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Miyamoto T, Numasawa K, Ono S. Changes in visual speed perception induced by anticipatory smooth eye movements. J Neurophysiol 2022; 127:1198-1207. [PMID: 35353633 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00498.2021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Expectations about forthcoming visual motion shaped by observers' experiences are known to induce anticipatory smooth eye movements (ASEM) and changes in visual perception. Previous studies have demonstrated discrete effects of expectations on the control of ASEM and perception. However, the tasks designed in these studies were not able to segregate the effects of expectations and execution of ASEM itself on perception. In the current study, we attempted to directly examine the effect of ASEM itself on visual speed perception using a two-alternative forced-choice task (2AFC task), in which observers were asked to track a pair of sequentially presented visual motion stimuli with their eyes and to judge whether the second stimulus (test stimulus) was faster or slower than the first (reference stimulus). Our results showed that observers' visual speed perception, quantified by a psychometric function, shifted according to ASEM velocity. This was the case, even though there was no difference in the steady-state eye velocity. Further analyses revealed that the observers' perceptual decisions could be explained by a difference in the magnitude of retinal slip velocity in the initial phase of ocular tracking when the reference and test stimuli were presented, rather than in the steady-state phase. Our results provide psychophysical evidence of the importance of initial ocular tracking in visual speed perception and the strong impact of ASEM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takeshi Miyamoto
- Faculty of Health and Sport Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Kosuke Numasawa
- Graduate School of Comprehensive Human Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Seiji Ono
- Faculty of Health and Sport Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
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2
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Alexander AS, Tung JC, Chapman GW, Conner AM, Shelley LE, Hasselmo ME, Nitz DA. Adaptive integration of self-motion and goals in posterior parietal cortex. Cell Rep 2022; 38:110504. [PMID: 35263604 PMCID: PMC9026715 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2022.110504] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2021] [Revised: 12/14/2021] [Accepted: 02/14/2022] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Rats readily switch between foraging and more complex navigational behaviors such as pursuit of other rats or prey. These tasks require vastly different tracking of multiple behaviorally significant variables including self-motion state. To explore whether navigational context modulates self-motion tracking, we examined self-motion tuning in posterior parietal cortex neurons during foraging versus visual target pursuit. Animals performing the pursuit task demonstrate predictive processing of target trajectories by anticipating and intercepting them. Relative to foraging, pursuit yields multiplicative gain modulation of self-motion tuning and enhances self-motion state decoding. Self-motion sensitivity in parietal cortex neurons is, on average, history dependent regardless of behavioral context, but the temporal window of self-motion integration extends during target pursuit. Finally, many self-motion-sensitive neurons conjunctively track the visual target position relative to the animal. Thus, posterior parietal cortex functions to integrate the location of navigationally relevant target stimuli into an ongoing representation of past, present, and future locomotor trajectories.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew S Alexander
- Department of Cognitive Science, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA; Center for Systems Neuroscience, Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Boston University, 610 Commonwealth Avenue, Boston, MA 02215, USA.
| | - Janet C Tung
- Department of Cognitive Science, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - G William Chapman
- Center for Systems Neuroscience, Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Boston University, 610 Commonwealth Avenue, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Allison M Conner
- Department of Cognitive Science, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Laura E Shelley
- Department of Cognitive Science, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Michael E Hasselmo
- Center for Systems Neuroscience, Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Boston University, 610 Commonwealth Avenue, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Douglas A Nitz
- Department of Cognitive Science, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA.
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3
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Chen T, Ding J, Yue GH, Liu H, Li J, Jiang C. Global-local consistency benefits memory-guided tracking of a moving target. Brain Behav 2022; 12:e2444. [PMID: 34859605 PMCID: PMC8785627 DOI: 10.1002/brb3.2444] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2020] [Revised: 10/31/2021] [Accepted: 11/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Previous findings have demonstrated that several Gestalt principles do facilitate VSTM performance in change detection tasks. However, few studies have investigated the role of and time-course of global-local consistency in motion perception. METHODS Participants were required to track a moving target surrounded by three different backgrounds: blank, inconsistent, or consistent. Global-local objects were be bound to move together (covariation). During the PMT, participants had to follow the moving target with their eyes and react as fast as possible when the target had just vanished behind the obstruction or would arrive at a predetermined point of interception. Variable error (VE) and constant error (CE) of estimated time-to-contact (TTC) and gain of smooth pursuit eye movements were calculated in various conditions and analyzed qualitatively. RESULTS Experiment 1 established the basic finding that VSTM performance could benefit from global-local consistency. Experiment 2 extended this finding by eye-tracking device. Both in visible phase and in occluded phase, CEs were smaller for the target in a consistent background than for the target in an inconsistent background and for the target in a blank background, with both differences significant (ps < .05). However, the difference in VE among three conditions was not significant. At early stage (100-250 ms), later stage (2750-3000 ms), and termination stage (5750-6000 ms) of smooth pursuit, the velocity gains were higher in the trials with consistent backgrounds than in the trials with inconsistent backgrounds and blank backgrounds (ps < .001). With the exception of 100-250 ms phase, the means did not differ between the inconsistent background and the blank background trials (ps > .1). CONCLUSIONS Global-local consistency could be activated within the first few hundred milliseconds to prioritize the deployment of attention and eye movement to component target. Meanwhile, it also removes ambiguity from motion tracking and TTC estimation under some unpredictable conditions, leading to the consistency advantage during smooth-pursuit termination phase. Global-local consistency may act as an important information source to TTC estimation and oculomotor response in PMT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tingting Chen
- School of EducationBeijing Dance AcademyBeijingP.R. China
| | - Jinhong Ding
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Learning and Cognition & School of PsychologyCapital Normal UniversityBeijingP.R. China
| | - Guang H. Yue
- Human Performance and Engineering Research, Kessler FoundationWest OrangeNew Jersey
| | - Haoqiang Liu
- School of EducationShangdong Woman UniversityJinanP.R. China
| | - Jie Li
- Institute of Psychological SciencesHangzhou Normal UniversityHangzhouP.R. China
| | - Changhao Jiang
- Beijing Key Lab of Physical Fitness Evaluation and Tech AnalysisCapital University of Physical Education and SportsBeijingP.R. China
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4
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The influence of stimulus and behavioral histories on predictive control of smooth pursuit eye movements. Sci Rep 2021; 11:22327. [PMID: 34785718 PMCID: PMC8595731 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-01733-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2021] [Accepted: 11/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
The smooth pursuit system has the ability to perform predictive feedforward control of eye movements. This study attempted to examine how stimulus and behavioral histories of past trials affect the control of predictive pursuit of target motion with randomized velocities. We used sequential ramp stimuli where the rightward velocity was fixed at 16 deg/s while the leftward velocity was either fixed (predictable) at one of seven velocities (4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24, or 28 deg/s) or randomized (unpredictable). As a result, predictive pursuit responses were observed not only in the predictable condition but also in the unpredictable condition. Linear mixed-effects (LME) models showed that both stimulus and behavioral histories of the previous two or three trials influenced the predictive pursuit responses in the unpredictable condition. Intriguingly, the goodness of fit of the LME model was improved when both historical effects were fitted simultaneously rather than when each type of historical data was fitted alone. Our results suggest that predictive pursuit systems allow us to track randomized target motion using weighted averaging of the information of target velocity (stimulus) and motor output (behavior) in past time sequences.
