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Tang X, Shi J, Lin S, He Z, Cui S, Di W, Chen S, Wu J, Yuan S, Ye Q, Yang X, Shang Y, Zhang Z, Wang L, Lu L, Tang C, Xu N, Yao L. Pyramidal and parvalbumin neurons modulate the process of electroacupuncture stimulation for stroke rehabilitation. iScience 2024; 27:109695. [PMID: 38680657 PMCID: PMC11053320 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2024.109695] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2023] [Revised: 02/09/2024] [Accepted: 04/05/2024] [Indexed: 05/01/2024] Open
Abstract
Electroacupuncture (EA) stimulation has been shown to be beneficial in stroke rehabilitation; however, little is known about the neurological mechanism by which this peripheral stimulation approach treats for stroke. This study showed that both pyramidal and parvalbumin (PV) neuronal activity increased in the contralesional primary motor cortex forelimb motor area (M1FL) after ischemic stroke induced by focal unilateral occlusion in the M1FL. EA stimulation reduced pyramidal neuronal activity and increased PV neuronal activity. These results were obtained by a combination of fiber photometry recordings, in vivo and in vitro electrophysiological recordings, and immunofluorescence. Moreover, EA was found to regulate the expression/function of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors (NMDARs) altered by stroke pathology. In summary, our findings suggest that EA could restore disturbed neuronal activity through the regulation of the activity of pyramidal and PV neurons. Furthermore, NMDARs we shown to play an important role in EA-mediated improvements in sensorimotor ability during stroke rehabilitation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaorong Tang
- South China Research Center for Acupuncture and Moxibustion, Medical College of Acu-Moxi and Rehabilitation, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Jiahui Shi
- South China Research Center for Acupuncture and Moxibustion, Medical College of Acu-Moxi and Rehabilitation, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Shumin Lin
- South China Research Center for Acupuncture and Moxibustion, Medical College of Acu-Moxi and Rehabilitation, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Zhiyin He
- South China Research Center for Acupuncture and Moxibustion, Medical College of Acu-Moxi and Rehabilitation, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Shuai Cui
- Research Institute of Acupuncture and Meridian, Anhui University of Chinese Medicine, Hefei 230000, Anhui Province, China
- College of Acupuncture and Moxibustion, Anhui University of Chinese Medicine, Hefei 230000, Anhui Province, China
| | - Wenhui Di
- South China Research Center for Acupuncture and Moxibustion, Medical College of Acu-Moxi and Rehabilitation, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Siyun Chen
- South China Research Center for Acupuncture and Moxibustion, Medical College of Acu-Moxi and Rehabilitation, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Junshang Wu
- South China Research Center for Acupuncture and Moxibustion, Medical College of Acu-Moxi and Rehabilitation, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Si Yuan
- South China Research Center for Acupuncture and Moxibustion, Medical College of Acu-Moxi and Rehabilitation, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Qiuping Ye
- South China Research Center for Acupuncture and Moxibustion, Medical College of Acu-Moxi and Rehabilitation, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Xiaoyun Yang
- South China Research Center for Acupuncture and Moxibustion, Medical College of Acu-Moxi and Rehabilitation, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Ying Shang
- South China Research Center for Acupuncture and Moxibustion, Medical College of Acu-Moxi and Rehabilitation, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Zhaoxiang Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Oncogenomics, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Chemical Genomics, Peking University, Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Lin Wang
