supporting the potential involvement of EGCs in several important immunological disorders, including inflammatory bowel disease, celiac disease, and autoimmune enteropathy. Further, we highlight critical questions on the immunological aspects of EGCs that warrant future research attention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chang Liu
- Center for Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, China
- Academy for Advanced Interdisciplinary Studies, Peking University, Beijing, China
- College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
| | - Jing Yang
- Center for Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, China
- State Key Laboratory of Membrane Biology, School of Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, China
- IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Peking University, Beijing, China
- Chinese Institute for Brain Research, Beijing, China
- Institute of Molecular Physiology, Shenzhen Bay Laboratory, Shenzhen, China
- *Correspondence: Jing Yang
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13
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Yang H, Li S, Le W. Intestinal Permeability, Dysbiosis, Inflammation and Enteric Glia Cells: The Intestinal Etiology of Parkinson’s Disease. Aging Dis 2022; 13:1381-1390. [PMID: 36186124 PMCID: PMC9466983 DOI: 10.14336/ad.2022.01281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/25/2021] [Accepted: 01/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
The scientific and medical communities are becoming more aware of the substantial relationship between the function of the central nervous system (CNS) and the state of the gut environment. Parkinson's disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disorder that affects the nigrostriatal pathway in the midbrain, presenting not only motor symptoms but also various non-motor manifestations, including neuropsychiatric symptoms and gastrointestinal (GI) symptoms. Over time, our knowledge of PD has progressed from the detection of midbrain dopaminergic deficits to the identification of a multifaceted disease with a variety of central and peripheral manifestations, with increased attention to the intestinal tract. Accumulating evidence has revealed that intestinal disorders are not only the peripheral consequence of PD pathogenesis, but also the possible pathological initiator decades before it progresses to the CNS. Here, we summarized recent research findings on the involvement of the intestinal environment in PD, with an emphasis on the involvement of the intestinal barrier, microbiome and its metabolites, inflammation, and enteric glial cells
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Affiliation(s)
- Huijia Yang
- Center for Clinical Research on Neurological Diseases, the First Affiliated Hospital, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, China.
- Liaoning Provincial Key Laboratory for Research on the Pathogenic Mechanisms of Neurological Diseases, the First Affiliated Hospital, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, China.
| | - Song Li
- Center for Clinical Research on Neurological Diseases, the First Affiliated Hospital, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, China.
- Liaoning Provincial Key Laboratory for Research on the Pathogenic Mechanisms of Neurological Diseases, the First Affiliated Hospital, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, China.
| | - Weidong Le
- Center for Clinical Research on Neurological Diseases, the First Affiliated Hospital, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, China.
- Liaoning Provincial Key Laboratory for Research on the Pathogenic Mechanisms of Neurological Diseases, the First Affiliated Hospital, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, China.
- Department of Neurology and Institute of Neurology, Sichuan Academy of Medical Science-Sichuan Provincial Hospital, Chengdu, China.
- Correspondence should be addressed to: Prof. Weidong Le, Liaoning Provincial Key Laboratory for Research on the Pathogenic Mechanisms of Neurological Diseases, the First Affiliated Hospital, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, China. E-mail: .
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14
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Baghdadi MB, Ayyaz A, Coquenlorge S, Chu B, Kumar S, Streutker C, Wrana JL, Kim TH. Enteric glial cell heterogeneity regulates intestinal stem cell niches. Cell Stem Cell 2021; 29:86-100.e6. [PMID: 34727519 DOI: 10.1016/j.stem.2021.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2020] [Revised: 04/09/2021] [Accepted: 10/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
The high turnover and regenerative capacity of the adult intestine relies on resident stem cells located at the bottom of the crypt. The enteric nervous system consists of an abundant network of enteric glial cells (EGCs) and neurons. Despite the close proximity of EGCs to stem cells, their in vivo role as a stem cell niche is still unclear. By analyzing the mouse and human intestinal mucosa transcriptomes at the single-cell level, we defined the regulation of EGC heterogeneity in homeostasis and chronic inflammatory bowel disease. Ablation of EGC subpopulations revealed that the repair potential of intestinal stem cells (ISCs) is regulated by a specific subset of glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP)+ EGCs. Mechanistically, injury induces expansion of GFAP+ EGCs, which express several WNT ligands to promote LGR5+ ISC self-renewal. Our work reveals the dynamically regulated heterogeneity of EGCs as a key part of the intestinal stem cell niche in regeneration and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meryem B Baghdadi
- Program in Developmental & Stem Cell Biology, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 0A4, Canada; Department of Molecular Genetics, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 1A8, Canada
| | - Arshad Ayyaz
- Centre for Systems Biology, Lunenfeld-Tanenbaum Research Institute, Mount Sinai Hospital, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Sabrina Coquenlorge
- Program in Developmental & Stem Cell Biology, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 0A4, Canada; Department of Molecular Genetics, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 1A8, Canada
| | - Bonnie Chu
- Program in Developmental & Stem Cell Biology, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 0A4, Canada; Department of Molecular Genetics, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 1A8, Canada
| | - Sandeep Kumar
- Centre for Systems Biology, Lunenfeld-Tanenbaum Research Institute, Mount Sinai Hospital, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Catherine Streutker
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, St. Michael's Hospital, Toronto, ON M5B 1W8, Canada
| | - Jeffrey L Wrana
- Department of Molecular Genetics, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 1A8, Canada; Centre for Systems Biology, Lunenfeld-Tanenbaum Research Institute, Mount Sinai Hospital, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Tae-Hee Kim
- Program in Developmental & Stem Cell Biology, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 0A4, Canada; Department of Molecular Genetics, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 1A8, Canada.
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15
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Ramadori G. Albumin Infusion in Critically Ill COVID-19 Patients: Hemodilution and Anticoagulation. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22137126. [PMID: 34281177 PMCID: PMC8268290 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22137126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2021] [Revised: 06/21/2021] [Accepted: 06/28/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Hypercoagulation is one of the major risk factors for ICU treatment, mechanical ventilation, and death in critically ill patients infected with SARS-CoV-2. At the same time, hypoalbuminemia is one risk factor in such patients, independent of age and comorbidities. Especially in patients with severe SARS-CoV-2-infection, albumin infusion may be essential to improve hemodynamics and to reduce the plasma level of the main marker of thromboembolism, namely, the D-dimer plasma level, as suggested by a recent report. Albumin is responsible for 80% of the oncotic pressure in the vessels. This is necessary to keep enough water within the systemic circulatory system and for the maintenance of sufficient blood pressure, as well as for sufficient blood supply for vital organs like the brain, lungs, heart, and kidney. The liver reacts to a decrease in oncotic pressure with an increase in albumin synthesis. This is normally possible through the use of amino acids from the proteins introduced with the nutrients reaching the portal blood. If these are not sufficiently provided with the diet, amino acids are delivered to the liver from muscular proteins by systemic circulation. The liver is also the source of coagulation proteins, such as fibrinogen, fibronectin, and most of the v WF VIII, which are physiological components of the extracellular matrix of the vessel wall. While albumin is the main negative acute-phase protein, fibrinogen, fibronectin, and v WF VIII are positive acute-phase proteins. Acute illnesses cause the activation of defense mechanisms (acute-phase reaction) that may lead to an increase of fibrinolysis and an increase of plasma level of fibrinogen breakdown products, mainly fibrin and D-dimer. The measurement of the plasma level of the D-dimer has been used as a marker for venous thromboembolism, where a fourfold increase of the D-dimer plasma level was used as a negative prognostic marker in critically ill SARS-CoV-2 hospitalized patients. Increased fibrinolysis can take place in ischemic peripheral sites, where the mentioned coagulation proteins can become part of the provisional clot (e.g., in the lungs). Although critically ill SARS-CoV-2-infected patients are considered septic shock patients, albumin infusions have not been considered for hemodynamic resuscitation and as anticoagulants. The role of coagulation factors as provisional components of the extracellular matrix in case of generalized peripheral ischemia due to hypoalbuminemia and hypovolemia is discussed in this review.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giuliano Ramadori
- Internal Medicine University Clinic, University of Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany Robert-Koch-Strasse 40, 37075 Göttingen, Germany
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16
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Kneusels J, Kaehler M, Cascorbi I, Wedel T, Neunlist M, Lucius R, Cossais F. Limited Impact of 6-Mercaptopurine on Inflammation-Induced Chemokines Expression Profile in Primary Cultures of Enteric Nervous System. Neurochem Res 2021; 46:1781-1793. [PMID: 33864170 PMCID: PMC8187225 DOI: 10.1007/s11064-021-03324-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2020] [Revised: 04/04/2021] [Accepted: 04/09/2021] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Increasing evidences indicate that the enteric nervous system (ENS) and enteric glial cells (EGC) play important regulatory roles in intestinal inflammation. Mercaptopurine (6-MP) is a cytostatic compound clinically used for the treatment of inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD), such as ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease. However, potential impacts of 6-MP on ENS response to inflammation have not been evaluated yet. In this study, we aimed to gain deeper insights into the profile of inflammatory mediators expressed by the ENS and on the potential anti-inflammatory impact of 6-MP in this context. Genome-wide expression analyses were performed on ENS primary cultures exposed to lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and 6-MP alone or in combination. Differential expression of main hits was validated by quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) using a cell line for EGC. ENS cells expressed a broad spectrum of cytokines and chemokines of the C-X-C motif ligand (CXCL) family under inflammatory stress. Induction of Cxcl5 and Cxcl10 by inflammatory stimuli was confirmed in EGC. Inflammation-induced protein secretion of TNF-α and Cxcl5 was partly inhibited by 6-MP in ENS primary cultures but not in EGC. Further work is required to identify the cellular mechanisms involved in this regulation. These findings extend our knowledge of the anti-inflammatory properties of 6-MP related to the ENS and in particular of the EGC-response to inflammatory stimuli.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Kneusels
- Institute of Anatomy, Kiel University, Kiel, Germany.
| | - Meike Kaehler
- Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology, University Hospital Schleswig-Holstein, Kiel University, Kiel, Germany
| | - Ingolf Cascorbi
- Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology, University Hospital Schleswig-Holstein, Kiel University, Kiel, Germany
| | - Thilo Wedel
- Institute of Anatomy, Kiel University, Kiel, Germany
| | | | - Ralph Lucius
- Institute of Anatomy, Kiel University, Kiel, Germany
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17
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do Carmo Neto JR, Braga YLL, da Costa AWF, Lucio FH, do Nascimento TC, dos Reis MA, Celes MRN, de Oliveira FA, Machado JR, da Silva MV. Biomarkers and Their Possible Functions in the Intestinal Microenvironment of Chagasic Megacolon: An Overview of the (Neuro)inflammatory Process. J Immunol Res 2021; 2021:6668739. [PMID: 33928170 PMCID: PMC8049798 DOI: 10.1155/2021/6668739] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/25/2020] [Revised: 03/08/2021] [Accepted: 03/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The association between inflammatory processes and intestinal neuronal destruction during the progression of Chagasic megacolon is well established. However, many other components play essential roles, both in the long-term progression and control of the clinical status of patients infected with Trypanosoma cruzi. Components such as neuronal subpopulations, enteric glial cells, mast cells and their proteases, and homeostasis-related proteins from several organic systems (serotonin and galectins) are differentially involved in the progression of Chagasic megacolon. This review is aimed at revealing the characteristics of the intestinal microenvironment found in Chagasic megacolon by using different types of already used biomarkers. Information regarding these components may provide new therapeutic alternatives and improve the understanding of the association between T. cruzi infection and immune, endocrine, and neurological system changes.