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Damasse JB, Perrinet LU, Madelain L, Montagnini A. Reinforcement effects in anticipatory smooth eye movements. J Vis 2019; 18:14. [PMID: 30347101 DOI: 10.1167/18.11.14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
When predictive information about target motion is available, anticipatory smooth pursuit eye movements (aSPEM) are consistently generated before target appearance, thereby reducing the typical sensorimotor delay between target motion onset and foveation. By manipulating the probability for target motion direction, we were able to bias the direction and mean velocity of aSPEM. This suggests that motion-direction expectancy has a strong effect on the initiation of anticipatory movements. To further understand the nature of anticipatory smooth eye movements, we investigated different effects of reinforcement on aSPEM. In a first experiment, the reinforcement was contingent to a particular anticipatory behavior. A monetary reward was associated to a criterion-matching anticipatory velocity as estimated online during the gap before target motion onset. Our results showed a small but significant effect of behavior-contingent monetary reward on aSPEM. In a second experiment, the proportion of rewarded trials was manipulated across motion directions (right vs. left) independently from participants' behavior. Our results indicate that a bias in expected reward does not systematically affect anticipatory eye movements. Overall, these findings strengthen the notion that anticipatory eye movements can be considered as an operant behavior (similar to visually guided ones), whereas the expectancy for a noncontingent reward cannot efficiently bias them.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean-Bernard Damasse
- Aix Marseille Université, CNRS, Institut de Neurosciences de la Timone UMR 7289, Marseille, France
| | - Laurent U Perrinet
- Aix Marseille Université, CNRS, Institut de Neurosciences de la Timone UMR 7289, Marseille, France
| | - Laurent Madelain
- University of Lille Nord de France, CNRS, SCALAB UMR 9193, Lille, France
| | - Anna Montagnini
- Aix Marseille Université, CNRS, Institut de Neurosciences de la Timone UMR 7289, Marseille, France
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Gimmon Y, Migliaccio AA, Todd CJ, Figtree WVC, Schubert MC. Simultaneous and opposing horizontal VOR adaptation in humans suggests functionally independent neural circuits. J Neurophysiol 2018; 120:1496-1504. [DOI: 10.1152/jn.00134.2018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The healthy vestibulo-ocular reflex (VOR) ensures that images remain on the fovea of the retina during head rotation to maintain stable vision. VOR behavior can be measured as a summation of linear and nonlinear properties although it is unknown whether asymmetric VOR adaptation can be performed synchronously in humans. The purpose of the present study is twofold. First, examine whether the right and left VOR gains can be synchronously adapted in opposing directions. Second, to investigate whether the adaptation context transfers between both sides. Three separate VOR adaptation sessions were randomized such that the VOR was adapted Up-bilaterally, Down-bilaterally, or Mixed (one side up, opposite side down). Ten healthy subjects completed the study. Subjects were tested while seated upright, 1 meter in front of a wall in complete dark. Each subject made active (self-generated) head impulse rotations for 15 min while viewing a gradually increasing amount of retinal slip. VOR training demand changed by 10% every 90 s. The VOR changed significantly for all training conditions. No significant differences in the magnitude of VOR gain changes between training conditions were found. The human VOR can be simultaneously driven in opposite directions. The similar magnitude of VOR gain changes across training conditions suggests functionally independent VOR circuits for each side of head rotation that mediate simultaneous and opposing VOR adaptations. NEW & NOTEWORTHY Our results indicate that humans have the adaptive capacity for concurrent and opposing directions of vestibulo-ocular reflex (VOR) motor learning. Context specificity of VOR adaptation is dependent on the error signal being unilateral or bilateral, which we illustrate via a lack of VOR gain transfer using unique adaptive demands.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoav Gimmon
- Laboratory of Vestibular NeuroAdaptation, Department of Otolaryngology–Head and Neck Surgery, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Americo A. Migliaccio
- Laboratory of Vestibular NeuroAdaptation, Department of Otolaryngology–Head and Neck Surgery, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
- Balance and Vision Laboratory, Neuroscience Research Australia, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
- University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Christopher J. Todd
- Balance and Vision Laboratory, Neuroscience Research Australia, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
- University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - William V. C. Figtree
- Balance and Vision Laboratory, Neuroscience Research Australia, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
- University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Michael C. Schubert
- Laboratory of Vestibular NeuroAdaptation, Department of Otolaryngology–Head and Neck Surgery, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
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7
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Motor Sequence Learning in the Brain: The Long and Short of It. Neuroscience 2018; 389:85-98. [PMID: 29427654 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2018.01.061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2017] [Revised: 01/26/2018] [Accepted: 01/29/2018] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Motor sequence learning involves predictive processing that results in the anticipation of each component of a sequence of actions. In smooth pursuit, this predictive processing is required to decrease tracking errors between the eye and the stimulus. Current models for motor sequence learning suggest parallel mechanisms in the brain for acquiring sequences of differing complexity. We examined this model by comparing shorter versus longer sequences of pursuit eye movements during fMRI. In this way we were able to identify overlapping and distinct brain areas involved in simple versus more complex oculomotor learning. Participants revealed predictive pursuit eye movements from the second presentation of the stimulus in both short and long sequences. Brain imaging results indicated activation of parallel brain areas for the different sequence lengths that consisted of the Inferior Occipital Gyrus and the Cingulate as areas in common. In addition, distinct activation was found in more working memory related brain regions for the shorter sequences (e.g. the middle frontal cortex and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex), and higher activation in the frontal eye fields, supplementary motor cortex and motor cortex for the longer sequences, independent on the number of repetitions. These findings provide new evidence that there are parallel brain areas that involve working memory circuitry for short sequences, and more motoric areas when the sequence is longer and more cognitively demanding. Additionally, our findings are the first to show that the parallel brain regions involved in sequence learning in pursuit are independent of the number of repetitions, but contingent on sequence complexity.
