Combined myofibrillar and mitochondrial creatine kinase deficiency impairs mouse diaphragm isotonic function

Sex differences in murine sternohyoid muscle tolerance of acute severe hypoxic stress

Given that sex differences inherent to muscle might at least contribute to male risk for obstructive sleep apnoea syndrome (OSAS), our objective was to test the hypothesis that male sternohyoid muscle exhibits greater susceptibility to severe hypoxic stress compared with female muscle. Adult male and female C57Bl6/J mouse sternohyoid isometric and isotonic functional properties were examined ex vivo at 35 °C in tissue baths under control and severe hypoxic conditions. Hypoxia was detrimental to peak force (Fmax), work (Wmax) and power (Pmax), but not shortening velocity (Vmax). Two-way analysis of variance revealed a significant sex x gas interaction for Fmax (p<0.05), revealing inferior hypoxic tolerance in male sternohyoid muscle. However, increases in male shortening velocity in severe hypoxia preserved power-generating capacity which was equivalent to values determined in female muscle. Fmax decline in hypoxic female sternohyoid was considerably less than in male muscle, illustrating an inherent tolerance of force-generating capacity mechanisms to hypoxic stress in female airway dilator muscle. We speculate that this could confer a distinct advantage in vivo in terms of the defense of upper airway caliber.

Chronic sustained hypoxia-induced redox remodeling causes contractile dysfunction in mouse sternohyoid muscle

Chronic sustained hypoxia (CH) induces structural and functional adaptations in respiratory muscles of animal models, however the underlying molecular mechanisms are unclear. This study explores the putative role of CH-induced redox remodeling in a translational mouse model, with a focus on the sternohyoid—a representative upper airway dilator muscle involved in the control of pharyngeal airway caliber. We hypothesized that exposure to CH induces redox disturbance in mouse sternohyoid muscle in a time-dependent manner affecting metabolic capacity and contractile performance. C57Bl6/J mice were exposed to normoxia or normobaric CH (FiO₂ = 0.1) for 1, 3, or 6 weeks. A second cohort of animals was exposed to CH for 6 weeks with and without antioxidant supplementation (tempol or N-acetyl cysteine in the drinking water). Following CH exposure, we performed 2D redox proteomics with mass spectrometry, metabolic enzyme activity assays, and cell-signaling assays. Additionally, we assessed isotonic contractile and endurance properties ex vivo. Temporal changes in protein oxidation and glycolytic enzyme activities were observed. Redox modulation of sternohyoid muscle proteins key to contraction, metabolism and cellular homeostasis was identified. There was no change in redox-sensitive proteasome activity or HIF-1α content, but CH decreased phospho-JNK content independent of antioxidant supplementation. CH was detrimental to sternohyoid force- and power-generating capacity and this was prevented by chronic antioxidant supplementation. We conclude that CH causes upper airway dilator muscle dysfunction due to redox modulation of proteins key to function and homeostasis. Such changes could serve to further disrupt respiratory homeostasis in diseases characterized by CH such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Antioxidants may have potential use as an adjunctive therapy in hypoxic respiratory disease.

Exhaustive exercise--a near death experience for skeletal muscle cells?

In sports medicine, muscle enzymes in the blood are frequently used as an indicator of muscle damage. It is commonly assumed that mechanical stress disrupts plasma membrane to an extent that allows large molecules, such as enzymes, to leak into the extracellular space. However, this does not appear to fully explain changes in muscle enzyme activity in the blood after exercise. Apart from this mechanically induced membrane damage, we hypothesize that, under critical metabolic conditions, ATP consuming enzymes like creatine kinase (CK) are "volitionally" expulsed by muscle cells in order to prevent cell death. This would put themselves into a situation comparable to that of CK deficient muscle fibers, which have been shown in animal experiments to be virtually infatigable at the expense of muscle strength. Additionally we expand on this hypothesis with the idea that membrane blebbing is a way for the muscle fibers to store CK in fringe areas of the muscle fiber or to expulse CK from the cytosol by detaching the blebs from the plasma membrane. The blebbing has been shown to occur in heart muscle cells under ischaemic conditions and has been speculated to be an alternative pathway for the expulsion of troponin. The blebbing has also been seen skeletal muscle cells when intracellular calcium concentration increases. Cytoskeletal damage, induced by reactive oxygen species (ROS) or by calcium activated proteases in concert with increasing intracellular pressure, seems to provoke this type of membrane reaction. If these hypotheses are confirmed by future investigations, our current understanding of CK as a blood muscle damage marker will be fundamentally affected.