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Affiliation(s)
- José Rodrigues do Carmo Neto
- Department of Bioscience and Technology, Institute of Tropical Pathology and Public Health, Federal University of Goiás, Goiânia, GO, Brazil
| | - Yarlla Loyane Lira Braga
- Department of Bioscience and Technology, Institute of Tropical Pathology and Public Health, Federal University of Goiás, Goiânia, GO, Brazil
| | - Arthur Wilson Florêncio da Costa
- Department of Bioscience and Technology, Institute of Tropical Pathology and Public Health, Federal University of Goiás, Goiânia, GO, Brazil
| | - Fernanda Hélia Lucio
- Department of Bioscience and Technology, Institute of Tropical Pathology and Public Health, Federal University of Goiás, Goiânia, GO, Brazil
| | - Thais Cardoso do Nascimento
- Department of Bioscience and Technology, Institute of Tropical Pathology and Public Health, Federal University of Goiás, Goiânia, GO, Brazil
| | - Marlene Antônia dos Reis
- Department of General Pathology, Federal University of Triângulo Mineiro, Uberaba, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Mara Rubia Nunes Celes
- Department of Bioscience and Technology, Institute of Tropical Pathology and Public Health, Federal University of Goiás, Goiânia, GO, Brazil
| | - Flávia Aparecida de Oliveira
- Department of Bioscience and Technology, Institute of Tropical Pathology and Public Health, Federal University of Goiás, Goiânia, GO, Brazil
| | - Juliana Reis Machado
- Department of Bioscience and Technology, Institute of Tropical Pathology and Public Health, Federal University of Goiás, Goiânia, GO, Brazil
- Department of General Pathology, Federal University of Triângulo Mineiro, Uberaba, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Marcos Vinícius da Silva
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology, Institute of Biological and Natural Sciences, Federal University of Triângulo Mineiro, Uberaba, Minas Gerais, Brazil
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18
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Ten Hove AS, Seppen J, de Jonge WJ. Neuronal innervation of the intestinal crypt. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2021; 320:G193-G205. [PMID: 33296267 DOI: 10.1152/ajpgi.00239.2020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Mucosal damage is a key feature of inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) and healing of the mucosa is an endpoint of IBD treatment that is often difficult to achieve. Autonomic neurons of the parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous system may influence intestinal epithelial cell growth and modulating epithelial innervation could for that reason serve as an interesting therapeutic option to improve mucosal healing. Understanding of the biological processes triggered by nonspecific and specific epithelial adrenergic and cholinergic receptor activation is of key importance. At present, with rising technological advances, bioelectronic neuromodulation as treatment modality has gained momentum. We discuss the current view on state-of-the-art innervation of the intestinal crypt and its impact on epithelial cell growth and differentiation. Furthermore, we outline bioelectronic technology and review its relevance to wound healing processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne S Ten Hove
- Tytgat Institute for Liver and Intestinal Research, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Jurgen Seppen
- Tytgat Institute for Liver and Intestinal Research, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Wouter J de Jonge
- Tytgat Institute for Liver and Intestinal Research, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.,Department of General, Visceral, Thoracic and Vascular Surgery, University Hospital Bonn, Bonn, Germany
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19
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Guo Y, Wang B, Wang T, Gao L, Yang ZJ, Wang FF, Shang HW, Hua R, Xu JD. Biological characteristics of IL-6 and related intestinal diseases. Int J Biol Sci 2021; 17:204-219. [PMID: 33390844 PMCID: PMC7757046 DOI: 10.7150/ijbs.51362] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2020] [Accepted: 11/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The intestine serves as an important digestive and the largest immune organ in the body. Interleukin-6(IL-6), an important mediator of various pathways, participates in the interactions between different kinds of cells and closely correlates with intestinal physiological and pathological condition. In this review we summarize the signaling pathways of IL-6 and its functions in maintaining intestinal homeostasis. We also explored its relation with nervous system and highlight its potential role in Parkinson's disease. Based on its specialty of the double-side influences on intestinal tumors and inflammation, we summarize how they are done through distinctive process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuexin Guo
- Department of Oral Medicine, Basic Medical College, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China
| | - Boya Wang
- Undergraduate Student of 2018 Eight Program of Clinical Medicine, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Tiantian Wang
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, Basic Medical College, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China
| | - Lei Gao
- Department of Bioinformatics, College of Bioengineering, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China
| | - Ze-Jun Yang
- Department of Clinical Medicine, Basic Medical College, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China
| | - Fei-Fei Wang
- Department of Clinical Medicine, Basic Medical College, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China
| | - Hong-Wei Shang
- Experimental Center for Morphological Research Platform, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China
| | - Rongxuan Hua
- Department of Clinical Medicine, Basic Medical College, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China
| | - Jing-Dong Xu
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, Basic Medical College, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China
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20
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Enteric Glia at the Crossroads between Intestinal Immune System and Epithelial Barrier: Implications for Parkinson Disease. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21239199. [PMID: 33276665 PMCID: PMC7730281 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21239199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2020] [Revised: 11/30/2020] [Accepted: 11/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Over recent years, several investigations have suggested that Parkinson’s disease (PD) can be regarded as the consequence of a bowel disorder. Indeed, gastrointestinal symptoms can occur at all stages of this neurodegenerative disease and in up to a third of cases, their onset can precede the involvement of the central nervous system. Recent data suggest that enteric glial cells (EGCs) may play a major role in PD-related gastrointestinal disturbances, as well as in the development and progression of the central disease. In addition to their trophic and structural functions, EGCs are crucial for the homeostatic control of a wide range of gastrointestinal activities. The main purpose of this review was to provide a detailed overview of the role of EGCs in intestinal PD-associated alterations, with particular regard for their participation in digestive and central inflammation as well as the dynamic interactions between glial cells and intestinal epithelial barrier. Accumulating evidence suggests that several pathological intestinal conditions, associated with an impairment of barrier permeability, may trigger dysfunctions of EGCs and their shift towards a proinflammatory phenotype. The reactive gliosis is likely responsible for PD-related neuroinflammation and the associated pathological changes in the ENS. Thus, ameliorating the efficiency of mucosal barrier, as well as avoiding IEB disruption and the related reactive gliosis, might theoretically prevent the onset of PD or, at least, counteract its progression.
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21
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Yuan R, Bhattacharya N, Kenkel JA, Shen J, DiMaio MA, Bagchi S, Prestwood TR, Habtezion A, Engleman EG. Enteric Glia Play a Critical Role in Promoting the Development of Colorectal Cancer. Front Oncol 2020; 10:595892. [PMID: 33282743 PMCID: PMC7691584 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2020.595892] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2020] [Accepted: 10/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Enteric glia are a distinct population of peripheral glial cells in the enteric nervous system that regulate intestinal homeostasis, epithelial barrier integrity, and gut defense. Given these unique attributes, we investigated the impact of enteric glia depletion on tumor development in azoxymethane/dextran sodium sulfate (AOM/DSS)-treated mice, a classical model of colorectal cancer (CRC). Depleting GFAP+ enteric glia resulted in a profoundly reduced tumor burden in AOM/DSS mice and additionally reduced adenomas in the ApcMin /+ mouse model of familial adenomatous polyposis, suggesting a tumor-promoting role for these cells at an early premalignant stage. This was confirmed in further studies of AOM/DSS mice, as enteric glia depletion did not affect the properties of established malignant tumors but did result in a marked reduction in the development of precancerous dysplastic lesions. Surprisingly, the protective effect of enteric glia depletion was not dependent on modulation of anti-tumor immunity or intestinal inflammation. These findings reveal that GFAP+ enteric glia play a critical pro-tumorigenic role during early CRC development and identify these cells as a potential target for CRC prevention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert Yuan
- Department of Pathology, Stanford University School of Medicine (Blood Center), Palo Alto, CA, United States
| | - Nupur Bhattacharya
- Department of Pathology, Stanford University School of Medicine (Blood Center), Palo Alto, CA, United States
| | - Justin A Kenkel
- Department of Pathology, Stanford University School of Medicine (Blood Center), Palo Alto, CA, United States
| | - Jeanne Shen
- Department of Pathology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, United States
| | - Michael A DiMaio
- Department of Pathology, Marin Medical Laboratories, Novato, CA, United States
| | - Sreya Bagchi
- Department of Pathology, Stanford University School of Medicine (Blood Center), Palo Alto, CA, United States
| | - Tyler R Prestwood
- Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, United States
| | - Aida Habtezion
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, School of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, United States
| | - Edgar G Engleman
- Department of Pathology, Stanford University School of Medicine (Blood Center), Palo Alto, CA, United States
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22
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Pabois J, Durand T, Le Berre C, Gonzales J, Neunlist M, Bourreille A, Naveilhan P, Neveu I. T cells show preferential adhesion to enteric neural cells in culture and are close to neural cells in the myenteric ganglia of Crohn's patients. J Neuroimmunol 2020; 349:577422. [PMID: 33068972 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2020.577422] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2020] [Revised: 09/19/2020] [Accepted: 10/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Plexitis in the proximal margin of intestinal resections are associated with post-operative recurrence of Crohn's disease. To understand their formation, in vitro analyzes were performed. T cells adhered preferentially to neuron and glial cells in mixed primary cultures of enteric nervous system and T cell activation increased their adhesion capacity. Higher number of T lymphocytes in close proximity to enteric glial cells was also observed in the myenteric ganglia of Crohn's patients as compared to control. These data show that close proximity between lymphocytes and enteric neural cells exists and may contribute to the formation of plexitis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julie Pabois
- Université de Nantes, Inserm, TENS, The Enteric Nervous System in Gut and Brain Diseases, IMAD, Nantes, France
| | - Tony Durand
- Université de Nantes, Inserm, TENS, The Enteric Nervous System in Gut and Brain Diseases, IMAD, Nantes, France
| | - Catherine Le Berre
- Université de Nantes, Inserm, TENS, The Enteric Nervous System in Gut and Brain Diseases, IMAD, Nantes, France
| | - Jacques Gonzales
- Université de Nantes, Inserm, TENS, The Enteric Nervous System in Gut and Brain Diseases, IMAD, Nantes, France
| | - Michel Neunlist
- Université de Nantes, Inserm, TENS, The Enteric Nervous System in Gut and Brain Diseases, IMAD, Nantes, France
| | - Arnaud Bourreille
- Université de Nantes, Inserm, TENS, The Enteric Nervous System in Gut and Brain Diseases, IMAD, Nantes, France
| | - Philippe Naveilhan
- Université de Nantes, Inserm, TENS, The Enteric Nervous System in Gut and Brain Diseases, IMAD, Nantes, France.