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8
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Maffei G, Herreros I, Sanchez-Fibla M, Friston KJ, Verschure PFMJ. The perceptual shaping of anticipatory actions. Proc Biol Sci 2017; 284:20171780. [PMID: 29263282 PMCID: PMC5745402 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2017.1780] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2017] [Accepted: 11/22/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Humans display anticipatory motor responses to minimize the adverse effects of predictable perturbations. A widely accepted explanation for this behaviour relies on the notion of an inverse model that, learning from motor errors, anticipates corrective responses. Here, we propose and validate the alternative hypothesis that anticipatory control can be realized through a cascade of purely sensory predictions that drive the motor system, reflecting the causal sequence of the perceptual events preceding the error. We compare both hypotheses in a simulated anticipatory postural adjustment task. We observe that adaptation in the sensory domain, but not in the motor one, supports the robust and generalizable anticipatory control characteristic of biological systems. Our proposal unites the neurobiology of the cerebellum with the theory of active inference and provides a concrete implementation of its core tenets with great relevance both to our understanding of biological control systems and, possibly, to their emulation in complex artefacts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giovanni Maffei
- Institute for Bioengineering of Catalonia (IBEC), Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology (BIST), Barcelona, Spain
- Department of Information and Communication Technologies, Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Ivan Herreros
- Department of Information and Communication Technologies, Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), Barcelona, Spain
- Imaging Neuroscience and Theoretical Neurobiology, Wellcome Trust Centre for Neuroimaging, University College of London (UCL), London, UK
| | - Marti Sanchez-Fibla
- Department of Information and Communication Technologies, Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Karl J Friston
- Imaging Neuroscience and Theoretical Neurobiology, Wellcome Trust Centre for Neuroimaging, University College of London (UCL), London, UK
| | - Paul F M J Verschure
- Institute for Bioengineering of Catalonia (IBEC), Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology (BIST), Barcelona, Spain
- Department of Information and Communication Technologies, Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), Barcelona, Spain
- Catalan Institution for Research and Advanced Studies (ICREA), Barcelona, Spain
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9
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Gain Control in Predictive Smooth Pursuit Eye Movements: Evidence for an Acceleration-Based Predictive Mechanism. eNeuro 2017; 4:eN-NWR-0343-16. [PMID: 28560317 PMCID: PMC5446489 DOI: 10.1523/eneuro.0343-16.2017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2016] [Revised: 04/01/2017] [Accepted: 04/06/2017] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The smooth pursuit eye movement system incorporates various control features enabling adaptation to specific tracking situations. In this work, we analyzed the interplay between two of these mechanisms: gain control and predictive pursuit. We tested human responses to high-frequency perturbations during step-ramp pursuit, as well as the pursuit of a periodically moving target. For the latter task, we found a nonlinear interaction between perturbation response and carrier acceleration. Responses to perturbations where the initial perturbation acceleration was contradirectional to carrier acceleration increased with carrier velocity, in a manner similar to that observed during step-ramp pursuit. In contrast, responses to perturbations with ipsidirectional initial perturbation and carrier acceleration were large for all carrier velocities. Modeling the pursuit system suggests that gain control and short-term prediction are separable elements. The observed effect may be explained by combining the standard gain control mechanism with a derivative-based short-term predictive mechanism. The nonlinear interaction between perturbation and carrier acceleration can be reproduced by assuming a signal saturation, which is acting on the derivative of the target velocity signal. Our results therefore argue for the existence of an internal estimate of target acceleration as a basis for a simple yet efficient short-term predictive mechanism.
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10
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Hainque E, Apartis E, Daye PM. Switching between two targets with non-constant velocity profiles reveals shared internal model of target motion. Eur J Neurosci 2016; 44:2622-2634. [PMID: 27529455 DOI: 10.1111/ejn.13370] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2015] [Revised: 07/24/2016] [Accepted: 08/03/2016] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Several experiments have shown that smooth pursuit and saccades interact while tracking an object moving across the visual scene. It was proposed two decades ago that the amplitude of saccades triggered during smooth pursuit ('catch-up saccades') were corrected by a delayed sensory signal to account for the ongoing target displacement during catch-up saccades. However, recent studies used targets with non-constant velocity profiles and suggested that the correction of catch-up saccade amplitude must be done through an internal model of target motion. It is widely accepted that an internal model of target motion is also used by the central nervous system (CNS) to cancel inherent delays between visual input and smooth pursuit motor output, ensuring accurate tracking of moving targets. Our study proposes a new paradigm in which the target switches unexpectedly from one target with a non-constant periodic velocity profile to another with a non-constant aperiodic velocity profile. Our results confirm the hypothesis that the CNS uses an internal model of target motion to correct catch-up saccade amplitude. In addition, we reconcile the sensory delayed and the internal model of target motion hypotheses and show that a common internal model of target motion is shared within the CNS to control smooth pursuit and to correct catch-up saccade amplitude.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Hainque
- ICM, UMR 7225, UMRS 1127, CNRS-INSERM-UPMC, 47 Boulevard de l'Hopital, 75013, Paris, France.,Assistance Publique Hôpitaux de Paris (AP-HP), Department of Neurophysiology, Saint-Antoine Hospital, Paris, France
| | - E Apartis
- ICM, UMR 7225, UMRS 1127, CNRS-INSERM-UPMC, 47 Boulevard de l'Hopital, 75013, Paris, France.,Assistance Publique Hôpitaux de Paris (AP-HP), Department of Neurophysiology, Saint-Antoine Hospital, Paris, France
| | - P M Daye
- ICM, UMR 7225, UMRS 1127, CNRS-INSERM-UPMC, 47 Boulevard de l'Hopital, 75013, Paris, France.
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11
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Disappearance of the inversion effect during memory-guided tracking of scrambled biological motion. Psychon Bull Rev 2016; 23:1170-80. [PMID: 26926834 DOI: 10.3758/s13423-015-0994-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The human visual system is highly sensitive to biological motion. Even when a point-light walker is temporarily occluded from view by other objects, our eyes are still able to maintain tracking continuity. To investigate how the visual system establishes a correspondence between the biological-motion stimuli visible before and after the disruption, we used the occlusion paradigm with biological-motion stimuli that were intact or scrambled. The results showed that during visually guided tracking, both the observers' predicted times and predictive smooth pursuit were more accurate for upright biological motion (intact and scrambled) than for inverted biological motion. During memory-guided tracking, however, the processing advantage for upright as compared with inverted biological motion was not found in the scrambled condition, but in the intact condition only. This suggests that spatial location information alone is not sufficient to build and maintain the representational continuity of the biological motion across the occlusion, and that the object identity may act as an important information source in visual tracking. The inversion effect disappeared when the scrambled biological motion was occluded, which indicates that when biological motion is temporarily occluded and there is a complete absence of visual feedback signals, an oculomotor prediction is executed to maintain the tracking continuity, which is established not only by updating the target's spatial location, but also by the retrieval of identity information stored in long-term memory.