Monocarboxylate transporters and mitochondrial creatine kinase protein content in McArdle disease

McArdle disease (MD) is a metabolic myopathy due to myophosphorylase deficiency. We examined monocarboxylate transporters (MCT) and creatine kinase (CK) protein content in skeletal muscle from MD patients and age-matched controls to evaluate potential cellular adaptations that compensate for the loss of glycogenolysis. Our findings of higher MCT1 and mitochondrial CK suggest that proteins related to extra-muscular fuel uptake and intra-muscular energy transduction are up-regulated without change in mitochondrial mass in MD patients.

The Effects of K(+) Channel Blockade on Eccentric and Isotonic Twitch and Fatiguing Contractions in situ

K(+) channel blockers like 3,4-diaminopyridine (DAP) can double isometric muscle force. Functional movements require more complex concentric and eccentric contractions, however the effects of K(+) channel blockade on these types of contractions in situ are unknown. Extensor digitorum longus (EDL) muscles were stimulated in situ with and without DAP in anesthetized rats and fatigability was addressed using a series of either concentric or eccentric contractions. During isotonic protocols (5-100% load), DAP significantly shifted shortening- and maximum shortening velocity-load curves upward and to the right and increased power and work. Maximum shortening, maximum shortening velocity, and power doubled while work increased by ∼250% during isotonic contraction at 50% load. During isotonic fatigue, DAP significantly augmented maximum shortening, work, shortening velocity, and power. During constant velocity eccentric protocols (2-12 mm/s), DAP increased muscle force during eccentric contractions at 6, 8, 10, and 12 mm/s. During eccentric contraction at a constant velocity of 6 mm/s while varying the stimulation frequency, DAP significantly increased muscle force during 20, 40, and 70 Hz. The effects of DAP on muscle contractile performance during eccentric fatigue varied with level of fatigue. DAP-induced contractile increases during isotonic contractions were similar to those produced during previously studied isometric contractions, while the DAP effect during eccentric contractions was more modest. These findings are especially important in attempting to optimize functional electrical stimulation parameters for spinal cord injury patients while also preventing rapid fatigue of those muscles.

Improvement of diaphragm and limb muscle isotonic contractile performance by K+ channel blockade

The K⁺ channel blocking aminopyridines greatly improve skeletal muscle isometric contractile performance during low to intermediate stimulation frequencies, making them potentially useful as inotropic agents for functional neuromuscular stimulation applications. Most restorative applications involve muscle shortening; however, previous studies on the effects of aminopyridines have involved muscle being held at constant length. Isotonic contractions differ substantially from isometric contractions at a cellular level with regards to factors such as cross-bridge formation and energetic requirements. The present study tested effects of 3,4-diaminopyridine (DAP) on isotonic contractile performance of diaphragm, extensor digitorum longus (EDL) and soleus muscles from rats. During contractions elicited during 20 Hz stimulation, DAP improved work over a range of loads for all three muscles. In contrast, peak power was augmented for the diaphragm and EDL but not the soleus. Maintenance of increased work and peak power was tested during repetitive fatigue-inducing stimulation using a single load of 40% and a stimulation frequency of 20 Hz. Work and peak power of both diaphragm and EDL were augmented by DAP for considerable periods of time, whereas that of soleus muscle was not affected significantly. These results demonstrate that DAP greatly improves both work and peak power of the diaphragm and EDL muscle during isotonic contractions, which combined with previous data on isometric contractions indicates that this agent is suitable for enhancing muscle performance during a range of contractile modalities.