- South China Research Center for Acupuncture and Moxibustion, Medical College of Acu-Moxi and Rehabilitation, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Liming Lu
- South China Research Center for Acupuncture and Moxibustion, Medical College of Acu-Moxi and Rehabilitation, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Chunzhi Tang
- South China Research Center for Acupuncture and Moxibustion, Medical College of Acu-Moxi and Rehabilitation, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Nenggui Xu
- South China Research Center for Acupuncture and Moxibustion, Medical College of Acu-Moxi and Rehabilitation, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Lulu Yao
- South China Research Center for Acupuncture and Moxibustion, Medical College of Acu-Moxi and Rehabilitation, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou 510006, China
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Zhang XQ, Xu L, Zhu XY, Tang ZH, Dong YB, Yu ZP, Shang Q, Wang ZC, Shen HW. D-serine reconstitutes synaptic and intrinsic inhibitory control of pyramidal neurons in a neurodevelopmental mouse model for schizophrenia. Nat Commun 2023; 14:8255. [PMID: 38086803 PMCID: PMC10716516 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-43930-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2022] [Accepted: 11/24/2023] [Indexed: 12/18/2023] Open
Abstract
The hypothesis of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) dysfunction for cognitive impairment in schizophrenia constitutes the theoretical basis for the translational application of NMDAR co-agonist D-serine or its analogs. However, the cellular mechanism underlying the therapeutic effect of D-serine remains unclear. In this study, we utilize a mouse neurodevelopmental model for schizophrenia that mimics prenatal pathogenesis and exhibits hypoexcitability of parvalbumin-positive (PV) neurons, as well as PV-preferential NMDAR dysfunction. We find that D-serine restores excitation/inhibition balance by reconstituting both synaptic and intrinsic inhibitory control of cingulate pyramidal neurons through facilitating PV excitability and activating small-conductance Ca2+-activated K+ (SK) channels in pyramidal neurons, respectively. Either amplifying inhibitory drive via directly strengthening PV neuron activity or inhibiting pyramidal excitability via activating SK channels is sufficient to improve cognitive function in this model. These findings unveil a dual mechanism for how D-serine improves cognitive function in this model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao-Qin Zhang
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Ningbo University, 818 Fenghua Rd, Ningbo, Zhejiang, 315211, China
| | - Le Xu
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Ningbo University, 818 Fenghua Rd, Ningbo, Zhejiang, 315211, China
| | - Xin-Yi Zhu
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Ningbo University, 818 Fenghua Rd, Ningbo, Zhejiang, 315211, China
| | - Zi-Hang Tang
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Ningbo University, 818 Fenghua Rd, Ningbo, Zhejiang, 315211, China
| | - Yi-Bei Dong
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Ningbo University, 818 Fenghua Rd, Ningbo, Zhejiang, 315211, China
| | - Zhi-Peng Yu
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Ningbo University, 818 Fenghua Rd, Ningbo, Zhejiang, 315211, China
| | - Qing Shang
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Ningbo University, 59 Liuting Street, Haishu District, Ningbo, Zhejiang, 315211, China
| | - Zheng-Chun Wang
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Ningbo University, 818 Fenghua Rd, Ningbo, Zhejiang, 315211, China
| | - Hao-Wei Shen
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Ningbo University, 818 Fenghua Rd, Ningbo, Zhejiang, 315211, China.