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12
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Borg O, Casanova R, Bootsma RJ. Reading from a Head-Fixed Display during Walking: Adverse Effects of Gaze Stabilization Mechanisms. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0129902. [PMID: 26053622 PMCID: PMC4460068 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0129902] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2015] [Accepted: 05/14/2015] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Reading performance during standing and walking was assessed for information presented on earth-fixed and head-fixed displays by determining the minimal duration during which a numerical time stimulus needed to be presented for 50% correct naming answers. Reading from the earth-fixed display was comparable during standing and walking, with optimal performance being attained for visual character sizes in the range of 0.2° to 1°. Reading from the head-fixed display was impaired for small (0.2-0.3°) and large (5°) visual character sizes, especially during walking. Analysis of head and eye movements demonstrated that retinal slip was larger during walking than during standing, but remained within the functional acuity range when reading from the earth-fixed display. The detrimental effects on performance of reading from the head-fixed display during walking could be attributed to loss of acuity resulting from large retinal slip. Because walking activated the angular vestibulo-ocular reflex, the resulting compensatory eye movements acted to stabilize gaze on the information presented on the earth-fixed display but destabilized gaze from the information presented on the head-fixed display. We conclude that the gaze stabilization mechanisms that normally allow visual performance to be maintained during physical activity adversely affect reading performance when the information is presented on a display attached to the head.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olivier Borg
- Institut des Sciences du Mouvement, Aix-Marseille Université, CNRS, Marseille, France
- Oxylane R&D, Villeneuve d’Ascq, France
| | - Remy Casanova
- Institut des Sciences du Mouvement, Aix-Marseille Université, CNRS, Marseille, France
| | - Reinoud J. Bootsma
- Institut des Sciences du Mouvement, Aix-Marseille Université, CNRS, Marseille, France
- * E-mail:
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13
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Mathews Z, Cetnarski R, Verschure PFMJ. Visual anticipation biases conscious decision making but not bottom-up visual processing. Front Psychol 2015; 5:1443. [PMID: 25741290 PMCID: PMC4330879 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01443] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2014] [Accepted: 11/25/2014] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Prediction plays a key role in control of attention but it is not clear which aspects of prediction are most prominent in conscious experience. An evolving view on the brain is that it can be seen as a prediction machine that optimizes its ability to predict states of the world and the self through the top-down propagation of predictions and the bottom-up presentation of prediction errors. There are competing views though on whether prediction or prediction errors dominate the formation of conscious experience. Yet, the dynamic effects of prediction on perception, decision making and consciousness have been difficult to assess and to model. We propose a novel mathematical framework and a psychophysical paradigm that allows us to assess both the hierarchical structuring of perceptual consciousness, its content and the impact of predictions and/or errors on conscious experience, attention and decision-making. Using a displacement detection task combined with reverse correlation, we reveal signatures of the usage of prediction at three different levels of perceptual processing: bottom-up fast saccades, top-down driven slow saccades and consciousnes decisions. Our results suggest that the brain employs multiple parallel mechanism at different levels of perceptual processing in order to shape effective sensory consciousness within a predicted perceptual scene. We further observe that bottom-up sensory and top-down predictive processes can be dissociated through cognitive load. We propose a probabilistic data association model from dynamical systems theory to model the predictive multi-scale bias in perceptual processing that we observe and its role in the formation of conscious experience. We propose that these results support the hypothesis that consciousness provides a time-delayed description of a task that is used to prospectively optimize real time control structures, rather than being engaged in the real-time control of behavior itself.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zenon Mathews
- Synthetic, Perceptive, Emotive and Cognitive Systems Group, Department of Technology, Information and Communication, Center of Autonomous Systems and Neurorobotics, Universitat Pompeu Fabra Barcelona, Spain
| | - Ryszard Cetnarski
- Synthetic, Perceptive, Emotive and Cognitive Systems Group, Department of Technology, Information and Communication, Center of Autonomous Systems and Neurorobotics, Universitat Pompeu Fabra Barcelona, Spain
| | - Paul F M J Verschure
- Synthetic, Perceptive, Emotive and Cognitive Systems Group, Department of Technology, Information and Communication, Center of Autonomous Systems and Neurorobotics, Universitat Pompeu Fabra Barcelona, Spain ; Institucio Catalana de Recerca i Estudis Avançats, Passeig Llus Companys Barcelona, Spain
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14
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Schneider R, Walker MF. Amplitude and frequency prediction in the translational vestibulo-ocular reflex. J Vestib Res 2015; 24:357-64. [PMID: 25564078 DOI: 10.3233/ves-140528] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
The goal of this study was to assess the effect of amplitude and frequency predictability on the performance of the translational vestibulo-ocular reflex (tVOR). Eye movements were recorded in 5 subjects during continuous vertical translation that consisted of a series of segments with: 1) 3 amplitudes at constant frequency (2 Hz) or 2) 3 different frequencies (1.6, 2, 2.5 Hz). Stimulus changes were presented in a pseudo-random order. We found that there was little change in the tVOR immediately after an unexpected stimulus change, as if eye velocity were being driven more by an expectation based on previous steady-state motion than by current head translation. For amplitude transitions, only about 30% of the eventual response change was seen in the first half cycle. Similarly, a sudden change in translation frequency did not appear in eye velocity for 70 ms, compared to a 8 ms lag during similar yaw rotation. Finally, after a sudden large decrease in frequency, the eyes continued to track at the original higher frequency, resulting initially in an anti-compensatory tVOR acceleration. Our results elucidate further the complexity of the tVOR and show that motion prediction based on prior experience plays an important role in its response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rosalyn Schneider
- Department of Neurology, Case Western Reserve University and Louis Stokes, Cleveland, OH, USA Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Cleveland, OH, USA
| | - Mark F Walker
- Department of Neurology, Case Western Reserve University and Louis Stokes, Cleveland, OH, USA Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Cleveland, OH, USA
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15
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Perrinet LU, Adams RA, Friston KJ. Active inference, eye movements and oculomotor delays. BIOLOGICAL CYBERNETICS 2014; 108:777-801. [PMID: 25128318 PMCID: PMC4250571 DOI: 10.1007/s00422-014-0620-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2013] [Accepted: 07/08/2014] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
This paper considers the problem of sensorimotor delays in the optimal control of (smooth) eye movements under uncertainty. Specifically, we consider delays in the visuo-oculomotor loop and their implications for active inference. Active inference uses a generalisation of Kalman filtering to provide Bayes optimal estimates of hidden states and action in generalised coordinates of motion. Representing hidden states in generalised coordinates provides a simple way of compensating for both sensory and oculomotor delays. The efficacy of this scheme is illustrated using neuronal simulations of pursuit initiation responses, with and without compensation. We then consider an extension of the generative model to simulate smooth pursuit eye movements-in which the visuo-oculomotor system believes both the target and its centre of gaze are attracted to a (hidden) point moving in the visual field. Finally, the generative model is equipped with a hierarchical structure, so that it can recognise and remember unseen (occluded) trajectories and emit anticipatory responses. These simulations speak to a straightforward and neurobiologically plausible solution to the generic problem of integrating information from different sources with different temporal delays and the particular difficulties encountered when a system-like the oculomotor system-tries to control its environment with delayed signals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laurent U Perrinet
- Institut de Neurosciences de la Timone, CNRS/Aix-Marseille Université, Marseille, France,
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16
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Fine JM, Ward KL, Amazeen EL. Manual coordination with intermittent targets: velocity information for prospective control. Acta Psychol (Amst) 2014; 149:24-31. [PMID: 24657827 DOI: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2014.02.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2013] [Revised: 02/24/2014] [Accepted: 02/28/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Tracking a moving target requires that information concerning the current and future state of a target is available, allowing prospective control of the tracking effector. Eye movement research has shown that prospective visual tracking is achievable during conditions of both visible and occluded targets. The ability to track visually occluded targets has been interpreted as individuals integrating target velocity into eye movement motor plans. It has not been fully established that velocity plays a similar role in other types of tracking behavior. To examine whether target velocity is also used in manual tracking, numerical predictions and a validation experiment were conducted. Predictions indicated that, if individuals utilize target velocity during coordination, increases in visual occlusion periods should yield increased phase lag between target and hand, proportional to the occlusion period. Predictions also suggest that increased occlusion yields increased coordination variability. An experiment having participants coordinate with the same stimuli and occlusion conditions was conducted to verify the predictions. Comparison of prediction and experimental results provides strong agreement that individuals use target velocity to prospectively control coordinated movements.