| | - Isabelle Neveu
- Université de Nantes, Inserm, TENS, The Enteric Nervous System in Gut and Brain Diseases, IMAD, Nantes, France
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Gonkowski S, Gajęcka M, Makowska K. Mycotoxins and the Enteric Nervous System. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:toxins12070461. [PMID: 32707706 PMCID: PMC7404981 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12070461] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2020] [Revised: 07/16/2020] [Accepted: 07/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by various fungal species. They are commonly found in a wide range of agricultural products. Mycotoxins contained in food enter living organisms and may have harmful effects on many internal organs and systems. The gastrointestinal tract, which first comes into contact with mycotoxins present in food, is particularly vulnerable to the harmful effects of these toxins. One of the lesser-known aspects of the impact of mycotoxins on the gastrointestinal tract is the influence of these substances on gastrointestinal innervation. Therefore, the present study is the first review of current knowledge concerning the influence of mycotoxins on the enteric nervous system, which plays an important role, not only in almost all regulatory processes within the gastrointestinal tract, but also in adaptive and protective reactions in response to pathological and toxic factors in food.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sławomir Gonkowski
- Department of Clinical Physiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Oczapowskiego 13, 10-957 Olsztyn, Poland;
| | - Magdalena Gajęcka
- Department of Veterinary Prevention and Feed Hygiene, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Oczapowskiego Str. 13, 10-718 Olsztyn, Poland;
| | - Krystyna Makowska
- Department of Clinical Diagnostics, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Oczapowskiego 14, 10-957 Olsztyn, Poland
- Correspondence:
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24
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Protective role of berberine on ulcerative colitis through modulating enteric glial cells-intestinal epithelial cells-immune cells interactions. Acta Pharm Sin B 2020; 10:447-461. [PMID: 32140391 PMCID: PMC7049614 DOI: 10.1016/j.apsb.2019.08.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2019] [Revised: 08/05/2019] [Accepted: 08/06/2019] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Ulcerative colitis (UC) manifests as an etiologically complicated and relapsing gastrointestinal disease. The enteric nervous system (ENS) plays a pivotal role in rectifying and orchestrating the inflammatory responses in gut tract. Berberine, an isoquinoline alkaloid, is known as its anti-inflammatory and therapeutic effects in experimental colitis. However, little research focused on its regulatory function on ENS. Therefore, we set out to explore the pathological role of neurogenic inflammation in UC and the modulating effects of berberine on neuro-immune interactions. Functional defects of enteric glial cells (EGCs), with decreased glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) and increased substance P expression, were observed in DSS-induced murine UC. Administration of berberine can obviously ameliorate the disease severity and restore the mucosal barrier homeostasis of UC, closely accompanying by maintaining the residence of EGCs and attenuating inflammatory infiltrations and immune cells overactivation. In vitro, berberine showed direct protective effects on monoculture of EGCs, bone marrow-derived dendritic cells (BMDCs), T cells, and intestinal epithelial cells (IECs) in the simulated inflammatory conditions. Furthermore, berberine could modulate gut EGCs-IECs-immune cell interactions in the co-culture systems. In summary, our study indicated the EGCs-IECs-immune cell interactions might function as a crucial paradigm in mucosal inflammation and provided an infusive mechanism of berberine in regulating enteric neurogenic inflammation.
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Key Words
- APCs, antigen-presenting cells
- BDNF, brain-derived neurotrophic factor
- BMDCs, bone marrow-derived dendritic cells
- Berberine
- CGRP, calcitonin gene-related peptide
- DSS, dextran sulfate sodium
- EGCs, enteric glial cells
- ENS, enteric nervous system
- Enteric glial cells
- Enteric nervous system
- GDNF, glial cell derived neurotrophic factor
- GFAP, glial fibrillary acidic protein
- IBD, inflammatory bowel diseases
- IECs, intestinal epithelial cells
- LMPC, lamina propria mononuclear cells
- MAPK, mitogen-activated protein kinases
- MLNs, mesenteric lymph nodes
- MPO, myeloperoxidase
- Mucosal inflammation
- UC, ulcerative colitis
- Ulcerative colitis
- VIP, vasoactive intestinal polypeptide
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25
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Dangerous Liaison: Helicobacter pylori, Ganglionitis, and Myenteric Gastric Neurons: A Histopathological Study. Anal Cell Pathol (Amst) 2019; 2019:3085181. [PMID: 32082967 PMCID: PMC7012220 DOI: 10.1155/2019/3085181] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2019] [Revised: 10/17/2019] [Accepted: 11/29/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Chronic inflammation induced by Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) infection plays a major role in development of gastric cancer. However, recent findings suggested that progression of inflammation and neoplastic transformation in H. pylori infection are more complex than previously believed and could involve different factors that modulate gastric microenvironment and influence host-pathogen interaction. Among these factors, gastric myenteric plexus and its potential adaptive changes in H. pylori infection received little attention. This study is aimed at identifying the impact of H. pylori-associated gastritis on number and morphology of nerve cells in the stomach. The distribution of density, inflammation, and programmed cell death in neurons was immunohistochemically assessed in full-thickness archival tissue samples obtained from 40 patients with H. pylori infection who underwent surgery for gastric cancer and were compared with findings on samples collected from 40 age- and sex-matched subjects without bacteria. Overall, significant differences were noted between H. pylori-positive and H. pylori-negative patients. The analysis of tissue specimens obtained from those with infection revealed higher density and larger surface of the myenteric nervous plexus, as well as a significant increase in the number of gastric neuronal cell bodies and glial cells compared to controls. A predominant CD3-immunoreactive T cell infiltrate confined to the myenteric plexus was observed in infected subjects. The presence of mature B lymphocytes, plasma cells, and eosinophils was also noted, but to a lesser extent, within the ganglia. Myenteric ganglionitis was associated with degeneration and neuronal loss. Our results represent the first histopathological evidence supporting the hypothesis that H. pylori-induced gastric inflammation may induce morphological changes in myenteric gastric ganglia. These findings could help gain understanding of some still unclear aspects of pathogenesis of H. pylori infection, with the possibility of having broader implications for gastric cancer progression.
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26
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Di ZS, Yang ZJ, Zhu MJ, Wang FF, Li LS, Xu JD. Regulation of intestinal epithelial barrier by and dysfunction of intestinal glial cells. Shijie Huaren Xiaohua Zazhi 2019; 27:1013-1021. [DOI: 10.11569/wcjd.v27.i16.1013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The enteric glia is an important component of the enteric nervous system and forms a broad network in the mucosa of the gastrointestinal tract. Enteric glial cells (EGC) are located in all layers of the intestinal wall and respond to neurotransmitters and neuromodulators through signal transduction pathways. The enteric nervous system interacts with resident glial cells in the gut, and there is increasing evidence that EGC are involved in the regulation of epithelial function. Epithelial cells have important absorption and secretion functions and are also involved in the formation of intestinal epithelial barrier. Studies have found that the enteric glia is not only involved in the regulation of gastrointestinal motility and epithelial barrier function, but also in the formation of cellular molecular bridges between intestinal neurons, enteroendocrine cells, immune cells, and epithelial cells. This article reviews the recent progress in the understanding of the role of EGC in the intestinal barrier and defense functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhi-Shan Di
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China
| | - Ze-Jun Yang
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China
| | - Min-Jia Zhu
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China
| | - Fei-Fei Wang
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China
| | - Li-Sheng Li
- School of Basic Medicine, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China
| | - Jing-Dong Xu
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China
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27
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Grundmann D, Loris E, Maas-Omlor S, Huang W, Scheller A, Kirchhoff F, Schäfer KH. Enteric Glia: S100, GFAP, and Beyond. Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2019; 302:1333-1344. [PMID: 30951262 DOI: 10.1002/ar.24128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2018] [Revised: 02/10/2019] [Accepted: 02/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Since several years, the enteric nervous system (ENS) is getting more and more in the focus of gastrointestinal research. While the main interest was credited for years to the enteric neurons and their functional properties, less attention has been paid on the enteric glial cells (EGCs). Although the similarity of EGCs to central nervous system (CNS) astrocytes has been demonstrated a long time ago, EGCs were investigated in more detail only recently. Similar to the CNS, there is not "the" EGC, but also a broad range of diversity. Based on morphology and protein expression, such as glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), S100, or Proteolipid-protein-1 (PLP1), several distinct glial types can be differentiated. Their heterogeneity in morphology, localization, and transcription as well as interaction with surrounding cells indicate versatile functional properties of these cells for gut function in health and disease. Although NG2 is found in a subset of CNS glial cells, it did not colocalize with the glial marker S100 or GFAP in the ENS. Instead, it in part colocalize with PDGFRα, as it does in the CNS, which do stain fibroblast-like cells in the gastrointestinal tract. Moreover, there seem to be species dependent differences. While GFAP is always found in the rodent ENS, this is completely different for the human gut. Only the compromised human ENS shows a significant amount of GFAP-positive glial cells. So, in general we can conclude that the EGC population is species specific and as complex as CNS glia. Anat Rec, 302:1333-1344, 2019. © 2019 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Grundmann
- Department of Biotechnology, University of Applied Sciences Kaiserslautern, Zweibrücken, Germany
| | - Eva Loris
- Department of Biotechnology, University of Applied Sciences Kaiserslautern, Zweibrücken, Germany
| | - Silke Maas-Omlor
- Department of Biotechnology, University of Applied Sciences Kaiserslautern, Zweibrücken, Germany
| | - Wenhui Huang
- Molecular Physiology, Center for Integrative Physiology and Molecular Medicine (CIPMM), University of Saarland, Homburg, Germany
| | - Anja Scheller
- Molecular Physiology, Center for Integrative Physiology and Molecular Medicine (CIPMM), University of Saarland, Homburg, Germany
| | - Frank Kirchhoff
- Molecular Physiology, Center for Integrative Physiology and Molecular Medicine (CIPMM), University of Saarland, Homburg, Germany
| | - Karl-Herbert Schäfer
- Department of Biotechnology, University of Applied Sciences Kaiserslautern, Zweibrücken, Germany.,Department of Pediatric Surgery, Medical Faculty Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Mannheim, Germany
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28
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Brudek T. Inflammatory Bowel Diseases and Parkinson's Disease. JOURNAL OF PARKINSON'S DISEASE 2019; 9:S331-S344. [PMID: 31609699 PMCID: PMC6839501 DOI: 10.3233/jpd-191729] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/20/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The etiology of Parkinson's disease (PD) is multifactorial, with genetics, aging, and environmental agents all a part of the PD pathogenesis. Widespread aggregation of the α-synuclein protein in the form of Lewy bodies and Lewy neurites, and degeneration of substantia nigra dopamine neurons are the pathological hallmarks of PD. Inflammatory responses manifested by glial reactions, T cell infiltration, and increased expression of inflammatory cytokines, as well as other toxic mediators derived from activated glial cells, are currently recognized as prominent features of PD. Experimental, clinical and epidemiological data suggest that intestinal inflammation contributes to the pathogenesis of PD, and the increasing number of studies suggests that the condition may start in the gastrointestinal system years before any motor symptoms develop. Patients with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) have a higher risk of developing PD compared with non-IBD individuals. Gene association study has found a genetic link between IBD and PD, and an evidence from animal studies suggests that gut inflammation, similar to that observed in IBD, may induce loss of dopaminergic neurons. Based on preclinical models of PD, it is suggested that the enteric microbiome changes early in PD, and gut infections trigger α-synuclein release and aggregation. In this paper, the possible link between IBD and PD is reviewed based on the available literature. Given the potentially critical role of gastrointestinal pathology in PD pathogenesis, there is reason to suspect that IBD or its treatments may impact PD risk. Thus, clinicians should be aware of PD symptoms in IBD patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomasz Brudek
- Research Laboratory for Stereology and Neuroscience, Copenhagen University Hospital, Bispebjerg-Frederiksberg Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark
- Copenhagen Center for Translational Research, Copenhagen University Hospital, Bispebjerg and Frederiksberg Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark
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29
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Kermarrec L, Durand T, Gonzales J, Pabois J, Hulin P, Neunlist M, Neveu I, Naveilhan P. Rat enteric glial cells express novel isoforms of Interleukine-7 regulated during inflammation. Neurogastroenterol Motil 2019; 31:e13467. [PMID: 30240048 DOI: 10.1111/nmo.13467] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2018] [Revised: 07/26/2018] [Accepted: 08/14/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Neuroimmune interactions are essential to maintain gut homeostasis and prevent intestinal disorders but so far, the impact of enteric glial cells (EGC) on immune cells remains a relatively unexplored area of research. As a dysregulation of critical cytokines such as interleukine-7 (IL-7) was suggested to exacerbate gut chronic inflammation, we investigated whether EGC could be a source of IL-7 in the gastrointestinal tract. METHODS Expression of IL-7 in the rat enteric nervous system was analyzed by immunochemistry and Q-PCR. IL-7 variants were cloned and specific antibodies against rat IL-7 isoforms were raised to characterize their expression in the submucosal plexus. IL-7 isoforms were produced in vitro to analyze their impact on T-cell survival. KEY RESULTS Neurons and glial cells of the rat enteric nervous system expressed IL-7 at both mRNA and protein levels. Novel rat IL-7 isoforms with distinct C-terminal parts were detected. Three of these isoforms were found in EGC or in both enteric neurons and EGC. Exposure of EGC to pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β and/or TNFα) induced an upregulation of all IL-7 isoforms. Interestingly, time-course and intensity of the upregulation varied according to the presence or absence of exon 5a in IL-7 variants. Functional analysis on T lymphocytes revealed that only canonical IL-7 protects T cells from cell death. CONCLUSIONS AND INFERENCES IL-7 and its variants are expressed by neurons and glial cells in the enteric nervous system. Their distinct expression and upregulation in inflammatory conditions suggest a role in gut homeostasis which could be critical in case of chronic inflammatory diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laetitia Kermarrec