Isotonic fatigue in laminin alpha2-deficient dy/dy dystrophic mouse diaphragm

Laminin alpha2 deficiency causes approximately 50% of human congenital muscular dystrophies. Muscle in the corresponding dy/dy mouse model has reduced force but increased fatigue resistance during isometric contractions. To determine whether a similar pattern of alterations is present during isotonic contractions, dy/dy diaphragm was studied in vitro. During 20% load, dystrophic diaphragm had significantly reduced shortening, shortening velocity, work and power deficits, which persisted during the fatigue-inducing stimulation. In contrast, during 40% load, isotonic contractile performance of diseased muscle was impaired only mildly and only for some contractile parameters. At both loads, rate of isotonic fatigue when expressed relative to initial contractile values was similar for dystrophic and normal muscle, or in some instances slightly higher for dystrophic muscle. Therefore, fatigue resistance is considerably impaired during isotonic contractions relative to that reported previously for isometric contractions. This has important implications for increased susceptibility to respiratory failure in laminin alpha2-deficient muscular dystrophy.

Isotonic contractile impairment due to genetic CLC-1 chloride channel deficiency in myotonic mouse diaphragm muscle

The hallmark of genetic CLC-1 chloride channel deficiency in myotonic humans, goats and mice is delayed muscle relaxation resulting from persistent electrical discharges. In addition to the ion channel defect, muscles from myotonic humans and mice also have major changes in fibre type and myosin isoform composition, but the extent to which this affects isometric contractions remains controversial. Many muscles, including the diaphragm, shorten considerably during normal activities, but shortening contractions have never been assessed in myotonic muscle. The present study tested the hypothesis that CLC-1 deficiency leads to an impairment of muscle isotonic contractile performance. This was tested in vitro on diaphragm muscle from SWR/J-Clcn1(adr-mto)/J myotonic mice. The CLC-1-deficient muscle demonstrated delayed relaxation, as expected. During the contractile phase, there were significant reductions in power and work across a number of stimulation frequencies and loads in CLC-1-deficient compared with normal muscle, the magnitude of which in many instances exceeded 50%. Reductions in shortening and velocity of shortening occurred, and were more pronounced when calculated as a function of absolute than relative load. However, the maximal unloaded shortening velocity calculated from Hill's equation was not altered significantly. The impaired isotonic contractile performance of CLC-1-deficient muscle persisted during fatigue-inducing stimulation. These data indicate that genetic CLC-1 chloride channel deficiency in mice not only produces myotonia but also substantially worsens the isotonic contractile performance of diaphragm muscle.

Glycogen turnover forms lactate during exercise

The power needs of muscle are supplied by rapid anaerobic glycogenolytic ATP generation. Lactate is built up by the mismatch between steady state energy needs and short-term power demands and the increased concentration drives the lactate shuttle. In this model, contributions to fatigue should be looked for in the flux of glucose through glycogen rather than in the concentrations of fuel.

Impaired voluntary running capacity of creatine kinase-deficient mice

The creatine kinase system (CK) is important for energy delivery in skeletal and cardiac muscles. The two main isoforms of this enzyme, cytosolic MM-CK and mitochondrial mi-CK, are expressed in a developmental and muscle-type specific manner. Mice deficient in one or both of these isoforms are viable and fertile but exhibit profound functional, metabolic and structural muscle remodelling that primarily affects fast skeletal muscles, which show an increased contribution of oxidative metabolism to contractile function. However, the consequences of these alterations in terms of physical capabilities have not yet been characterized. Consequently, we compared the voluntary exercise capacity of 9-month-old male wild-type (WT), M-CK knockout (M-CK(-/-)), and M-CK and mi-CK double knockout (CK(-/-)) mice, using cages equipped with running wheels. Exercise performance, calculated by total distance covered and by work done during the training period, was more than 10-fold lower in CK(-/-) mice than controls, with M-CK(-/-) mice exhibiting intermediate performance. Similarly, the mean distance run per activation was lower in M-CK(-/-) and even lower in CK(-/-) mice. However, the maximal running speed (V(max)) was lower only for CK(-/-) mice. This was accompanied by severe skeletal muscle mass decrease in CK(-/-) mice, with signs of histological damage that included enlarged interstitial areas, aggregations of mononuclear cells in the interstitium, heterogeneity of myofibre size and the presence of very small fibres. No overt sign of cardiac dysfunction was observed by magnetic resonance imaging during dobutamine stimulation. These results show that metabolic failure induced by CK deficiency profoundly affects the ability of mice to engage in chronic bouts of endurance running exercise and that this decrease in performance is also associated with muscle wasting.