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Kalman filtering naturally accounts for visually guided and predictive smooth pursuit dynamics. J Neurosci 2013; 33:17301-13. [PMID: 24174663 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.2321-13.2013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The brain makes use of noisy sensory inputs to produce eye, head, or arm motion. In most instances, the brain combines this sensory information with predictions about future events. Here, we propose that Kalman filtering can account for the dynamics of both visually guided and predictive motor behaviors within one simple unifying mechanism. Our model relies on two Kalman filters: (1) one processing visual information about retinal input; and (2) one maintaining a dynamic internal memory of target motion. The outputs of both Kalman filters are then combined in a statistically optimal manner, i.e., weighted with respect to their reliability. The model was tested on data from several smooth pursuit experiments and reproduced all major characteristics of visually guided and predictive smooth pursuit. This contrasts with the common belief that anticipatory pursuit, pursuit maintenance during target blanking, and zero-lag pursuit of sinusoidally moving targets all result from different control systems. This is the first instance of a model integrating all aspects of pursuit dynamics within one coherent and simple model and without switching between different parallel mechanisms. Our model suggests that the brain circuitry generating a pursuit command might be simpler than previously believed and only implement the functional equivalents of two Kalman filters whose outputs are optimally combined. It provides a general framework of how the brain can combine continuous sensory information with a dynamic internal memory and transform it into motor commands.
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18
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Aitkin CD, Santos EM, Kowler E. Anticipatory smooth eye movements in autism spectrum disorder. PLoS One 2013; 8:e83230. [PMID: 24376667 PMCID: PMC3871521 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0083230] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2013] [Accepted: 10/31/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Smooth pursuit eye movements are important for vision because they maintain the line of sight on targets that move smoothly within the visual field. Smooth pursuit is driven by neural representations of motion, including a surprisingly strong influence of high-level signals representing expected motion. We studied anticipatory smooth eye movements (defined as smooth eye movements in the direction of expected future motion) produced by salient visual cues in a group of high-functioning observers with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), a condition that has been associated with difficulties in either generating predictions, or translating predictions into effective motor commands. Eye movements were recorded while participants pursued the motion of a disc that moved within an outline drawing of an inverted Y-shaped tube. The cue to the motion path was a visual barrier that blocked the untraveled branch (right or left) of the tube. ASD participants showed strong anticipatory smooth eye movements whose velocity was the same as that of a group of neurotypical participants. Anticipatory smooth eye movements appeared on the very first cued trial, indicating that trial-by-trial learning was not responsible for the responses. These results are significant because they show that anticipatory capacities are intact in high-functioning ASD in cases where the cue to the motion path is highly salient and unambiguous. Once the ability to generate anticipatory pursuit is demonstrated, the study of the anticipatory responses with a variety of types of cues provides a window into the perceptual or cognitive processes that underlie the interpretation of events in natural environments or social situations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cordelia D. Aitkin
- Department of Psychology, Rutgers University, Piscataway, New Jersey, United States of America
| | - Elio M. Santos
- Department of Psychology, Rutgers University, Piscataway, New Jersey, United States of America
| | - Eileen Kowler
- Department of Psychology, Rutgers University, Piscataway, New Jersey, United States of America
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Bennett SJ, Benguigui N. Is acceleration used for ocular pursuit and spatial estimation during prediction motion? PLoS One 2013; 8:e63382. [PMID: 23696822 PMCID: PMC3656031 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0063382] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2012] [Accepted: 04/03/2013] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Here we examined ocular pursuit and spatial estimation in a linear prediction motion task that emphasized extrapolation of occluded accelerative object motion. Results from the ocular response up to occlusion showed that there was evidence in the eye position, velocity and acceleration data that participants were attempting to pursue the moving object in accord with the veridical motion properties. They then attempted to maintain ocular pursuit of the randomly-ordered accelerative object motion during occlusion but this was not ideal, and resulted in undershoot of eye position and velocity at the moment of object reappearance. In spatial estimation there was a general bias, with participants less likely to report object reappearance being behind than ahead of the expected position. In addition, participants’ spatial estimation did not take into account the effects of object acceleration. Logistic regression indicated that spatial estimation was best predicted for the majority of participants by the difference between actual object reappearance position and an extrapolation based on pre-occlusion velocity. In combination, and in light of previous work, we interpret these findings as showing that eye movements are scaled in accord with the effects of object acceleration but do not directly specify information for accurate spatial estimation in prediction motion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon J Bennett
- Research Institute for Sport & Exercise Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, United Kingdom.
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20
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Murdison TS, Paré-Bingley CA, Blohm G. Evidence for a retinal velocity memory underlying the direction of anticipatory smooth pursuit eye movements. J Neurophysiol 2013; 110:732-47. [PMID: 23678014 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00991.2012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
To compute spatially correct smooth pursuit eye movements, the brain uses both retinal motion and extraretinal signals about the eyes and head in space (Blohm and Lefèvre 2010). However, when smooth eye movements rely solely on memorized target velocity, such as during anticipatory pursuit, it is unknown if this velocity memory also accounts for extraretinal information, such as head roll and ocular torsion. To answer this question, we used a novel behavioral updating paradigm in which participants pursued a repetitive, spatially constant fixation-gap-ramp stimulus in series of five trials. During the first four trials, participants' heads were rolled toward one shoulder, inducing ocular counterroll (OCR). With each repetition, participants increased their anticipatory pursuit gain, indicating a robust encoding of velocity memory. On the fifth trial, they rolled their heads to the opposite shoulder before pursuit, also inducing changes in ocular torsion. Consequently, for spatially accurate anticipatory pursuit, the velocity memory had to be updated across changes in head roll and ocular torsion. We tested how the velocity memory accounted for head roll and OCR by observing the effects of changes to these signals on anticipatory trajectories of the memory decoding (fifth) trials. We found that anticipatory pursuit was updated for changes in head roll; however, we observed no evidence of compensation for OCR, representing the absence of ocular torsion signals within the velocity memory. This indicated that the directional component of the memory must be coded retinally and updated to account for changes in head roll, but not OCR.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Scott Murdison
- Centre for Neuroscience Studies, Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada
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21