- Université de Nantes, INSERM, Institut des Maladies de l'Appareil Digestif, The enteric nervous system in gut and brain disorders, Nantes, France
| | - Tony Durand
- Université de Nantes, INSERM, Institut des Maladies de l'Appareil Digestif, The enteric nervous system in gut and brain disorders, Nantes, France
| | - Jacques Gonzales
- Université de Nantes, INSERM, Institut des Maladies de l'Appareil Digestif, The enteric nervous system in gut and brain disorders, Nantes, France
| | - Julie Pabois
- Université de Nantes, INSERM, Institut des Maladies de l'Appareil Digestif, The enteric nervous system in gut and brain disorders, Nantes, France
| | | | - Michel Neunlist
- Université de Nantes, INSERM, Institut des Maladies de l'Appareil Digestif, The enteric nervous system in gut and brain disorders, Nantes, France
| | - Isabelle Neveu
- Université de Nantes, INSERM, Institut des Maladies de l'Appareil Digestif, The enteric nervous system in gut and brain disorders, Nantes, France
| | - Philippe Naveilhan
- Université de Nantes, INSERM, Institut des Maladies de l'Appareil Digestif, The enteric nervous system in gut and brain disorders, Nantes, France
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30
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Morales-Soto W, Gulbransen BD. Enteric Glia: A New Player in Abdominal Pain. Cell Mol Gastroenterol Hepatol 2018; 7:433-445. [PMID: 30739868 PMCID: PMC6369218 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcmgh.2018.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2018] [Revised: 11/16/2018] [Accepted: 11/19/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Chronic abdominal pain is the most common gastrointestinal issue and contributes to the pathophysiology of functional bowel disorders and inflammatory bowel disease. Current theories suggest that neuronal plasticity and broad alterations along the brain-gut axis contribute to the development of chronic abdominal pain, but the specific mechanisms involved in chronic abdominal pain remain incompletely understood. Accumulating evidence implicates glial cells in the development and maintenance of chronic pain. Astrocytes and microglia in the central nervous system and satellite glia in dorsal root ganglia contribute to chronic pain states through reactive gliosis, the modification of glial networks, and the synthesis and release of neuromodulators. In addition, new data suggest that enteric glia, a unique type of peripheral glia found within the enteric nervous system, have the potential to modify visceral perception through interactions with neurons and immune cells. Understanding these emerging roles of enteric glia is important to fully understand the mechanisms that drive chronic pain and to identify novel therapeutic targets. In this review, we discuss enteric glial cell signaling mechanisms that have the potential to influence chronic abdominal pain.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Brian D. Gulbransen
- Correspondence Address correspondence to: Brian D. Gulbransen, PhD, Neuroscience Program and Department of Physiology, Michigan State University, 567 Wilson Road, East Lansing, Michigan 48824. fax: (517) 355-5125.
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31
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Functional Probiotic Assessment and In Vivo Cholesterol-Lowering Efficacy of Weissella sp. Associated with Arid Lands Living-Hosts. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2018; 2018:1654151. [PMID: 30539003 PMCID: PMC6261067 DOI: 10.1155/2018/1654151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2018] [Accepted: 11/05/2018] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
The research and the selection of novel probiotic strains from novel niches are receiving increased attention on their proclaimed health benefits to both humans and animals. This study aimed to evaluate the functional properties of Weissella strains from arid land living-hosts and to select strains with cholesterol-lowering property in vitro and in vivo, for use as probiotics. They were assessed for acid and bile tolerance, antibiotic susceptibility, membrane properties, antibacterial activity, antiadhesive effect against pathogens to host cell lines, and cholesterol assimilation in vitro. Our results showed that the majority of strains revealed resistance to gastrointestinal conditions. All the strains were nonhemolytic and sensitive to most of the tested antibiotics. They also exhibited high rates of autoaggregation and some of them showed high coaggregation with selected pathogens and high adhesion ability to two different cell lines (Caco-2 and MIM/PPk). Particularly, W. halotolerans F99, from camel feces, presented a broad antibacterial spectrum against pathogens, reduced Enterococcus faecalis and Escherichia coli adhesion to Caco-2 cells, and was found to reduce, in vitro, the cholesterol level by 49 %. Moreover, W. halotolerans F99 was evaluated for the carbohydrate utilization as well as the serum lipid metabolism effect in Wistar rats fed a high-cholesterol diet. W. halotolerans F99 showed an interesting growth on different plant-derivative oligosaccharides as sole carbon sources. Compared with rats fed a high-fat (HF) diet without Weissella administration, total serum cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, and triglycerides levels were significantly (p<0.001) reduced in W. halotolerans F99-treated HF rats, with no significant change in high-density lipoprotein cholesterol HDL-C levels. On the basis of these results, this is the first study to report that W. halotolerans F99, from camel feces, can be developed as cholesterol-reducing probiotic strain. Further studies may reveal their potential and possible biotechnological and probiotic applications.
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32
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Can the gut be the missing piece in uncovering PD pathogenesis? Parkinsonism Relat Disord 2018; 59:26-31. [PMID: 30448099 DOI: 10.1016/j.parkreldis.2018.11.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2018] [Revised: 10/25/2018] [Accepted: 11/09/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
It is now well established that Parkinson's disease (PD) is not only a movement disorder of the CNS but also a gastrointestinal disorder affecting the enteric nervous system (ENS). The gut-brain axis is a bidirectional communication between the brain and the gastrointestinal tract, which comprises besides the CNS and the ENS, the intestinal epithelial barrier, the intestinal microbiota and the enteroendocrine systems. In this review, we present the clinical and pathological evidence suggesting that the gut-brain axis is dysfunctional in PD by discussing the possible role of gut microbiota, inflammation and permeability in the development of the disease.
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33
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Bessac A, Cani PD, Meunier E, Dietrich G, Knauf C. Inflammation and Gut-Brain Axis During Type 2 Diabetes: Focus on the Crosstalk Between Intestinal Immune Cells and Enteric Nervous System. Front Neurosci 2018; 12:725. [PMID: 30364179 PMCID: PMC6191495 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2018.00725] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2018] [Accepted: 09/21/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The gut-brain axis is now considered as a major actor in the control of glycemia. Recent discoveries show that the enteric nervous system (ENS) informs the hypothalamus of the nutritional state in order to control glucose entry in tissues. During type 2 diabetes (T2D), this way of communication is completely disturbed leading to the establishment of hyperglycemia and insulin-resistance. Indeed, the ENS neurons are largely targeted by nutrients (e.g., lipids, peptides) but also by inflammatory factors from different origin (i.e., host cells and gut microbiota). Inflammation, and more particularly in the intestine, contributes to the development of numerous pathologies such as intestinal bowel diseases, Parkinson diseases and T2D. Therefore, targeting the couple ENS/inflammation could represent an attractive therapeutic solution to treat metabolic diseases. In this review, we focus on the role of the crosstalk between intestinal immune cells and ENS neurons in the control of glycemia. In addition, given the growing evidence showing the key role of the gut microbiota in physiology, we will also briefly discuss its potential contribution and role on the immune and neuronal systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arnaud Bessac
- NeuroMicrobiota, European Associated Laboratory INSERM/UCLouvain, Brussels, Belgium.,Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, U1220, Université Paul Sabatier, Institut de Recherche en Santé Digestive et Nutrition, Toulouse, France
| | - Patrice D Cani
- NeuroMicrobiota, European Associated Laboratory INSERM/UCLouvain, Brussels, Belgium.,Metabolism and Nutrition Research Group, Walloon Excellence in Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Louvain Drug Research Institute, UCLouvain, Université catholique de Louvain, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Etienne Meunier
- Institut de Pharmacologie et de Biologie Structurale, UMR 5089, Université Paul Sabatier, Toulouse, France
| | - Gilles Dietrich
- NeuroMicrobiota, European Associated Laboratory INSERM/UCLouvain, Brussels, Belgium.,Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, U1220, Université Paul Sabatier, Institut de Recherche en Santé Digestive et Nutrition, Toulouse, France
| | - Claude Knauf
- NeuroMicrobiota, European Associated Laboratory INSERM/UCLouvain, Brussels, Belgium.,Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, U1220, Université Paul Sabatier, Institut de Recherche en Santé Digestive et Nutrition, Toulouse, France
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34
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Pochard C, Coquenlorge S, Freyssinet M, Naveilhan P, Bourreille A, Neunlist M, Rolli-Derkinderen M. The multiple faces of inflammatory enteric glial cells: is Crohn's disease a gliopathy? Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2018. [PMID: 29517926 DOI: 10.1152/ajpgi.00016.2018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Gone are the days when enteric glial cells (EGC) were considered merely satellites of enteric neurons. Like their brain counterpart astrocytes, EGC express an impressive number of receptors for neurotransmitters and intercellular messengers, thereby contributing to neuroprotection and to the regulation of neuronal activity. EGC also produce different soluble factors that regulate neighboring cells, among which are intestinal epithelial cells. A better understanding of EGC response to an inflammatory environment, often referred to as enteric glial reactivity, could help define the physiological role of EGC and the importance of this reactivity in maintaining gut functions. In chronic inflammatory disorders of the gut such as Crohn's disease (CD) and ulcerative colitis, EGC exhibit abnormal phenotypes, and their neighboring cells are dysfunctional; however, it remains unclear whether EGC are only passive bystanders or active players in the pathophysiology of both disorders. The aim of the present study is to review the physiological roles and properties of EGC, their response to inflammation, and their role in the regulation of the intestinal epithelial barrier and to discuss the emerging concept of CD as an enteric gliopathy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Camille Pochard
- Inserm, UMR1235 TENS, Nantes , France.,Nantes University , Nantes , France.,Institut des Maladies de l'Appareil Digestif, IMAD, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Nantes, Hôpital Hôtel-Dieu, Nantes , France
| | - Sabrina Coquenlorge
- Inserm, UMR1235 TENS, Nantes , France.,Nantes University , Nantes , France.,Institut des Maladies de l'Appareil Digestif, IMAD, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Nantes, Hôpital Hôtel-Dieu, Nantes , France
| | - Marie Freyssinet
- Inserm, UMR1235 TENS, Nantes , France.,Nantes University , Nantes , France.,Institut des Maladies de l'Appareil Digestif, IMAD, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Nantes, Hôpital Hôtel-Dieu, Nantes , France
| | - Philippe Naveilhan
- Inserm, UMR1235 TENS, Nantes , France.,Nantes University , Nantes , France.,Institut des Maladies de l'Appareil Digestif, IMAD, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Nantes, Hôpital Hôtel-Dieu, Nantes , France
| | - Arnaud Bourreille
- Inserm, UMR1235 TENS, Nantes , France.,Nantes University , Nantes , France.,Institut des Maladies de l'Appareil Digestif, IMAD, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Nantes, Hôpital Hôtel-Dieu, Nantes , France
| | - Michel Neunlist
- Inserm, UMR1235 TENS, Nantes , France.,Nantes University , Nantes , France.,Institut des Maladies de l'Appareil Digestif, IMAD, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Nantes, Hôpital Hôtel-Dieu, Nantes , France
| | - Malvyne Rolli-Derkinderen
- Inserm, UMR1235 TENS, Nantes , France.,Nantes University , Nantes , France.,Institut des Maladies de l'Appareil Digestif, IMAD, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Nantes, Hôpital Hôtel-Dieu, Nantes , France
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Delvalle NM, Dharshika C, Morales-Soto W, Fried DE, Gaudette L, Gulbransen BD. Communication Between Enteric Neurons, Glia, and Nociceptors Underlies the Effects of Tachykinins on Neuroinflammation. Cell Mol Gastroenterol Hepatol 2018; 6:321-344. [PMID: 30116771 PMCID: PMC6091443 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcmgh.2018.05.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2017] [Accepted: 05/18/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Background & Aims Tachykinins are involved in physiological and pathophysiological mechanisms in the gastrointestinal tract. The major sources of tachykinins in the gut are intrinsic enteric neurons in the enteric nervous system and extrinsic nerve fibers from the dorsal root and vagal ganglia. Although tachykinins are important mediators in the enteric nervous system, how they contribute to neuroinflammation through effects on neurons and glia is not fully understood. Here, we tested the hypothesis that tachykinins contribute to enteric neuroinflammation through mechanisms that involve intercellular neuron-glia signaling. Methods We used immunohistochemistry and quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction, and studied cellular activity using transient-receptor potential vanilloid-1 (TRPV1)tm1(cre)Bbm/J::Polr2atm1(CAG-GCaMP5g,-tdTomato)Tvrd and Sox10CreERT2::Polr2atm1(CAG-GCaMP5g,-tdTomato)Tvrd mice or Fluo-4. We used the 2,4-di-nitrobenzene sulfonic acid (DNBS) model of colitis to study neuroinflammation, glial reactivity, and neurogenic contractility. We used Sox10::CreERT2+/-/Rpl22tm1.1Psam/J mice to selectively study glial transcriptional changes. Results Tachykinins are expressed predominantly by intrinsic neuronal varicosities whereas neurokinin-2 receptors (NK2Rs) are expressed predominantly by enteric neurons and TRPV1-positive neuronal varicosities. Stimulation of NK2Rs drives responses in neuronal varicosities that are propagated to enteric glia and neurons. Antagonizing NK2R signaling enhanced recovery from colitis and prevented the development of reactive gliosis, neuroinflammation, and enhanced neuronal contractions. Inflammation drove changes in enteric glial gene expression and function, and antagonizing NK2R signaling mitigated these changes. Neurokinin A-induced neurodegeneration requires glial connexin-43 hemichannel activity. Conclusions Our results show that tachykinins drive enteric neuroinflammation through a multicellular cascade involving enteric neurons, TRPV1-positive neuronal varicosities, and enteric glia. Therapies targeting components of this pathway could broadly benefit the treatment of dysmotility and pain after acute inflammation in the intestine.