Inverse metabolic engineering with phosphagen kinase systems improves the cellular energy state

Inverse metabolic engineering attempts to identify or construct desired phenotypes of applied interest to endow them on appropriate host organisms. A particular desirable phenotype is the ATP homeostasis exhibited by animal cells with high and variable ATP turnover through temporal and spatial energy buffering. This buffering is achieved by phosphagen kinase systems that consist of a specific kinase and its cognate phosphagen, which functions as a large pool of 'high-energy phosphates' that are used to replenish ATP during periods of high energetic demand. This review discusses recent advances and potentials of inverse metabolic engineering of cell types that do not normally contain such systems--bacteria, yeast, plants, and liver--with creatine or arginine kinase systems. Examples are discussed that illustrate how microbial metabolism can be tailored for large-scale industrial processes with imperfect mixing and how the liver can be protected from metabolic insults or stimulated for better regeneration.

Structural and functional adaptations of striated muscles to CK deficiency

In adult mammalian muscle cells, energy consuming processes are mainly localized to the sarcolemma, sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) and myofibrillar compartments, while energy production occurs within mitochondria or glycolytic complexes. Due to the restricted diffusion of adenine nucleotides near the active sites of ATPases involved in contractile activity and calcium homeostasis, there are multiple local systems that can locally rephosphorylate ADP and provide ATP. The creatine kinase (CK) system, with specific isoenzymes localized within each compartment, efficiently controls local adenylate pools and links energy production and utilization. However, mice lacking one or both of the MM-CK and mi-CK isoforms (CK-/-) are viable and develop almost normal cardiac and skeletal muscle function under the conditions of moderate workload, suggesting adaptations or other mechanisms that may ensure efficient energy transfer. While fixed CK is essentially important, other systems could also be involved as well, such as bound glycolytic enzymes or adenylate kinase. We have shown that, additionally, a direct functional interplay exists between mitochondria and sarcoplasmic reticulum, or between mitochondria and myofilaments in muscle cells, that catalyzes direct energy and signal transfer between organelles. In cardiac cells of CK-/- mice, marked cytoarchitectural modifications were observed, and direct adenine nucleotide channeling between mitochondria and organelles was very effective to rescue SR and myofilament functions. In fast skeletal muscles, increased oxidative capacity also indicates compensatory mechanisms. In mutant mice, mitochondrial capacity increases and a direct energy channeling occurs between mitochondria on one hand and ATP consuming sites on the other. However, these systems appear to be insufficient to fully compensate for the lack of CK at high workload. It can be concluded that local rephosphorylation of ADP is a crucial regulatory point in highly differentiated and organized muscle cells to ensure contractile diversity and efficiency and that the CK system is important to control energy fluxes and energy homeostasis.

Myosin cross bridges in skeletal muscles: "rower" molecular motors

Different classes of molecular motors, "rowers" and "porters," have been proposed to describe the chemomechanical transduction of energy. Rowers work in large assemblies and spend a large percentage of time detached from their lattice substrate. Porters behave in the opposite way. We calculated the number of myosin II cross bridges (CB) and the probabilities of attached and detached states in a minimal four-state model in slow (soleus) and fast (diaphragm) mouse skeletal muscles. In both muscles, we found that the probability of CB being detached was approximately 98% and the number of working CB was higher than 10(9)/mm(2). We concluded that muscular myosin II motors were classified in the category of rowers. Moreover, attachment time was higher than time stroke and time for ADP release. The duration of the transition from detached to attached states represented the rate-limiting step of the overall attached time. Thus diaphragm and soleus myosins belong to subtype 1 rowers.

Ion-dependence of Z-line and M-line response to calcium in striated muscle fibres in rigor