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Canales A, Scheuer KS, Zhao X, Jackson MB. Unitary synaptic responses of parvalbumin interneurons evoked by excitatory neurons in the mouse barrel cortex. Cereb Cortex 2023; 33:5108-5121. [PMID: 36227216 PMCID: PMC10151880 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhac403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2022] [Revised: 09/14/2022] [Accepted: 09/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The mammalian cortex integrates and processes information to transform sensory inputs into perceptions and motor outputs. These operations are performed by networks of excitatory and inhibitory neurons distributed through the cortical layers. Parvalbumin interneurons (PVIs) are the most abundant type of inhibitory cortical neuron. With axons projecting within and between layers, PVIs supply feedforward and feedback inhibition to control and modulate circuit function. Distinct populations of excitatory neurons recruit different PVI populations, but the specializations of these synapses are poorly understood. Here, we targeted a genetically encoded hybrid voltage sensor to PVIs and used fluorescence imaging in mouse somatosensory cortex slices to record their voltage changes. Stimulating a single visually identified excitatory neuron with small-tipped theta-glass electrodes depolarized multiple PVIs, and a common threshold suggested that stimulation elicited unitary synaptic potentials in response to a single excitatory neuron. Excitatory neurons depolarized PVIs in multiple layers, with the most residing in the layer of the stimulated neuron. Spiny stellate cells depolarized PVIs more strongly than pyramidal cells by up to 77%, suggesting a greater role for stellate cells in recruiting PVI inhibition and controlling cortical computations. Response half-width also varied between different excitatory inputs. These results demonstrate functional differences between excitatory synapses on PVIs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alejandra Canales
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53705, United States
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Katherine S Scheuer
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53705, United States
| | - Xinyu Zhao
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53705, United States
| | - Meyer B Jackson
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53705, United States
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Browne LP, Crespo A, Grubb MS. Rapid presynaptic maturation in naturally regenerating axons of the adult mouse olfactory nerve. Cell Rep 2022; 41:111750. [PMID: 36476871 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2022.111750] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2022] [Revised: 09/26/2022] [Accepted: 11/08/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Successful neuronal regeneration requires the reestablishment of synaptic connectivity. This process requires the reconstitution of presynaptic neurotransmitter release, which we investigate here in a model of entirely natural regeneration. After toxin-induced injury, olfactory sensory neurons in the adult mouse olfactory epithelium can regenerate fully, sending axons via the olfactory nerve to reestablish synaptic contact with postsynaptic partners in the olfactory bulb. Using electrophysiological recordings in acute slices, we find that, after initial recontact, functional connectivity in this system is rapidly established. Reconnecting presynaptic terminals have almost mature functional properties, including high release probability and strong capacity for presynaptic inhibition. Release probability then matures quickly, rendering reestablished terminals functionally indistinguishable from controls just 1 week after initial contact. These data show that successful synaptic regeneration in the adult mammalian brain is almost a "plug-and-play" process, with presynaptic terminals undergoing a rapid phase of functional maturation as they reintegrate into target networks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lorcan P Browne
- Centre for Developmental Neurobiology, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, London SE1 1UL, UK
| | - Andres Crespo
- Centre for Developmental Neurobiology, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, London SE1 1UL, UK
| | - Matthew S Grubb
- Centre for Developmental Neurobiology, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, London SE1 1UL, UK.
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Ferrer C, De Marco García NV. The Role of Inhibitory Interneurons in Circuit Assembly and Refinement Across Sensory Cortices. Front Neural Circuits 2022; 16:866999. [PMID: 35463203 PMCID: PMC9021723 DOI: 10.3389/fncir.2022.866999] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2022] [Accepted: 03/16/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Sensory information is transduced into electrical signals in the periphery by specialized sensory organs, which relay this information to the thalamus and subsequently to cortical primary sensory areas. In the cortex, microcircuits constituted by interconnected pyramidal cells and inhibitory interneurons, distributed throughout the cortical column, form the basic processing units of sensory information underlying sensation. In the mouse, these circuits mature shortly after birth. In the first postnatal week cortical activity is characterized by highly synchronized spontaneous activity. While by the second postnatal week, spontaneous activity desynchronizes and sensory influx increases drastically upon eye opening, as well as with the onset of hearing and active whisking. This influx of sensory stimuli is fundamental for the maturation of functional properties and connectivity in neurons allocated to sensory cortices. In the subsequent developmental period, spanning the first five postnatal weeks, sensory circuits are malleable in response to sensory stimulation in the so-called critical periods. During these critical periods, which vary in timing and duration across sensory areas, perturbations in sensory experience can alter cortical connectivity, leading to long-lasting modifications in sensory processing. The recent advent of intersectional genetics, in vivo calcium imaging and single cell transcriptomics has aided the identification of circuit components in emergent networks. Multiple studies in recent years have sought a better understanding of how genetically-defined neuronal subtypes regulate circuit plasticity and maturation during development. In this review, we discuss the current literature focused on postnatal development and critical periods in the primary auditory (A1), visual (V1), and somatosensory (S1) cortices. We compare the developmental trajectory among the three sensory areas with a particular emphasis on interneuron function and the role of inhibitory circuits in cortical development and function.