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Key Words
- BzATP, 2’(3’)-O-(4-benzoylbenzoyl)adenosine 5’-triphosphate triethylammonium salt
- Ca2+, calcium
- Colitis
- Cx43, connexin-43
- DMEM, Dulbecco's modified Eagle medium
- DNBS, dinitrobenzene sulfonic acid
- EFS, electrical field stimulation
- ENS, enteric nervous system
- Enteric Nervous System
- FGID, functional gastrointestinal disorder
- GFAP, glial fibrillary acidic protein
- GI, gastrointestinal
- Glia
- HA, hemagglutinin
- IPAN, intrinsic primarily afferent neuron
- LMMP, longitudinal muscle–myenteric plexus
- MSU, Michigan State University
- NK1R, neurokinin-1 receptor
- NK2R, neurokinin-2 receptor
- NKA, neurokinin A
- Neurokinins
- SP, substance P
- TRPV1, transient receptor potential vanilloid-1
- mRNA, messenger RNA
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Christine Dharshika
- Genetics Program, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan
- Institute for Integrative Toxicology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan
| | | | - David E. Fried
- Department of Physiology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan
| | - Lukas Gaudette
- Neuroscience Program, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan
| | - Brian D. Gulbransen
- Neuroscience Program, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan
- Department of Physiology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan
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Macchioni L, Petricciuolo M, Davidescu M, Fettucciari K, Scarpelli P, Vitale R, Gatticchi L, Orvietani PL, Marchegiani A, Marconi P, Bassotti G, Corcelli A, Corazzi L. Palmitate lipotoxicity in enteric glial cells: Lipid remodeling and mitochondrial ROS are responsible for cyt c release outside mitochondria. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Cell Biol Lipids 2018; 1863:895-908. [PMID: 29729479 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbalip.2018.04.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2017] [Revised: 04/05/2018] [Accepted: 04/29/2018] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Enteric glial cells (EGCs) are components of the enteric nervous system, an organized structure that controls gut functions. EGCs may be vulnerable to different agents, such as bacterial infections that could alter the intestinal epithelial barrier, allowing bacterial toxins and/or other agents possessing intrinsic toxic effect to access cells. Palmitate, known to exhibit lipotoxicity, is released in the gut during the digestion process. In this study, we investigated the lipotoxic effect of palmitate in cultured EGCs, with particular emphasis on palmitate-dependent intracellular lipid remodeling. Palmitate but not linoleate altered mitochondrial and endoplasmic reticulum lipid composition. In particular, the levels of phosphatidic acid, key precursor of phospholipid synthesis, increased, whereas those of mitochondrial cardiolipin (CL) decreased; in parallel, phospholipid remodeling was induced. CL remodeling (chains shortening and saturation) together with palmitate-triggered mitochondrial burst, caused cytochrome c (cyt c) detachment from its CL anchor and accumulation in the intermembrane space as soluble pool. Palmitate decreased mitochondrial membrane potential and ATP levels, without mPTP opening. Mitochondrial ROS permeation into the cytosol and palmitate-induced ER stress activated JNK and p38, culminating in Bim and Bax overexpression, factors known to increase the outer mitochondrial membrane permeability. Overall, in EGCs palmitate produced weakening of cyt c-CL interactions and favoured the egress of the soluble cyt c pool outside mitochondria to trigger caspase-3-dependent viability loss. Elucidating the mechanisms of palmitate lipotoxicity in EGCs may be relevant in gut pathological conditions occurring in vivo such as those following an insult that may damage the intestinal epithelial barrier.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lara Macchioni
- Department of Experimental Medicine, University of Perugia, 06132 Perugia, Italy.
| | - Maya Petricciuolo
- Department of Experimental Medicine, University of Perugia, 06132 Perugia, Italy
| | - Magdalena Davidescu
- Department of Experimental Medicine, University of Perugia, 06132 Perugia, Italy
| | - Katia Fettucciari
- Department of Experimental Medicine, University of Perugia, 06132 Perugia, Italy
| | - Paolo Scarpelli
- Department of Experimental Medicine, University of Perugia, 06132 Perugia, Italy
| | - Rita Vitale
- Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Neuroscience and Sense. Organs, University of Bari "A. Moro", 70124 Bari, Italy
| | - Leonardo Gatticchi
- Department of Experimental Medicine, University of Perugia, 06132 Perugia, Italy
| | - Pier Luigi Orvietani
- Department of Experimental Medicine, University of Perugia, 06132 Perugia, Italy
| | - Andrea Marchegiani
- School of Biosciences and Veterinary Medicine, University of Camerino, 62024 Matelica (MC), Italy
| | | | - Gabrio Bassotti
- Department of Medicine, University of Perugia, 06132 Perugia, Italy
| | - Angela Corcelli
- Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Neuroscience and Sense. Organs, University of Bari "A. Moro", 70124 Bari, Italy
| | - Lanfranco Corazzi
- Department of Experimental Medicine, University of Perugia, 06132 Perugia, Italy.
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Puzan M, Hosic S, Ghio C, Koppes A. Enteric Nervous System Regulation of Intestinal Stem Cell Differentiation and Epithelial Monolayer Function. Sci Rep 2018; 8:6313. [PMID: 29679034 PMCID: PMC5910425 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-24768-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2017] [Accepted: 04/10/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The Enteric Nervous System (ENS) is a complex network of neurons and glia, which regulates sensorimotor function throughout the gastroinestinal tract (GI). Here we investigated the role of the ENS and intestinal myofibroblasts in the maintenance of a primary intestinal epithelial barrier through regulation of monolayer permeability, cytokine production, and differentiation of intestinal stem cells. Utilizing a novel, in vitro, transwell-based coculture system, murine small intestinal stem cells were isolated and cultured with ENS neurons and glia or subepithelial myofibroblasts. Results show that the ENS contributes to regulation of intestinal stem cell fate, promoting differentiation into chemosensory enteroendocrine cells, with 0.9% of cells expressing chromogranin A when cultured with ENS versus 0.6% in cocultures with myofibroblasts and 0.3% in epithelial cultures alone. Additionally, enteric neurons and myofibroblasts differentially release cytokines Macrophage Inflammatory Protein 2 (MIP-2), Transforming Growth Factor beta 1 (TGF-β1), and Interleukin 10 (IL-10) when cultured with intestinal epithelial cells, with a 1.5 fold increase of IL-10 and a 3 fold increase in MIP-2 in ENS cocultures compared to coculture with myofibroblasts. These results indicate the importance of enteric populations in the regulation of intestinal barrier function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marissa Puzan
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Sanjin Hosic
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Caroline Ghio
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Abigail Koppes
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, 02115, USA.
- Department of Biology, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, 02115, USA.