The calcium-dependent contraction of vertebrate skeletal muscle is thought to be primarily controlled through the interaction of the thick and thin filaments. Through measurement of the Donnan potential, we have shown that an electrical switching mechanism (sensitive to both anions and cations) is present in both A- and I-bands [1]. Here we show that this mechanism is not confined to the contractile apparatus and report for the first time the presence of M-line potentials. The Z-line responds to Ca2+ ions in a similar manner to the A-band under the same solution conditions (phosphate-chloride and imidazole buffers), even though it has no reported Ca2+ binding sites. Z-line potentials were not observed in tris-acetate buffer. The M-line has a markedly different response to any of the other subsarcomeric regions, however, and can only be detected in the phosphate-chloride buffer. Preliminary observations of the M-line potential in creatine kinase-deficient mouse muscle (phosphate-chloride buffer) reveal significant differences in the calcium-induced transitions between two of the genotypes and demonstrate definitively that it is the M-line potential that is being recorded. From these results, it seems likely that the charge response of the Z-line and M-line is being mediated by titin in an anion-dependent manner. Our evidence comes from several observations. First, the similarity between the response of the Z-line potentials to the A-band potentials, where titin is the only link between these structures and second, the differential observation of M-line and Z-line potentials in a range of buffers containing different anion(s). Both Z-line and M-line potentials were seen in phosphate-chloride buffer, but only the Z-line potentials could be detected in chloride-only (imidazole) buffer and neither was observed in the acetate buffer. The latter observations can be attributed to two sources. The first is the effect of acetate buffer on the conformation of myosin [2]; the second is the absence of binding of the M-line protein, myomesin, to titin in the absence of phosphate ions [3].

The effect of hypoxia on shortening contractions in rat diaphragm muscle

Hypoxia is known to reduce isometric contractile properties of isolated rat diaphragm bundles. Its effect on isotonic contractile properties (i.e. force-velocity relationship and power output) has not been studied. We hypothesized that hypoxia reduces velocity of shortening and consequently power output of the unfatigued muscle, and shortens endurance time during isotonic contractions. Force-velocity relationship, power output, and fatigue resistance of rat diaphragm muscle bundles were measured during hypoxia (PO2: 6.6 +/- 0.2 kPa) and compared with hyperoxia (PO2: 91.8 +/- 0.7 kPa). Force was clamped from 1 to 100% of maximal tetanic force (Po). Fatigue during isotonic contractions was induced by repeated stimulation every 2 s at a clamp level of 33% of Po. Hypoxia did not affect isometric force generation compared with hyperoxia, nor contraction or relaxation time. In contrast, maximum shortening velocity decreased significantly (hypoxia: 4.2 +/- 0.3, hyperoxia: 6.0 +/- 0.2 Lo/s, P < 0.05). The force-velocity curve shifted downwards (P < 0.05). Hypoxia lowered power output at each load compared with hyperoxia (P < 0.05). The isotonic endurance time was shorter during hypoxia compared with hyperoxia (80 +/- 2 vs. 130 +/- 3 s, P < 0.05). These data show that hypoxia depresses isotonic contractile properties and power output, and reduces endurance time during repeated isotonic contractions.

Dual influence of disease and increased load on diaphragm muscle in heart failure

We have recently shown that mitochondrial function and energy metabolism are altered in the myocardium as well as in slow and fast locomotor muscles of rats subjected to prolonged congestive heart failure (CHF) suggesting a generalized metabolic myopathy in heart failure. Here, we investigate whether the diaphragm of CHF animals, which experiences both increased work and the general systemic influence of heart failure, will also be susceptible to altered energy metabolism. Biopsies were obtained from the costal diaphragm of failing rats 8 months after aortic banding. A marked increase in type I and type IIa myosin heavy chains at the expense of types IIx and IIb, suggests an adaptation towards a slower phenotype. Glycolytic enzymes decreased in CHF diaphragm with an increase in the H:M lactate dehydrogenase isoenzyme ratio. These results suggest a reorientation of the diaphragm muscle towards a slow, fatigue-resistant phenotype. However, maximal oxidative capacity assessed in saponin-permeabilized fibers in the presence of ADP was considerably reduced in CHF diaphragm (7.7+/-0.4 v 11.8+/-0.7 micromol O2/min/g dry weight in sham P<0.001), suggesting an alteration in oxidative phosphorylation. Furthermore, ADP sensitivity of CHF mitochondria was significantly increased (apparent Km for ADP 308+/-21 v 945+/-106 microM in sham P<0.001), whereas sensitivity to ADP in the presence of creatine was comparable (Km 79+/-12 v 90+/-11 microM in sham). In heart failure, therefore, the diaphragm muscle seems to adapt towards a more slow and economical contraction as a result of increased workload, but this adaptation is limited by the disease-induced altered mitochondrial function.