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Fukushima K, Fukushima J, Warabi T, Barnes GR. Cognitive processes involved in smooth pursuit eye movements: behavioral evidence, neural substrate and clinical correlation. Front Syst Neurosci 2013; 7:4. [PMID: 23515488 PMCID: PMC3601599 DOI: 10.3389/fnsys.2013.00004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2013] [Accepted: 03/01/2013] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Smooth-pursuit eye movements allow primates to track moving objects. Efficient pursuit requires appropriate target selection and predictive compensation for inherent processing delays. Prediction depends on expectation of future object motion, storage of motion information and use of extra-retinal mechanisms in addition to visual feedback. We present behavioral evidence of how cognitive processes are involved in predictive pursuit in normal humans and then describe neuronal responses in monkeys and behavioral responses in patients using a new technique to test these cognitive controls. The new technique examines the neural substrate of working memory and movement preparation for predictive pursuit by using a memory-based task in macaque monkeys trained to pursue (go) or not pursue (no-go) according to a go/no-go cue, in a direction based on memory of a previously presented visual motion display. Single-unit task-related neuronal activity was examined in medial superior temporal cortex (MST), supplementary eye fields (SEF), caudal frontal eye fields (FEF), cerebellar dorsal vermis lobules VI–VII, caudal fastigial nuclei (cFN), and floccular region. Neuronal activity reflecting working memory of visual motion direction and go/no-go selection was found predominantly in SEF, cerebellar dorsal vermis and cFN, whereas movement preparation related signals were found predominantly in caudal FEF and the same cerebellar areas. Chemical inactivation produced effects consistent with differences in signals represented in each area. When applied to patients with Parkinson's disease (PD), the task revealed deficits in movement preparation but not working memory. In contrast, patients with frontal cortical or cerebellar dysfunction had high error rates, suggesting impaired working memory. We show how neuronal activity may be explained by models of retinal and extra-retinal interaction in target selection and predictive control and thus aid understanding of underlying pathophysiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kikuro Fukushima
- Department of Neurology, Sapporo Yamanoue Hospital Sapporo, Japan ; Department of Physiology, Hokkaido University School of Medicine Sapporo, Japan
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22
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Bastin J, Lebranchu P, Jerbi K, Kahane P, Orban G, Lachaux JP, Berthoz A. Direct recordings in human cortex reveal the dynamics of gamma-band [50-150 Hz] activity during pursuit eye movement control. Neuroimage 2012; 63:339-47. [PMID: 22819950 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2012.07.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2012] [Revised: 07/02/2012] [Accepted: 07/08/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The time course of neural activity in human brain regions involved in mediating pursuit eye movements is unclear. To address this question, we recorded intracerebral electroencephalography activity in eight epileptic patients while they performed a pursuit task that dissociates reactive, predictive and inhibited pursuits. A sustained gamma band (50-150 Hz) activity corresponding to pursuit maintenance was observed in the pursuit (and not saccade) area of the frontal eye field (FEF), in the ventral intraparietal sulcus (VIPS) and in occipital areas. The latency of gamma increase was found to precede target onset in FEF and VIPS, suggesting that those areas could also be involved during pursuit preparation/initiation. During pursuit inhibition, a sustained gamma band response was observed within prefrontal areas (pre-supplementary-motor-area, dorso-lateral prefrontal and frontopolar cortex). This study describes for the first time the dynamics of the neural activity in four areas of the pursuit system, not previously available in humans. These findings provide novel timing constraints to current models of the human pursuit system and establish the relevance of direct recordings to precisely relate eye movement behavior with neural activity in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julien Bastin
- UMR 7152, CNRS-Collège de France, Laboratoire de Physiologie de Perception et de l'Action, Paris, France.
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23
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Ocular tracking of biological and nonbiological motion: the effect of instructed agency. Psychon Bull Rev 2012; 19:52-7. [PMID: 22184035 DOI: 10.3758/s13423-011-0193-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Recent findings suggest that visuomotor performance is modulated by people's beliefs about the agency (e.g., animate vs. inanimate) behind the events they perceive. This study investigated the effect of instructed agency on ocular tracking of point-light motions with biological and nonbiological velocity profiles. The motions followed either a relatively simple (ellipse) or a more complex (scribble) trajectory, and agency was manipulated by informing the participants that the motions they saw were either human or computer generated. In line with previous findings, tracking performance was better for biological than for nonbiological motions, and this effect was particularly pronounced for the simpler (elliptical) motions. The biological advantage was also larger for the human than for the computer instruction condition, but only for a measure that captured the predictive component of smooth pursuit. These results suggest that ocular tracking is influenced by the internal forward model people choose to adopt.
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24
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The influence of cues and stimulus history on the non-linear frequency characteristics of the pursuit response to randomized target motion. Exp Brain Res 2011; 212:225-40. [PMID: 21590260 DOI: 10.1007/s00221-011-2725-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2011] [Accepted: 04/28/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
When humans pursue motion stimuli composed of alternating constant velocity segments of randomised duration (RD), they nevertheless initiate anticipatory eye deceleration before stimulus direction changes at a pre-programmed time based on averaging prior stimulus timing. We investigated, in both the time and frequency domains, how averaging interacts with deceleration cues by comparing responses to stimuli composed of segments that were either constant-velocity ramps or half-cycle sinusoids. RDs were randomized within 6 ranges, each comprising 8 RDs and having differing mean RD. In sine responses, deceleration cues could be used to modulate eye velocity for long-range stimuli (RD = 840-1,200 ms) but in the shortest range (RD = 240-660 ms) cues became ineffective, so that sine responses resembled ramp responses, and anticipatory timing was primarily dependent on averaging. Additionally, inclusion of short duration (240 ms) segments reduced peak eye velocity for all RDs within a range, even when longer RDs in the range (up to 1,080 ms) would normally elicit much higher velocities. These effects could be attributed to antagonistic interactions between visually driven pursuit components and pre-programmed anticipatory deceleration components. In the frequency domain, the changes in peak velocity and anticipatory timing with RD range were translated into non-linear gain and phase characteristics similar to those evoked by sum-of-sines stimuli. Notably, a reduction in pursuit gain occurred when high-frequency components associated with short duration segments were present. Results appear consistent with an adapted pursuit model, in which pre-programmed timing information derived from an internally reconstructed stimulus signal is stored in short-term memory and controls the initiation of predictive responses.
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25
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Burke MR, Barnes GR. The neural correlates of inhibiting pursuit to smoothly moving targets. J Cogn Neurosci 2011; 23:3294-303. [PMID: 21452936 DOI: 10.1162/jocn_a_00025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
A previous study has shown that actively pursuing a moving target provides a predictive motor advantage when compared with passive observation of the moving target while keeping the eyes still [Burke, M. R., & Barnes, G. R. Anticipatory eye movements evoked after active following versus passive observation of a predictable motion stimulus. Brain Research, 15, 74-81, 2008b]. By using a novel paradigm based on combining a smooth pursuit stimulus with a go/no-go task, we have been able to reveal significant differences in brain activity for the inhibition of pursuit during the presentation of a smoothly moving target. Areas that show specific inhibitory and retinocentric velocity storage activity for the passive (no-go) condition include the dorsolateral pFC, the caudate, and the posterior cingulate. The FEFs, the supramarginal gyrus, the medial occipital gyrus, and the superior parietal lobe were found to be more involved in both the acquisition and response generation during no-go trials when compared with go trials. The go trials revealed higher activity than the no-go during the acquisition phase in the uncus and posterior cingulate. Furthermore, higher motor-related activity in the go task was found in the cerebellum. In summary, the areas involved in inhibiting smooth pursuit are consistent with the findings from the saccade literature, providing further evidence in support of overlapping cortical control networks.