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Pathway-specific contribution of parvalbumin interneuron NMDARs to synaptic currents and thalamocortical feedforward inhibition. Mol Psychiatry 2022; 27:5124-5134. [PMID: 36075962 PMCID: PMC9763122 DOI: 10.1038/s41380-022-01747-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2022] [Revised: 08/08/2022] [Accepted: 08/11/2022] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Prefrontal cortex (PFC) is a site of information convergence important for behaviors relevant to psychiatric disorders. Despite the importance of inhibitory GABAergic parvalbumin-expressing (PV+) interneurons to PFC circuit function and decades of interest in N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors (NMDARs) in these neurons, examples of defined circuit functions that depend on PV+ interneuron NMDARs have been elusive. Indeed, it remains controversial whether all PV+ interneurons contain functional NMDARs in adult PFC, which has major consequences for hypotheses of the pathogenesis of psychiatric disorders. Using a combination of fluorescent in situ hybridization, pathway-specific optogenetics, cell-type-specific gene ablation, and electrophysiological recordings from PV+ interneurons, here we resolve this controversy. We found that nearly 100% of PV+ interneurons in adult medial PFC (mPFC) express transcripts encoding GluN1 and GluN2B, and they have functional NMDARs. By optogenetically stimulating corticocortical and thalamocortical inputs to mPFC, we show that synaptic NMDAR contribution to PV+ interneuron EPSCs is pathway-specific, which likely explains earlier reports of PV+ interneurons without synaptic NMDAR currents. Lastly, we report a major contribution of NMDARs in PV+ interneurons to thalamus-mediated feedforward inhibition in adult mPFC circuits, suggesting molecular and circuit-based mechanisms for cognitive impairment under conditions of reduced NMDAR function. These findings represent an important conceptual advance that has major implications for hypotheses of the pathogenesis of psychiatric disorders.
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Development, Diversity, and Death of MGE-Derived Cortical Interneurons. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22179297. [PMID: 34502208 PMCID: PMC8430628 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22179297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2021] [Revised: 08/24/2021] [Accepted: 08/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
In the mammalian brain, cortical interneurons (INs) are a highly diverse group of cells. A key neurophysiological question concerns how each class of INs contributes to cortical circuit function and whether specific roles can be attributed to a selective cell type. To address this question, researchers are integrating knowledge derived from transcriptomic, histological, electrophysiological, developmental, and functional experiments to extensively characterise the different classes of INs. Our hope is that such knowledge permits the selective targeting of cell types for therapeutic endeavours. This review will focus on two of the main types of INs, namely the parvalbumin (PV+) or somatostatin (SOM+)-containing cells, and summarise the research to date on these classes.
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Baez A, Van Brunt T, Moody G, Wollmuth LP, Hsieh H. Voltage dependent allosteric modulation of IPSCs by benzodiazepines. Brain Res 2020; 1736:146699. [PMID: 32027866 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2020.146699] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2019] [Revised: 01/04/2020] [Accepted: 02/02/2020] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
GABAA receptors (GABAAR) are inhibitory ion channels ubiquitously expressed in the central nervous system and play critical roles in brain development and function. Benzodiazepines are positive allosteric modulators of GABAAR, enhancing channel opening frequency when GABA is bound to the receptor. Midazolam is a commonly used benzodiazepine. It is frequently used for premature infants, but the long-term consequences of its use in this patient population are not well established. Here, we studied the acute effects of midazolam on immature synapses. Using a rodent organotypic hippocampal slice preparation, we evaluated how midazolam affects inhibitory synaptic transmission onto CA1 pyramidal neurons. We found that 1 μM midazolam enhances evoked inhibitory post synaptic currents (eIPSCs) at a holding potential of -60 mV. Similarly, 1 μM midazolam enhances miniature IPSCs (mIPSCs) in CA1 pyramidal neurons at holding potentials of -60 mV and -30 mV. At depolarized holding potentials, however, midazolam no longer enhances mIPSCs. Depolarization of the postsynaptic cell by itself increases mIPSC decay, which occludes the allosteric effects of midazolam. These results provide insight into how a benzodiazepine and membrane voltage may modulate GABAAR function in developing circuits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Baez
- Medical Scientist Training Program (MSTP), Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794, USA
| | - Trevor Van Brunt
- Department of Neurobiology & Behavior, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794, USA
| | - Gabrielle Moody
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Pharmacology, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794, USA
| | - Lonnie P Wollmuth
- Department of Neurobiology & Behavior, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794, USA; Department of Biochemistry & Cell Biology, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794, USA; Center for Nervous System Disorders, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794-5230, USA
| | - Helen Hsieh
- Department of Surgery, Stony Brook Medicine, Stony Brook, NY 11794-8191, USA; Department of Pediatrics, Stony Brook Medicine, Stony Brook, NY 11794-8191, USA.