The "glycogen shunt" in exercising muscle: A role for glycogen in muscle energetics and fatigue

Stimulated by recent (13)C and (31)P NMR studies of exercising muscle, we propose a model of the energetics of contraction. Previous studies of energetics have followed energy consumption. However, the rapidity of contraction, in 10-40 msec, requires that energy be delivered rapidly, so that the muscle has power requirements of rapid energy expenditure that are ultimately met by the slower averaged consumption of carbon and oxygen from blood. We propose that energy is supplied in milliseconds by glycogenolysis and that between contractions, glycogenesis refills the pools. The energy for glycogenesis is supplied by oxidative phosphorylation. This mechanism utilizes the rapid conversion of glycogen phosphorylase, the "fight-or-flight" enzyme, to its active form. Lactate is necessarily generated by this pathway to serve as a time buffer between fast and slow energy needs, which resolves the paradoxical generation of lactate in well oxygenated tissue. Consequences of the glycogen shunt are compatible with numerous biochemical and physiological experiments. The model provides a possible mechanism for muscle fatigue, suggesting that at low but nonzero glycogen concentrations, there is not enough glycogen to supply millisecond energy needs.

Creatine and creatinine metabolism

The goal of this review is to present a comprehensive survey of the many intriguing facets of creatine (Cr) and creatinine metabolism, encompassing the pathways and regulation of Cr biosynthesis and degradation, species and tissue distribution of the enzymes and metabolites involved, and of the inherent implications for physiology and human pathology. Very recently, a series of new discoveries have been made that are bound to have distinguished implications for bioenergetics, physiology, human pathology, and clinical diagnosis and that suggest that deregulation of the creatine kinase (CK) system is associated with a variety of diseases. Disturbances of the CK system have been observed in muscle, brain, cardiac, and renal diseases as well as in cancer. On the other hand, Cr and Cr analogs such as cyclocreatine were found to have antitumor, antiviral, and antidiabetic effects and to protect tissues from hypoxic, ischemic, neurodegenerative, or muscle damage. Oral Cr ingestion is used in sports as an ergogenic aid, and some data suggest that Cr and creatinine may be precursors of food mutagens and uremic toxins. These findings are discussed in depth, the interrelationships are outlined, and all is put into a broader context to provide a more detailed understanding of the biological functions of Cr and of the CK system.

Glycolysis supports calcium uptake by the sarcoplasmic reticulum in skinned ventricular fibres of mice deficient in mitochondrial and cytosolic creatine kinase

Several works have shown the importance of the creatine kinase (CK) system for cardiac energetics and Ca2+ homeostasis. Nevertheless, CK-deficient mice have cardiac function close to normal, at least under conditions of low or moderate workload. To characterize possible adaptive changes of the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) and potential role of glycolytic support in cardiac contractility we used the skinned fibre technique to study properties of the SR and myofibrils, in control and muscle-type homodimer (MM-/mitochondrial-CK)-deficient mice. In control fibres, SR Ca2+ loading with ATP and phosphocreatine (solution PL) was significantly better than loading with ATP alone (solution AL), as determined by analysis of caffeine-induced tension transients. Loading in the presence of ATP and glycolytic intermediates (solution GL) was not significantly different from solution PL. These data indicate that Ca2+ uptake by the SR in situ depends on a local ATP:ADP ratio that is controlled by both CK and glycolytic enzymes. In CK-deficient mice, Ca2+ loading was impaired in solution PL due to the absence of CK. In solution GL, loading was significantly increased, such that calculated Ca2+ release parameters were normalized to those in control fibres in solution PL. In CK-deficient mice, fibre kinetic parameters of tension recovery were impaired after quick stretch in solution PL and were not improved in solution GL. These results show that in CK-deficient mice, at least under basal conditions, glycolysis can replace the CK system in fueling the SR Ca2+ ATPase, but not the myosin ATPase, and may in part explain the limited phenotypic alterations seen in the hearts of these mice.