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26
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Winges SA, Soechting JF. Spatial and temporal aspects of cognitive influences on smooth pursuit. Exp Brain Res 2011; 211:27-36. [PMID: 21442218 DOI: 10.1007/s00221-011-2638-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2010] [Accepted: 03/11/2011] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
It is well known that prediction is used to overcome processing delays within the motor system and ocular control is no exception. Motion extrapolation is one mechanism that can be used to overcome the visual processing delay. Expectations based on previous experience or cognitive cues are also capable of overcoming this delay. The present experiment was designed to examine how smooth pursuit is altered by cognitive information about the time and/or direction of an upcoming change in target direction. Subjects visually tracked a cursor as it moved at a constant velocity on a computer screen. The target initially moved from left to right and then abruptly reversed horizontal direction and traveled along one of seven possible oblique paths. In half of the trials, a cue was present throughout the trial to signal the position (as well as the time), and/or the direction of the upcoming change. Whenever a position cue (which will be referred to as a timing cue throughout the paper) was present, there were clear anticipatory adjustments to the horizontal velocity component of smooth pursuit. In the presence of a timing cue, a directional cue also led to anticipatory adjustments in the vertical velocity, and hence the direction of smooth pursuit. However, without the timing cue, a directional cue alone produced no anticipation. Thus, in this task, a cognitive spatial cue about the new direction could not be used unless it was made explicit in the time domain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara A Winges
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, 6-145 Jackson Hall, 321 Church Street SE, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA.
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27
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Ackerley R, Barnes GR. The interaction of visual, vestibular and extra-retinal mechanisms in the control of head and gaze during head-free pursuit. J Physiol 2011; 589:1627-42. [PMID: 21300755 PMCID: PMC3099020 DOI: 10.1113/jphysiol.2010.199471] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Non-technical summary In everyday life, we encounter moving objects and to follow them, we have developed smooth pursuit eye movements. When you rotate your head, the vestibulo-ocular reflex is activated, which generates compensatory smooth eye movements so your eyes remain focussed on the current object of interest. Previous work has shown that you can overcome this reflex to follow a moving object with your eyes and head together, but this normally requires visual feedback. The current study shows that under certain circumstances, for example when you can anticipate the motion of an object, you can use predictive mechanisms in the brain to supplement your pursuit movements to continue to follow the object if it disappears. We demonstrate that you can sample and store brief visual motion to pursue an unseen moving object. Additionally, you can more accurately follow it with your eyes and head together, compared to just using your eyes. Abstract The ability to co-ordinate the eyes and head when tracking moving objects is important for survival. Tracking with eyes alone is controlled by both visually dependent and extra-retinal mechanisms, the latter sustaining eye movement during target extinction. We investigated how the extra-retinal component develops at the beginning of randomised responses during head-free pursuit and how it interacts with the vestibulo-ocular reflex (VOR). Subjects viewed horizontal step-ramp stimuli which occurred in pairs of identical velocity; velocity was randomised between pairs, ranging from ±5 to 40 deg s−1. In the first of each pair (short-ramp extinction) the target was visible for only 150 ms. In the second (initial extinction), after a randomised fixation period, the target was extinguished at motion onset, remaining invisible for 750 ms before reappearing for the last 200 ms of motion. Subjects used motion information acquired in the short-ramp extinction presentation to track the target from the start of unseen motion in the initial extinction presentation, using extra-retinal drive to generate smooth gaze and head movements scaled to target velocity. Gaze velocity rose more slowly than when visually driven, but had similar temporal development in head-free and head-fixed conditions. The difference in eye-in-head velocity between head-fixed and head-free conditions was closely related to head velocity throughout its trajectory, implying that extra-retinal drive was responsible for countermanding the VOR in the absence of vision. Thus, the VOR apparently remained active during head-free pursuit with near-unity gain. Evidence also emerged that head movements are not directly controlled by visual input, but by internal estimation mechanisms similar to those controlling gaze.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rochelle Ackerley
- Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Manchester, Moffat Building, Sackville Street, PO Box 88, Manchester, M60 1QD, UK.
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Maryott J, Noyce A, Sekuler R. Eye movements and imitation learning: intentional disruption of expectation. J Vis 2011; 11:7. [PMID: 21212191 DOI: 10.1167/11.1.7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Over repeated viewings of motion along a quasi-random path, ability to reproduce that path from memory improves. To assess the role of expectations and sequence context on such learning, subjects eye movements were measured while trajectories were viewed for subsequent reproduction. As a sequence of motions was repeated, subjects' eye movements became anticipatory, leading the stimulus' motions. To investigate how prediction errors affected eye movements and imitation learning, we injected an occasional deviant motion into a well-learned stimulus sequence, violating subjects' expectation about the motion that would be seen. This unexpected direction of motion in the stimulus sequence did not impair reproduction of the sequence. The externally induced prediction errors promoted one-shot learning: During the very next stimulus presentation, their eye movements showed that subjects now expected the new sequence item to reappear. A second experiment showed that an associative mismatch can facilitate accurate reproduction of an unexpected stimulus. After a deviant sequence item was presented, imitation accuracy for sequences that contained the deviant direction of motion was reduced relative to sequences that restored the original direction of motions. These findings demonstrate that in the context of a familiar sequence, unexpected events can play an important role in learning the sequence.
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Bennett SJ, Orban de Xivry JJ, Lefèvre P, Barnes GR. Oculomotor prediction of accelerative target motion during occlusion: long-term and short-term effects. Exp Brain Res 2010; 204:493-504. [PMID: 20556369 DOI: 10.1007/s00221-010-2313-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2009] [Accepted: 05/21/2010] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
The present study examined the influence of long-term (i.e., between-trial) and short-term (i.e., within-trial) predictive mechanisms on ocular pursuit during transient occlusion. To this end, we compared ocular pursuit of accelerative and decelerative target motion in trials that were presented in random or blocked-order. Catch trials in which target acceleration was unexpectedly modified were randomly interleaved in blocked-order trials. Irrespective of trial order, eye velocity decayed following target occlusion and then recovered towards the different levels of target velocity at reappearance. However, the recovery was better scaled in blocked-order trials than random-order trials. In blocked-order trials only, the reduced gain of smooth pursuit during occlusion was compensated by a change in saccade amplitude and resulted in total eye displacement (TED) that was well matched to target displacement. Subsidiary analysis indicated that three repeats of blocked-order trials was sufficient for participants to modify eye displacement compared to that exhibited in random-order trials, although more trials were required before end-occlusion eye velocity was better scaled. Finally, we found that participants exhibited evidence of a scaled response to an unexpected change in target acceleration (i.e., catch trials), although there were also transfer effects from the preceding blocked-order trials. These findings are consistent with the suggestion that on-the-fly prediction (short-term effect) is combined with memorized information from previous trials (long-term effect) to generate a persistent and veridical prediction of occluded target motion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon J Bennett
- Research Institute for Exercise and Sport Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool L3 3AF, UK.