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HIV-1 Tat-induced diarrhea is improved by the PPARalpha agonist, palmitoylethanolamide, by suppressing the activation of enteric glia. J Neuroinflammation 2018; 15:94. [PMID: 29573741 PMCID: PMC5866515 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-018-1126-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2017] [Accepted: 03/09/2018] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Diarrhea is a severe complication in HIV-1-infected patients with Trans-activator of transcription (HIV-1 Tat) protein being recognized as a major underlying cause. Beside its direct enterotoxic effects, Tat protein has been recently shown to affect enteric glial cell (EGC) activity. EGCs regulate intestinal inflammatory responses by secreting pro-inflammatory molecules; nonetheless, they might also release immune-regulatory factors, as palmytoilethanolamide (PEA), which exerts anti-inflammatory effects by activating PPARα receptors. We aimed at clarifying whether EGCs are involved in HIV-1 Tat-induced diarrhea and if PEA exerts antidiarrheal activity. Methods Diarrhea was induced by intracolonic administration of HIV-1 Tat protein in rats at day 1. PEA alone or in the presence of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) antagonists was given intraperitoneally from day 2 to day 7. S100B, iNOS, NF-kappaB, TLR4 and GFAP expression were evaluated in submucosal plexi, while S100B and NO levels were measured in EGC submucosal plexi lysates, respectively. To verify whether PEA effects were PPARα-mediated, PPARα−/− mice were also used. After 7 days from diarrhea induction, endogenous PEA levels were measured in submucosal plexi homogenates deriving from rats and PPARα−/− mice. Results HIV-1 Tat protein induced rapid onset diarrhea alongside with a significant activation of EGCs. Tat administration significantly increased all hallmarks of neuroinflammation by triggering TLR4 and NF-kappaB activation and S100B and iNOS expression. Endogenous PEA levels were increased following HIV-1 Tat exposure in both wildtype and knockout animals. In PPARα−/− mice, PEA displayed no effects. In wildtype rats, PEA, via PPARα-dependent mechanism, resulted in a significant antidiarrheal activity in parallel with marked reduction of EGC-sustained neuroinflammation. Conclusions EGCs mediate HIV-1 Tat-induced diarrhea by sustaining the intestinal neuroinflammatory response. These effects are regulated by PEA through a selective PPARα-dependent mechanism. PEA might be considered as an adjuvant therapy in HIV-1-induced diarrhea. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s12974-018-1126-4) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Naudet N, Antier E, Gaillard D, Morignat E, Lakhdar L, Baron T, Bencsik A. Oral Exposure to Paraquat Triggers Earlier Expression of Phosphorylated α-Synuclein in the Enteric Nervous System of A53T Mutant Human α-Synuclein Transgenic Mice. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 2017; 76:1046-1057. [PMID: 29040593 PMCID: PMC5939863 DOI: 10.1093/jnen/nlx092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2017] [Accepted: 09/25/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The misfolded α-synuclein protein, phosphorylated at serine 129 (pSer129 α-syn), is the hallmark of Parkinson disease (PD). Detected also in the enteric nervous system (ENS), it supports the recent theory that PD could start in the gut, rather than the brain. In a previous study, using a transgenic mouse model of human synucleinopathies expressing the A53T mutant α-synuclein (TgM83), in which a neurodegenerative process associated with α-synuclein occurs spontaneously in the brain, we have shown earlier onset of pSer129 α-syn in the ENS. Here, we used this model to study the impact of paraquat (PQ) a neurotoxic herbicide incriminated in PD in agricultural workers) on the enteric pSer129 α-syn expression in young mice. Orally delivered in the drinking water at 10 mg/kg/day for 6–8 weeks, the impact of PQ was measured in a time-dependent manner on weight, locomotor abilities, pSer129 α-syn, and glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) expression levels in the ENS. Remarkably, pSer129 α-syn was detected in ENS earlier under PQ oral exposure and enteric GFAP expression was also increased. These findings bring additional support to the theory that neurotoxic agents such as PQ initiate idiopathic PD after oral delivery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolas Naudet
- Neurodegenerative Disease Unit; PFEA Unit; and Epidemiology Unit, French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety (Anses) Laboratory of Lyon, Université de Lyon, Lyon, France
| | - Emilie Antier
- Neurodegenerative Disease Unit; PFEA Unit; and Epidemiology Unit, French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety (Anses) Laboratory of Lyon, Université de Lyon, Lyon, France
| | - Damien Gaillard
- Neurodegenerative Disease Unit; PFEA Unit; and Epidemiology Unit, French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety (Anses) Laboratory of Lyon, Université de Lyon, Lyon, France
| | - Eric Morignat
- Neurodegenerative Disease Unit; PFEA Unit; and Epidemiology Unit, French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety (Anses) Laboratory of Lyon, Université de Lyon, Lyon, France
| | - Latifa Lakhdar
- Neurodegenerative Disease Unit; PFEA Unit; and Epidemiology Unit, French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety (Anses) Laboratory of Lyon, Université de Lyon, Lyon, France
| | - Thierry Baron
- Neurodegenerative Disease Unit; PFEA Unit; and Epidemiology Unit, French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety (Anses) Laboratory of Lyon, Université de Lyon, Lyon, France
| | - Anna Bencsik
- Neurodegenerative Disease Unit; PFEA Unit; and Epidemiology Unit, French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety (Anses) Laboratory of Lyon, Université de Lyon, Lyon, France
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40
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Schreiber D, Marx L, Felix S, Clasohm J, Weyland M, Schäfer M, Klotz M, Lilischkis R, Erkel G, Schäfer KH. Anti-inflammatory Effects of Fungal Metabolites in Mouse Intestine as Revealed by In vitro Models. Front Physiol 2017; 8:566. [PMID: 28824460 PMCID: PMC5545603 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2017.00566] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2017] [Accepted: 07/20/2017] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD), which include Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis, are chronic inflammatory disorders that can affect the whole gastrointestinal tract or the colonic mucosal layer. Current therapies aiming to suppress the exaggerated immune response in IBD largely rely on compounds with non-satisfying effects or side-effects. Therefore, new therapeutical options are needed. In the present study, we investigated the anti-inflammatory effects of the fungal metabolites, galiellalactone, and dehydrocurvularin in both an in vitro intestinal inflammation model, as well as in isolated myenteric plexus and enterocyte cells. Administration of a pro-inflammatory cytokine mix through the mesenteric artery of intestinal segments caused an up-regulation of inflammatory marker genes. Treatment of the murine intestinal segments with galiellalactone or dehydrocurvularin by application through the mesenteric artery significantly prevented the expression of pro-inflammatory marker genes on the mRNA and the protein level. Comparable to the results in the perfused intestine model, treatment of primary enteric nervous system (ENS) cells from the murine intestine with the fungal compounds reduced expression of cytokines such as IL-6, TNF-α, IL-1β, and inflammatory enzymes such as COX-2 and iNOS on mRNA and protein levels. Similar anti-inflammatory effects of the fungal metabolites were observed in the human colorectal adenocarcinoma cell line DLD-1 after stimulation with IFN-γ (10 ng/ml), TNF-α (10 ng/ml), and IL-1β (5 ng/ml). Our results show that the mesenterially perfused intestine model provides a reliable tool for the screening of new therapeutics with limited amounts of test compounds. Furthermore, we could characterize the anti-inflammatory effects of two novel active compounds, galiellalactone, and dehydrocurvularin which are interesting candidates for studies with chronic animal models of IBD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dominik Schreiber
- Department of Biotechnology, University of Applied Sciences KaiserslauternKaiserslautern, Germany.,Department of Biotechnology, Technical University of KaiserslauternKaiserslautern, Germany
| | - Lisa Marx
- Department of Biotechnology, University of Applied Sciences KaiserslauternKaiserslautern, Germany
| | - Silke Felix
- Department of Biotechnology, Technical University of KaiserslauternKaiserslautern, Germany
| | - Jasmin Clasohm
- Department of Biotechnology, University of Applied Sciences KaiserslauternKaiserslautern, Germany
| | - Maximilian Weyland
- Department of Biotechnology, University of Applied Sciences KaiserslauternKaiserslautern, Germany
| | - Maximilian Schäfer
- Department of Biotechnology, University of Applied Sciences KaiserslauternKaiserslautern, Germany
| | - Markus Klotz
- Department of Biotechnology, University of Applied Sciences KaiserslauternKaiserslautern, Germany
| | - Rainer Lilischkis
- Department of Biotechnology, University of Applied Sciences KaiserslauternKaiserslautern, Germany
| | - Gerhard Erkel
- Department of Biotechnology, Technical University of KaiserslauternKaiserslautern, Germany
| | - Karl-Herbert Schäfer
- Department of Biotechnology, University of Applied Sciences KaiserslauternKaiserslautern, Germany.,Pediatric Surgery, University Hospital MannheimMannheim, Germany
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Enteric glial cells counteract Clostridium difficile Toxin B through a NADPH oxidase/ROS/JNK/caspase-3 axis, without involving mitochondrial pathways. Sci Rep 2017; 7:45569. [PMID: 28349972 PMCID: PMC5368562 DOI: 10.1038/srep45569] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2016] [Accepted: 02/27/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Enteric glial cells (EGCs) are components of the intestinal epithelial barrier essential for regulating the enteric nervous system. Clostridium difficile is the most common cause of antibiotic-associated colitis, toxin B (TcdB) being the major virulence factor, due to its ability to breach the intestinal epithelial barrier and to act on other cell types. Here we investigated TcdB effects on EGCs and the activated molecular mechanisms. Already at 2 hours, TcdB triggered ROS formation originating from NADPH-oxidase, as demonstrated by their reduction in the presence of the NADPH-oxidase inhibitor ML171. Although EGCs mitochondria support almost completely the cellular ATP need, TcdB exerted weak effects on EGCs in terms of ATP and mitochondrial functionality, mitochondrial ROS production occurring as a late event. ROS activated the JNK signalling and overexpression of the proapoptotic Bim not followed by cytochrome c or AIF release to activate the downstream apoptotic cascade. EGCs underwent DNA fragmentation through activation of the ROS/JNK/caspase-3 axis, evidenced by the ability of ML171, N-acetylcysteine, and the JNK inhibitor SP600125 to inhibit caspase-3 or to contrast apoptosis. Therefore, TcdB aggressiveness towards EGCs is mainly restricted to the cytosolic compartment, which represents a peculiar feature, since TcdB primarily influences mitochondria in other cellular types.