Is creatine kinase responsible for fatigue? Studies of isolated skeletal muscle deficient in creatine kinase

Creatine kinase (CK) is a key enzyme for maintaining a constant ATP/ADP ratio during rapid energy turnover. To investigate the role of CK in skeletal muscle fatigue, we used isolated whole muscles and intact single fibers from CK-deficient mice (CK(-/-)). With high-intensity electrical stimulation, single fibers from CK(-/-) mice displayed a transient decrease in both tetanic free myoplasmic [Ca(2+)] ([Ca(2+)](i), measured with the fluorescent dye indo-1) and force that was not observed in wild-type fibers. With less intense, repeated tetanic stimulation single fibers and EDL muscles, both of which are fast-twitch, fatigued more slowly in CK(-/-) than in wild-type mice; on the other hand, the slow-twitch soleus muscle fatigued more rapidly in CK(-/-) mice. In single wild-type fibers, tetanic force decreased and [Ca(2+)](i) increased during the first 10 fatiguing tetani, but this was not observed in CK(-/-) fibers. Fatigue was not accompanied by phosphocreatine breakdown and accumulation of inorganic phosphate in CK(-/-) muscles. In conclusion, CK is important for avoiding fatigue at the onset of high-intensity stimulation. However, during more prolonged stimulation, CK may contribute to the fatigue process by increasing the myoplasmic concentration of inorganic phosphate.

Regulation of mitochondrial respiration in heart cells analyzed by reaction-diffusion model of energy transfer

The purpose of this study is to investigate theoretically which intracellular factors may be important for regulation of mitochondrial respiration in working heart cells in vivo. We have developed a model that describes quantitatively the published experimental data on dependence of the rate of oxygen consumption and metabolic state of working isolated perfused rat heart on workload over its physiological range (Williamson JR, Ford G, Illingworth J, Safer B. Circ Res 38, Suppl I, I39-I51, 1976). Analysis of this model shows that for phosphocreatine, creatine, and ATP the equilibrium assumption is an acceptable approximation with respect to their diffusion in the intracellular bulk water phase. However, the ADP concentration changes in the contraction cycle in a nonequilibrium workload-dependent manner, showing the existence of the intracellular concentration gradients. The model shows that workload-dependent alteration of ADP concentration in the compartmentalized creatine kinase system may be taken, together with the changes in P(i) concentration, to be among the major components of the metabolic feedback signal for regulation of respiration in muscle cells.

Myofibrillar or mitochondrial creatine kinase deficiency alone does not impair mouse diaphragm isotonic function

Creatine kinase (CK) provides ATP buffering in skeletal muscle and is expressed as 1) cytosolic myofibrillar CK (M-CK) and 2) sarcomeric mitochondrial CK (ScCKmit) isoforms that differ in their subcellular localization. The diaphragm (Dia) expresses both M-CK and ScCKmit in abundance. We compared the power and work output of 1) control CK-sufficient (Ctl), 2) M-CK-deficient [M-CK(-/-)], 3) ScCKmit-deficient [ScCKmit(-/-)], and 4) combined M-CK/ScCKmit-deficient null mutant [CK(-/-)] Dia during repetitive isotonic activations to determine the effect of CK phenotype on Dia function. Maximum power was obtained at approximately 0.4 tetanic force in all groups. M-CK(-/-) and ScCKmit(-/-) Dia were able to sustain power and work output at Ctl levels during repetitive isotonic activation (75 Hz, 330-ms duration repeated each second at 0.4 tetanic force load), and the duration of sustained Dia shortening was 67 +/- 4 s in M-CK(-/-), 60 +/- 4 s in ScCKmit(-/-), and 62 +/- 5 s in Ctl Dia. In contrast, CK(-/-) Dia power and work declined acutely and failed to sustain shortening altogether by 40 +/- 6 s. We conclude that Dia power and work output are not absolutely dependent on the presence of either M-CK or ScCKmit, whereas the complete absence of CK acutely impairs Dia shortening capacity during repetitive activation.