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Ribic A. Stability in the Face of Change: Lifelong Experience-Dependent Plasticity in the Sensory Cortex. Front Cell Neurosci 2020; 14:76. [PMID: 32372915 PMCID: PMC7186337 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2020.00076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2019] [Accepted: 03/17/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Plasticity is a fundamental property of the nervous system that enables its adaptations to the ever-changing environment. Heightened plasticity typical for developing circuits facilitates their robust experience-dependent functional maturation. This plasticity wanes during adolescence to permit the stabilization of mature brain function, but abundant evidence supports that adult circuits exhibit both transient and long-term experience-induced plasticity. Cortical plasticity has been extensively studied throughout the life span in sensory systems and the main distinction between development and adulthood arising from these studies is the concept that passive exposure to relevant information is sufficient to drive robust plasticity early in life, while higher-order attentional mechanisms are necessary to drive plastic changes in adults. Recent work in the primary visual and auditory cortices began to define the circuit mechanisms that govern these processes and enable continuous adaptation to the environment, with transient circuit disinhibition emerging as a common prerequisite for both developmental and adult plasticity. Drawing from studies in visual and auditory systems, this review article summarizes recent reports on the circuit and cellular mechanisms of experience-driven plasticity in the developing and adult brains and emphasizes the similarities and differences between them. The benefits of distinct plasticity mechanisms used at different ages are discussed in the context of sensory learning, as well as their relationship to maladaptive plasticity and neurodevelopmental brain disorders. Knowledge gaps and avenues for future work are highlighted, and these will hopefully motivate future research in these areas, particularly those about the learning of complex skills during development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adema Ribic
- Department of Psychology, College and Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, United States
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Emerging Roles of Synapse Organizers in the Regulation of Critical Periods. Neural Plast 2019; 2019:1538137. [PMID: 31565044 PMCID: PMC6745111 DOI: 10.1155/2019/1538137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2019] [Revised: 07/09/2019] [Accepted: 07/25/2019] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Experience remodels cortical connectivity during developmental windows called critical periods. Experience-dependent regulation of synaptic strength during these periods establishes circuit functions that are stabilized as critical period plasticity wanes. These processes have been extensively studied in the developing visual cortex, where critical period opening and closure are orchestrated by the assembly, maturation, and strengthening of distinct synapse types. The synaptic specificity of these processes points towards the involvement of distinct molecular pathways. Attractive candidates are pre- and postsynaptic transmembrane proteins that form adhesive complexes across the synaptic cleft. These synapse-organizing proteins control synapse development and maintenance and modulate structural and functional properties of synapses. Recent evidence suggests that they have pivotal roles in the onset and closure of the critical period for vision. In this review, we describe roles of synapse-organizing adhesion molecules in the regulation of visual critical period plasticity and we discuss the potential they offer to restore circuit functions in amblyopia and other neurodevelopmental disorders.
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