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Langness S, Kojima M, Coimbra R, Eliceiri BP, Costantini TW. Enteric glia cells are critical to limiting the intestinal inflammatory response after injury. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2017; 312:G274-G282. [PMID: 28082286 DOI: 10.1152/ajpgi.00371.2016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2016] [Revised: 01/05/2017] [Accepted: 01/05/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Vagal nerve stimulation (VNS) has been shown to limit intestinal inflammation following injury; however, a direct connection between vagal terminals and resident intestinal immune cells has yet to be identified. We have previously shown that enteric glia cell (EGC) expression is increased after injury through a vagal-mediated pathway to help restore gut barrier function. We hypothesize that EGCs modulate immune cell recruitment following injury and relay vagal anti-inflammatory signals to resident immune cells in the gut. EGCs were selectively ablated from an isolated segment of distal bowel with topical application of benzalkonium chloride (BAC) in male mice. Three days following BAC application, mice were subjected to an ischemia-reperfusion injury (I/R) by superior mesenteric artery occlusion for 30 min. VNS was performed in a separate cohort of animals. EGC+ and EGC- segments were compared utilizing histology, flow cytometry, immunohistochemistry, and intestinal permeability. VNS significantly reduced immune cell recruitment after I/R injury in EGC+ segments with cell percentages similar to sham. VNS failed to limit immune cell recruitment in EGC- segments. Histologic evidence of gut injury was diminished with VNS application in EGC+ segments, whereas EGC- segments showed features of more severe injury. Intestinal permeability increased following I/R injury in both EGC+ and EGC- segments. Permeability was significantly lower after VNS application compared with injury alone in EGC+ segments only (95.1 ± 30.0 vs. 217.6 ± 21.7 μg/ml, P < 0.05). Therefore, EGC ablation uncouples the protective effects of VNS, suggesting that vagal-mediated signals are translated to effector cells through EGCs.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Intestinal inflammation is initiated by local immune cell activation and epithelial barrier breakdown, resulting in the production of proinflammatory mediators with subsequent leukocyte recruitment. Vagal nerve stimulation (VNS) has been shown to limit intestinal inflammation following injury; however, direct connection between vagal terminals and resident intestinal immune cells has yet to be identified. Here, we demonstrate that intact enteric glia cells are required to transmit the gut anti-inflammatory effects of VNS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simone Langness
- Division of Trauma, Surgical Critical Care, Burns, and Acute Care Surgery, Department of Surgery, University of California, San Diego Health Sciences, San Diego, California
| | - Mitsuaki Kojima
- Division of Trauma, Surgical Critical Care, Burns, and Acute Care Surgery, Department of Surgery, University of California, San Diego Health Sciences, San Diego, California
| | - Raul Coimbra
- Division of Trauma, Surgical Critical Care, Burns, and Acute Care Surgery, Department of Surgery, University of California, San Diego Health Sciences, San Diego, California
| | - Brian P Eliceiri
- Division of Trauma, Surgical Critical Care, Burns, and Acute Care Surgery, Department of Surgery, University of California, San Diego Health Sciences, San Diego, California
| | - Todd W Costantini
- Division of Trauma, Surgical Critical Care, Burns, and Acute Care Surgery, Department of Surgery, University of California, San Diego Health Sciences, San Diego, California
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Grubišić V, Gulbransen BD. Enteric glia: the most alimentary of all glia. J Physiol 2017; 595:557-570. [PMID: 27106597 PMCID: PMC5233670 DOI: 10.1113/jp271021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 123] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2015] [Accepted: 01/06/2016] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Glia (from Greek γλοία meaning 'glue') pertains to non-neuronal cells in the central (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS) that nourish neurons and maintain homeostasis. In addition, glia are now increasingly appreciated as active regulators of numerous physiological processes initially considered exclusively under neuronal regulation. For instance, enteric glia, a collection of glial cells residing within the walls of the intestinal tract, regulate intestinal motility, a well-characterized reflex controlled by enteric neurons. Enteric glia also interact with various non-neuronal cell types in the gut wall such as enterocytes, enteroendocrine and immune cells and are therefore emerging as important local regulators of diverse gut functions. The intricate molecular mechanisms that govern glia-mediated regulation are beginning to be discovered, but much remains unknown about the functions of enteric glia in health and disease. Here we present a current view of the enteric glia and their regulatory roles in gastrointestinal (GI) (patho)physiology; from GI motility and epithelial barrier function to enteric neuroinflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vladimir Grubišić
- Neuroscience Program, Department of PhysiologyMichigan State University567 Wilson RoadEast LansingMI48824USA
| | - Brian D. Gulbransen
- Neuroscience Program, Department of PhysiologyMichigan State University567 Wilson RoadEast LansingMI48824USA
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44
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Burgueño JF, Barba A, Eyre E, Romero C, Neunlist M, Fernández E. TLR2 and TLR9 modulate enteric nervous system inflammatory responses to lipopolysaccharide. J Neuroinflammation 2016; 13:187. [PMID: 27538577 PMCID: PMC4990868 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-016-0653-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2015] [Accepted: 07/05/2016] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Accumulating evidence suggest that the enteric nervous system (ENS) plays important roles in gastrointestinal inflammatory responses, which could be in part mediated by Toll-like receptor (TLR) activation. The aim of this study was to characterise the expression and functionality of TLR2/4/9 in the ENS. METHODS TLR2/4/9 expression was assessed in the plexuses of adult rats and embryonic ENS cultures by immunofluorescence and quantitative PCR. Following stimulation with TLR2/4/9 ligands or their combinations, activation of NF-kB, production of TNF-α, IL-6 and MCP-1 and chemoattraction of RAW264.7 macrophages were evaluated by means of Western blot, ELISA, immunofluorescence and migration assays in transwell inserts. RESULTS TLR2/4/9 staining colocalised with enteric neuronal markers, whereas their presence in enteroglial processes was low to inexistent. Stimulation of ENS cultures with selective ligands induced NF-kB activation and release of cytokines and chemokines by neurons and resident immunocytes. TLR2 neutralisation before lipopolysaccharide (LPS) challenge reduced production of inflammatory mediators, whereas combination of TLR2/4 ligands promoted macrophage migration. Combined stimulation of cultures with LPS and the CpG oligonucleotide 1826 (TLR4/9 ligands) caused a synergic increase in chemoattraction and cytokine production. CONCLUSIONS Our results suggest that the ENS, and particularly enteric neurons, can integrate a variety of microbial signals and respond in a relatively selective fashion, depending on the particular TLRs stimulated. These findings additionally suggest that the ENS is capable of initiating a defensive response against pathogens and expanding inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joan F Burgueño
- Department of Cell Biology, Physiology and Immunology, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Barcelona, 08193, Spain
| | - Albert Barba
- Department of Cell Biology, Physiology and Immunology, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Barcelona, 08193, Spain
| | - Elena Eyre
- Department of Cell Biology, Physiology and Immunology, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Barcelona, 08193, Spain
| | - Carolina Romero
- Department of Cell Biology, Physiology and Immunology, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Barcelona, 08193, Spain
| | | | - Ester Fernández
- Department of Cell Biology, Physiology and Immunology, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Barcelona, 08193, Spain.
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Corbillé AG, Clairembault T, Coron E, Leclair-Visonneau L, Preterre C, Neunlist M, Derkinderen P. What a gastrointestinal biopsy can tell us about Parkinson's disease? Neurogastroenterol Motil 2016; 28:966-74. [PMID: 26914487 DOI: 10.1111/nmo.12797] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2015] [Accepted: 01/18/2016] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The intraneuronal inclusions called Lewy bodies and neurites, which represent the characteristic pathological changes in Parkinson's disease, are found in the enteric neurons in the great majority of parkinsonian patients. This observation led to a substantial amount of research over the last few years in order to develop a minimally invasive diagnostic procedure in living patients based on gastrointestinal (GI) biopsies. PURPOSE In this review, we will begin by discussing the studies that focused on the detection of Lewy bodies and neurites in GI biopsies, then broaden the discussion to the pathological changes that also occur in the enteric glial cells and intestinal epithelial cells. We conclude by proposing that a GI biopsy could represent a unique window to assess the whole pathological process of the brain in Parkinson's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- A-G Corbillé
- Inserm, U913, Nantes, France.,Nantes University, Nantes, France.,Department of Neurology, CHU Nantes, Nantes, France
| | - T Clairembault
- Inserm, U913, Nantes, France.,Nantes University, Nantes, France
| | - E Coron
- Inserm, U913, Nantes, France.,Nantes University, Nantes, France.,Institut des Maladies de l'Appareil Digestif, CHU Nantes, Nantes, France
| | | | - C Preterre
- Inserm, U913, Nantes, France.,Department of Neurology, CHU Nantes, Nantes, France
| | - M Neunlist
- Inserm, U913, Nantes, France.,Nantes University, Nantes, France.,Institut des Maladies de l'Appareil Digestif, CHU Nantes, Nantes, France
| | - P Derkinderen
- Inserm, U913, Nantes, France.,Nantes University, Nantes, France.,Department of Neurology, CHU Nantes, Nantes, France
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Rosenbaum C, Schick MA, Wollborn J, Heider A, Scholz CJ, Cecil A, Niesler B, Hirrlinger J, Walles H, Metzger M. Activation of Myenteric Glia during Acute Inflammation In Vitro and In Vivo. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0151335. [PMID: 26964064 PMCID: PMC4786261 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0151335] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2015] [Accepted: 02/26/2016] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Enteric glial cells (EGCs) are the main constituent of the enteric nervous system and share similarities with astrocytes from the central nervous system including their reactivity to an inflammatory microenvironment. Previous studies on EGC pathophysiology have specifically focused on mucosal glia activation and its contribution to mucosal inflammatory processes observed in the gut of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) patients. In contrast knowledge is scarce on intestinal inflammation not locally restricted to the mucosa but systemically affecting the intestine and its effect on the overall EGC network. Methods and Results In this study, we analyzed the biological effects of a systemic LPS-induced hyperinflammatory insult on overall EGCs in a rat model in vivo, mimicking the clinical situation of systemic inflammation response syndrome (SIRS). Tissues from small and large intestine were removed 4 hours after systemic LPS-injection and analyzed on transcript and protein level. Laser capture microdissection was performed to study plexus-specific gene expression alterations. Upon systemic LPS-injection in vivo we observed a rapid and dramatic activation of Glial Fibrillary Acidic Protein (GFAP)-expressing glia on mRNA level, locally restricted to the myenteric plexus. To study the specific role of the GFAP subpopulation, we established flow cytometry-purified primary glial cell cultures from GFAP promotor-driven EGFP reporter mice. After LPS stimulation, we analyzed cytokine secretion and global gene expression profiles, which were finally implemented in a bioinformatic comparative transcriptome analysis. Enriched GFAP+ glial cells cultured as gliospheres secreted increased levels of prominent inflammatory cytokines upon LPS stimulation. Additionally, a shift in myenteric glial gene expression profile was induced that predominantly affected genes associated with immune response. Conclusion and Significance Our findings identify the myenteric GFAP-expressing glial subpopulation as particularly susceptible and responsive to acute systemic inflammation of the gut wall and complement knowledge on glial involvement in mucosal inflammation of the intestine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Corinna Rosenbaum
- Department of Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine (TERM), University Hospital Wuerzburg, Wuerzburg, Germany
| | | | - Jakob Wollborn
- Department of Anaesthesia and Critical Care, University of Wuerzburg, Wuerzburg Germany
- Department of Anesthesiology and Intensive Care Medicine, University Medical Center Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Andreas Heider
- Translational Centre for Regenerative Medicine, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Claus-Jürgen Scholz
- Interdisciplinary Centre for Clinical Research (IZKF), University Hospital Wuerzburg, Wuerzburg, Germany
| | - Alexander Cecil
- Department of Bioinformatics, University of Wuerzburg, Wuerzburg, Germany
| | - Beate Niesler
- Department of Human Molecular Genetics and nCounter Core Facility, Institute of Human Genetics, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Johannes Hirrlinger
- Carl-Ludwig-Institute for Physiology, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
- Department of Neurogenetics, Max-Planck-Institute for Experimental Medicine, Goettingen, Germany
| | - Heike Walles
- Department of Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine (TERM), University Hospital Wuerzburg, Wuerzburg, Germany
- Translational Center ‘Regenerative Therapies for Oncology and Musculoskeletal Diseases’ (TZKME), Branch of the Fraunhofer Institute Interfacial Engineering and Biotechnology (IGB), Wuerzburg, Germany
| | - Marco Metzger
- Department of Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine (TERM), University Hospital Wuerzburg, Wuerzburg, Germany
- Translational Center ‘Regenerative Therapies for Oncology and Musculoskeletal Diseases’ (TZKME), Branch of the Fraunhofer Institute Interfacial Engineering and Biotechnology (IGB), Wuerzburg, Germany
- * E-mail:
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MacEachern SJ, Patel BA, Keenan CM, Dicay M, Chapman K, McCafferty DM, Savidge TC, Beck PL, MacNaughton WK, Sharkey KA. Inhibiting Inducible Nitric Oxide Synthase in Enteric Glia Restores Electrogenic Ion Transport in Mice With Colitis. Gastroenterology 2015; 149:445-55.e3. [PMID: 25865048 PMCID: PMC4516675 DOI: 10.1053/j.gastro.2015.04.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2014] [Revised: 03/06/2015] [Accepted: 04/06/2015] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND & AIMS Disturbances in the control of ion transport lead to epithelial barrier dysfunction in patients with colitis. Enteric glia regulate intestinal barrier function and colonic ion transport. However, it is not clear whether enteric glia are involved in epithelial hyporesponsiveness. We investigated enteric glial regulation of ion transport in mice with trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid- or dextran sodium sulfate-induced colitis and in Il10(-/-) mice. METHODS Electrically evoked ion transport was measured in full-thickness segments of colon from CD1 and Il10(-/-) mice with or without colitis in Ussing chambers. Nitric oxide (NO) production was assessed using amperometry. Bacterial translocation was investigated in the liver, spleen, and blood of mice. RESULTS Electrical stimulation of the colon evoked a tetrodotoxin-sensitive chloride secretion. In mice with colitis, ion transport almost completely disappeared. Inhibiting inducible NO synthase (NOS2), but not neuronal NOS (NOS1), partially restored the evoked secretory response. Blocking glial function with fluoroacetate, which is not a NOS2 inhibitor, also partially restored ion transport. Combined NOS2 inhibition and fluoroacetate administration fully restored secretion. Epithelial responsiveness to vasoactive intestinal peptide was increased after enteric glial function was blocked in mice with colitis. In colons of mice without colitis, NO was produced in the myenteric plexus almost completely via NOS1. NO production was increased in mice with colitis, compared with mice without colitis; a substantial proportion of NOS2 was blocked by fluoroacetate administration. Inhibition of enteric glial function in vivo reduced the severity of trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid-induced colitis and associated bacterial translocation. CONCLUSIONS Increased production of NOS2 in enteric glia contributes to the dysregulation of intestinal ion transport in mice with colitis. Blocking enteric glial function in these mice restores epithelial barrier function and reduces bacterial translocation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah J. MacEachern
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada.,Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada.,Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Bhavik A. Patel
- School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular Sciences, University of Brighton, Huxley Building, Brighton, UK
| | - Catherine M. Keenan
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada.,Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada.,Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Michael Dicay
- Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada.,Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Kevin Chapman
- Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada.,Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Donna-Marie McCafferty
- Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada.,Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Tor C. Savidge
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Paul L. Beck
- Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada.,Department of Medicine, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Wallace K. MacNaughton
- Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada.,Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Keith A. Sharkey
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada.,Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada.,Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
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48
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Grundmann D, Klotz M, Rabe H, Glanemann M, Schäfer KH. Isolation of high-purity myenteric plexus from adult human and mouse gastrointestinal tract. Sci Rep 2015; 5:9226. [PMID: 25791532 DOI: 10.1038/srep09226] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2014] [Accepted: 02/11/2015] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
The enteric nervous system (ENS) orchestrates a broad range of important gastrointestinal functions such as intestinal motility and gastric secretion. The ENS can be affected by environmental factors, diet and disease. Changes due to these alterations are often hard to evaluate in detail when whole gut samples are used. Analyses based on pure ENS tissue can more effectively reflect the ongoing changes during pathological processes. Here, we present an optimized approach for the isolation of pure myenteric plexus (MP) from adult mouse and human. To do so, muscle tissue was individually digested with a purified collagenase. After incubation and a gentle mechanical disruption step, MP networks could be collected with anatomical integrity. These tissues could be stored and used either for immediate genomic, proteomic or in vitro approaches, and enteric neurospheres could be generated and differentiated. In a pilot experiment, the influence of bacterial lipopolysaccharide on human MP was analyzed using 2-dimensional gel electrophoresis. The method also allows investigation of factors that are secreted by myenteric tissue in vitro. The isolation of pure MP in large amounts allows new analytical approaches that can provide a new perspective in evaluating changes of the ENS in experimental models, human disease and aging.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Grundmann
- ENS Group, University of Applied Sciences Kaiserslautern/Zweibrücken, Germany
| | - Markus Klotz
- ENS Group, University of Applied Sciences Kaiserslautern/Zweibrücken, Germany
| | - Holger Rabe
- ENS Group, University of Applied Sciences Kaiserslautern/Zweibrücken, Germany
| | - Matthias Glanemann
- Department of General, Visceral, Vascular and Pediatric Surgery, Medical Faculty of the University of Saarland, Homburg/Saar, Germany
| | - Karl-Herbert Schäfer
- 1] ENS Group, University of Applied Sciences Kaiserslautern/Zweibrücken, Germany [2] University of Heidelberg, Paediatric Surgery Mannheim, Germany
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49
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Coquenlorge S, Duchalais E, Chevalier J, Cossais F, Rolli-Derkinderen M, Neunlist M. Modulation of lipopolysaccharide-induced neuronal response by activation of the enteric nervous system. J Neuroinflammation 2014; 11:202. [PMID: 25497784 PMCID: PMC4279994 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-014-0202-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2014] [Accepted: 11/14/2014] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Evidence continues to mount concerning the importance of the enteric nervous system (ENS) in controlling numerous intestinal functions in addition to motility and epithelial functions. Nevertheless, little is known concerning the direct participation of the ENS in the inflammatory response of the gut during infectious or inflammatory insults. In the present study we analyzed the ENS response to bacterial lipopolysaccharide, in particular the production of a major proinflammatory cytokine, tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α). METHODS TNF-α expression (measured by qPCR, quantitative Polymerase Chain Reaction) and production (measured by ELISA) were measured in human longitudinal muscle-myenteric plexus (LMMP) and rat ENS primary cultures (rENSpc). They were either treated or not treated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in the presence or not of electrical field stimulation (EFS). Activation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) and 5'-adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK) pathways was analyzed by immunocytochemistry and Western blot analysis. Their implications were studied using specific inhibitors (U0126, mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase, MEK, inhibitor and C compound, AMPK inhibitor). We also analyzed toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2) expression and interleukin-6 (IL-6) production after LPS treatment simultaneously with EFS or TNF-α-neutralizing antibody. RESULTS Treatment of human LMMP or rENSpc with LPS induced an increase in TNF-α production. Activation of the ENS by EFS significantly inhibited TNF-α production. This regulation occurred at the transcriptional level. Signaling analyses showed that LPS induced activation of ERK but not AMPK, which was constitutively activated in rENSpc neurons. Both U0126 and C compound almost completely prevented LPS-induced TNF-α production. In the presence of LPS, EFS inhibited the ERK and AMPK pathways. In addition, we demonstrated using TNF-α-neutralizing antibody that LPS-induced TNF-α production increased TLR2 expression and reduced IL-6 production. CONCLUSIONS Our results show that LPS induced TNF-α production by enteric neurons through activation of the canonical ERK pathway and also in an AMPK-dependent manner. ENS activation through the inhibition of these pathways decreased TNF-α production, thereby modulating the inflammatory response induced by endotoxin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabrina Coquenlorge
- Neuropathies of the enteric nervous system and digestive diseases, INSERM UMR913, School of Medicine, University of Nantes, 1, rue Gaston Veil, Nantes, F-44035, France. .,University of Nantes, 1 quai de Tourville, BP 13522, Nantes, Cedex 1, F-44035, France. .,Institut des Maladies de l'Appareil Digestif, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire, Nantes, Hopital Hôtel-Dieu, 1 place Alexis Ricordeau, Nantes, F-44093, France. .,Centre de Recherche en Nutrition Humaine, Hopital Hôtel-Dieu, 1 place Alexis Ricordeau, Nantes, F-44093, France.
| | - Emilie Duchalais
- Neuropathies of the enteric nervous system and digestive diseases, INSERM UMR913, School of Medicine, University of Nantes, 1, rue Gaston Veil, Nantes, F-44035, France. .,University of Nantes, 1 quai de Tourville, BP 13522, Nantes, Cedex 1, F-44035, France. .,Institut des Maladies de l'Appareil Digestif, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire, Nantes, Hopital Hôtel-Dieu, 1 place Alexis Ricordeau, Nantes, F-44093, France. .,Centre de Recherche en Nutrition Humaine, Hopital Hôtel-Dieu, 1 place Alexis Ricordeau, Nantes, F-44093, France.
| | - Julien Chevalier
- Neuropathies of the enteric nervous system and digestive diseases, INSERM UMR913, School of Medicine, University of Nantes, 1, rue Gaston Veil, Nantes, F-44035, France. .,University of Nantes, 1 quai de Tourville, BP 13522, Nantes, Cedex 1, F-44035, France. .,Institut des Maladies de l'Appareil Digestif, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire, Nantes, Hopital Hôtel-Dieu, 1 place Alexis Ricordeau, Nantes, F-44093, France. .,Centre de Recherche en Nutrition Humaine, Hopital Hôtel-Dieu, 1 place Alexis Ricordeau, Nantes, F-44093, France.
| | - Francois Cossais
- Neuropathies of the enteric nervous system and digestive diseases, INSERM UMR913, School of Medicine, University of Nantes, 1, rue Gaston Veil, Nantes, F-44035, France. .,University of Nantes, 1 quai de Tourville, BP 13522, Nantes, Cedex 1, F-44035, France. .,Institut des Maladies de l'Appareil Digestif, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire, Nantes, Hopital Hôtel-Dieu, 1 place Alexis Ricordeau, Nantes, F-44093, France. .,Centre de Recherche en Nutrition Humaine, Hopital Hôtel-Dieu, 1 place Alexis Ricordeau, Nantes, F-44093, France.
| | - Malvyne Rolli-Derkinderen
- Neuropathies of the enteric nervous system and digestive diseases, INSERM UMR913, School of Medicine, University of Nantes, 1, rue Gaston Veil, Nantes, F-44035, France. .,University of Nantes, 1 quai de Tourville, BP 13522, Nantes, Cedex 1, F-44035, France. .,Institut des Maladies de l'Appareil Digestif, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire, Nantes, Hopital Hôtel-Dieu, 1 place Alexis Ricordeau, Nantes, F-44093, France. .,Centre de Recherche en Nutrition Humaine, Hopital Hôtel-Dieu, 1 place Alexis Ricordeau, Nantes, F-44093, France.
| | - Michel Neunlist
- Neuropathies of the enteric nervous system and digestive diseases, INSERM UMR913, School of Medicine, University of Nantes, 1, rue Gaston Veil, Nantes, F-44035, France. .,University of Nantes, 1 quai de Tourville, BP 13522, Nantes, Cedex 1, F-44035, France. .,Institut des Maladies de l'Appareil Digestif, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire, Nantes, Hopital Hôtel-Dieu, 1 place Alexis Ricordeau, Nantes, F-44093, France. .,Centre de Recherche en Nutrition Humaine, Hopital Hôtel-Dieu, 1 place Alexis Ricordeau, Nantes, F-44093, France.
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50
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Neunlist M, Rolli-Derkinderen M, Latorre R, Van Landeghem L, Coron E, Derkinderen P, De Giorgio R. Enteric glial cells: recent developments and future directions. Gastroenterology 2014; 147:1230-7. [PMID: 25305504 DOI: 10.1053/j.gastro.2014.09.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 125] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2014] [Revised: 09/11/2014] [Accepted: 09/12/2014] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Since their discovery at the end of the 19th century, enteric glial cells (EGCs), the major cellular component of the enteric nervous system, have long been considered mere supportive cells for neurons. However, recent evidence has challenged this view and highlighted their central role in the regulation of gut homeostasis as well as their implication in digestive and extradigestive diseases. In this review, we summarize emerging concepts as to how EGCs regulate neuromediator expression, exert neuroprotective roles, and even act as neuronal as well as glial progenitors in the enteric nervous system. A particularly crucial property of EGCs is their ability to maintain the integrity of the intestinal epithelial barrier, a role that may have important clinical implications not only for digestive diseases, such as postoperative ileus and inflammatory bowel diseases, but also for extradigestive diseases, such as Parkinson disease or obesity. EGCs could also contribute directly to disease processes (eg, inflammation) by their ability to secrete chemokines/cytokines in response to bacterial or inflammatory challenges. Defining the pleiotropic roles exerted by EGCs may reveal better knowledge and help develop new targeted therapeutic options for a variety of gastrointestinal diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michel Neunlist
- INSERM Unité 913, Nantes, France; Université Nantes, Nantes, France; CHU Nantes, Hôtel Dieu, Institut des Maladies de l'Appareil Digestif, Nantes, France.
| | - Malvyne Rolli-Derkinderen
- INSERM Unité 913, Nantes, France; Université Nantes, Nantes, France; CHU Nantes, Hôtel Dieu, Institut des Maladies de l'Appareil Digestif, Nantes, France
| | - Rocco Latorre
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Laurianne Van Landeghem
- INSERM Unité 913, Nantes, France; Université Nantes, Nantes, France; CHU Nantes, Hôtel Dieu, Institut des Maladies de l'Appareil Digestif, Nantes, France
| | - Emmanuel Coron
- INSERM Unité 913, Nantes, France; Université Nantes, Nantes, France; CHU Nantes, Hôtel Dieu, Institut des Maladies de l'Appareil Digestif, Nantes, France
| | - Pascal Derkinderen
- INSERM Unité 913, Nantes, France; Université Nantes, Nantes, France; CHU Nantes, Hôtel Dieu, Institut des Maladies de l'Appareil Digestif, Nantes, France; Department of Neurology, CHU Nantes, Nantes, France
| | - Roberto De Giorgio
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
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