Leptin attenuates respiratory complications associated with the obese phenotype

A profile of respiratory complications has been associated with the onset and development of obesity in humans. Similar phenotypes have been routinely demonstrated in genetic animal models of obesity such as the ob mouse (C57BL/6J-Lepob). The objective of the present study was to test the hypothesis that a constellation of respiratory complications are attenuated with leptin (i.e., protein product of the ob gene) replacement. Daily leptin administration during a 6-wk period was conducted to control body weight of mutant ob mice similar to genotypic control groups. During the treatment period, repeated baseline ventilatory measurements were assessed by using whole body plethysmography while quasistatic pressure-volume curves were performed to further explore the role of leptin in improving lung mechanics. Diaphragmatic myosin heavy chain (MHC) isoform phenotype was examined to determine proportional changes in MHC composition. In room air, breathing frequency and minute ventilation were significantly (P < 0.01) different among ob treatment groups, suggesting that leptin opposed the development of a rapid breathing pattern observed in vehicle-treated ob mice. Quasistatic deflation curves indicated that the lung volume of leptin-treated ob mice was significantly (P < 0.05) greater relative to vehicle-treated ob mice at airway pressures between 0 and 30 cmH2O. Diaphragm MHC composition of leptin-treated ob mice was restored significantly (P < 0.05) to resemble the control phenotype. In this genetic mouse model of obesity, the results suggested that respiratory complications associated with the obese phenotype, including rapid breathing pattern at baseline, diminished lung compliance, and abnormal respiratory muscle adaptations, are attenuated with prolonged leptin treatment.

Energy balance in muscle activity: simulations of ATPase coupled to oxidative phosphorylation and to creatine kinase

Energy balance refers to the dynamic homeostasis of ATP and related forms of chemical potential within cells. This regulation is accomplished mainly by oxidative metabolism in most mammals. This homeostasis matches dynamically the energy demands of cellular ATPases (net decrease in chemical potential energy) with the energy supply by mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation (net increase in chemical potential energy). Muscle cells are distinguished from most other cell types in their ability to attain energy balance with more than a 10-fold range of ATPase demand. Creatine kinase maintains a near to equilibrium flux: PCr + ADP<-->ATP + Cr. One important function of creatine kinase is to buffer ATP and ADP concentrations. A system of differential equations describe the coupled operation of cellular ATPase, creatine kinase and oxidative phosphorylation. These equations used experimentally measured concentrations of relevant metabolites and enzyme activities to simulate energy balance in muscle cells. The principle of energy balance is adequately illustrated by simulations with only a three component system.

Absence of myofibrillar creatine kinase and diaphragm isometric function during repetitive activation

Creatine kinase (CK) provides ATP buffering in skeletal muscle and is expressed as 1) cytosolic myofibrillar CK (M-CK) and 2) sarcomeric mitochondrial CK (ScCKmit) isoforms that differ in their subcellular localization. We compared the isometric contractile and fatigue properties of 1) control CK-sufficient (Ctl), 2) M-CK-deficient (M-CK[-/-]), and 3) combined M-CK/ScCKmit-deficient null mutant (CK[-/-]) diaphragm (Dia) to determine the effect of the absence of M-CK activity on Dia performance in vitro. Baseline contractile properties were comparable across groups except for specific force, which was approximately 16% lower in CK[-/-] Dia compared with M-CK[-/-] and Ctl Dia. During repetitive activation (40 Hz, (1)/(3) duty cycle), force declined in all three groups. This decline was significantly greater in CK[-/-] Dia compared with Ctl and M-CK[-/-] Dia. The pattern of force decline did not differ between M-CK[-/-] and Ctl Dia. We conclude that Dia isometric muscle function is not absolutely dependent on the presence of M-CK, whereas the complete absence of CK acutely impairs isometric force generation during repetitive activation.

Functional equivalence of creatine kinase isoforms in mouse skeletal muscle

Creatine kinase (CK) is a highly conserved enzyme abundant in skeletal muscle that has a key role in high energy phosphate metabolism. The localization of the muscle isoenzyme of CK (MM-CK) to the M line and the sarcoplasmic reticulum of myofibrils has been suggested to be important for proper force development in skeletal muscle. The importance of this subcellular compartmentation has not been directly tested in vivo. To test the role of myofibrilar localization of CK, the consequences of a complete CK isoform switch from MM-CK to the brain (BB-CK) isoform, which does not localize to the M line, was studied in transgenic mouse skeletal muscle. In MM-CK knockout mice there are large contractile defects. When MM-CK was replaced by BB-CK, the aberrant contractile phenotypes seen in MM-CK knockout mice were returned to normal despite the lack of myofibrillar localization. These results indicate that CK compartmentation to the myofibril of skeletal muscle is not essential for contractile function and that there is functional equivalence of creatine kinase isoforms in supporting cellular energy metabolism.