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30
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Nkam I, Bocca ML, Denise P, Paoletti X, Dollfus S, Levillain D, Thibaut F. Impaired smooth pursuit in schizophrenia results from prediction impairment only. Biol Psychiatry 2010; 67:992-7. [PMID: 20110087 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2009.11.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2008] [Revised: 10/12/2009] [Accepted: 11/18/2009] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Oculomotor abnormality is one of the endophenotypes in schizophrenia. The predictive component of smooth pursuit can be studied by comparing the gain, i.e., the ratio of smooth eye position to target position, during predictable (pure sinusoidal) and unpredictable (pseudorandom) target motions. The aim of this experiment was to study predictive and nonpredictive components of smooth pursuit in two groups of schizophrenia patients compared with control subjects. METHODS Fifty-one schizophrenia patients (40 nondeficit and 11 deficit) and 21 control subjects were studied. During a predictable task, subjects were asked to track a sinusoidal target (.4 Hz). For the unpredictable task, the pseudorandom target motion consisted of five superimposed sinusoidal waveforms (.1, .2, .4, .6, and .8 Hz). The smooth eye position (eye position without saccades), gain, and phase were calculated for each frequency in each participant and for both tasks. RESULTS The mean sinusoidal smooth eye position gain was significantly lower in patients than in control subjects with no significant difference between deficit and nondeficit patients. During the pseudorandom task, all groups had a similar gain at .4 Hz. CONCLUSIONS Our study reveals that patients have a normal nonpredictive component of smooth pursuit, regardless of their level of negative symptoms. In contrast, the predictive mechanisms involved in eye pursuit were impaired in schizophrenia patients. These results indicate that poor pursuit performance during smooth pursuit is primarily a consequence of a predictive problem and is not related to the ability to generate an accurate pursuit maintenance response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irene Nkam
- Rouen University Hospital-Charles Nicolle and Le Rouvray Hospital, Rouen School of Medicine, Rouen, France.
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31
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Inferring the future target trajectory from visual context: is visual background structure used for anticipatory smooth pursuit? Exp Brain Res 2009; 196:205-15. [DOI: 10.1007/s00221-009-1840-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2008] [Accepted: 04/30/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Barnes G. Cognitive processes involved in smooth pursuit eye movements. Brain Cogn 2008; 68:309-26. [PMID: 18848744 DOI: 10.1016/j.bandc.2008.08.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 186] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2008] [Accepted: 08/26/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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Neurophysiology of compensation for time delays: Visual prediction is off track. Behav Brain Sci 2008. [DOI: 10.1017/s0140525x0800397x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
AbstractSpeculation by Nijhawan that visual perceptual mechanisms compensate for neural delays has no basis in the physiological properties of neurons known to be involved in motion perception and visuomotor control. Behavioral and physiological evidence is consistent with delay compensation mediated primarily by motor systems.
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Javitt DC, Spencer KM, Thaker GK, Winterer G, Hajós M. Neurophysiological biomarkers for drug development in schizophrenia. Nat Rev Drug Discov 2008; 7:68-83. [PMID: 18064038 PMCID: PMC2753449 DOI: 10.1038/nrd2463] [Citation(s) in RCA: 224] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Schizophrenia represents a pervasive deficit in brain function, leading to hallucinations and delusions, social withdrawal and a decline in cognitive performance. As the underlying genetic and neuronal abnormalities in schizophrenia are largely unknown, it is challenging to measure the severity of its symptoms objectively, or to design and evaluate psychotherapeutic interventions. Recent advances in neurophysiological techniques provide new opportunities to measure abnormal brain functions in patients with schizophrenia and to compare these with drug-induced alterations. Moreover, many of these neurophysiological processes are phylogenetically conserved and can be modelled in preclinical studies, offering unique opportunities for use as translational biomarkers in schizophrenia drug discovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel C Javitt
- Nathan Kline Institute for Schizophrenia Research/New York University School of Medicine, 140 Old Orangeburg Road, Orangeburg, New York 10962, USA
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35
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Inference of complex human motion requires internal models of action: behavioral evidence. Exp Brain Res 2007; 185:399-409. [DOI: 10.1007/s00221-007-1162-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2007] [Accepted: 09/28/2007] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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36
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Heinen SJ. Oculomotor Hide and Seek: Pursuing an Accelerating Target Behind an Occluder. Focus on “Target Acceleration Can Be Extracted and Represented Within the Predictive Drive to Ocular Pursuit”. J Neurophysiol 2007; 98:1073-4. [PMID: 17652416 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00806.2007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
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Bennett SJ, Orban de Xivry JJ, Barnes GR, Lefèvre P. Target Acceleration Can Be Extracted and Represented Within the Predictive Drive to Ocular Pursuit. J Neurophysiol 2007; 98:1405-14. [PMID: 17553954 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00132.2007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Given sufficient exposure to stimulus presentation, the oculomotor system generates a representation of the stimulus characteristics, which is then used to predict the upcoming target motion. In addition to compensating for the perceptual-motor delay, these predictive processes perpetuate eye motion during a transient occlusion and compensate for the loss of visual input. At present, however, it is not well understood whether and how the oculomotor system extracts and represents target acceleration for subsequent predictive control. To this end, we used a target occlusion paradigm where both position and velocity of the target during the occlusion and at reappearance could not be predicted without extracting target acceleration before target disappearance. We found that the oculomotor response during the blanking period was not influenced by target acceleration when the initial exposure was 200 ms. However, smooth and saccadic eye movements did discriminate between the different levels of acceleration after an initial 500- or 800-ms exposure. In the event that the smooth response during the occlusion did not match well the target trajectory and thus eliminate a developing displacement error, there was an increased saccadic displacement. Still, the combined response during the blanking period did not eliminate retinal slip and position error at target reappearance. These results indicate that information on target acceleration can be extracted on-line, during pursuit of a visible ramp, and then used to drive a predictive oculomotor response in the absence of visual input.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon J Bennett
- Research Institute for Exercise and Sport Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Henry Cotton Campus, L3 2ET, Liverpool, UK.
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38
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Ladda J, Eggert T, Glasauer S, Straube A. Velocity scaling of cue-induced smooth pursuit acceleration obeys constraints of natural motion. Exp Brain Res 2007; 182:343-56. [PMID: 17562031 DOI: 10.1007/s00221-007-0988-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2007] [Accepted: 05/15/2007] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Information about the future trajectory of a visual target is contained not only in the history of target motion but also in static visual cues, e.g., the street provides information about the car's future trajectory. For most natural moving targets, this information imposes strong constraints on the relation between velocity and acceleration which can be exploited by predictive smooth pursuit mechanisms. We questioned how cue-induced predictive changes in pursuit direction depend on target speed and how cue- and target-induced pursuit interact. Subjects pursued a target entering a +/-90 degrees curve and moving on either a homogeneous background or on a low contrast static band indicating the future trajectory. The cue induced a predictive change of pursuit direction, which occurred before curve onset of the target. The predictive velocity component orthogonal to the initial pursuit direction started later and became faster with increasing target velocity. The predictive eye acceleration increased quadratically with target velocity and was independent of the initial target direction. After curve onset, cue- and target-induced pursuit velocity components were not linearly superimposed. The quadratic increase of eye acceleration with target velocity is consistent with the natural velocity scaling implied by the two-thirds power law, which is a characteristic of biological controlled movements. Comparison with linear pursuit models reveals that the ratio between eye acceleration and actual or expected retinal slip cannot be considered a constant gain factor. To obey a natural velocity scaling, this acceleration gain must linearly increase with target or pursuit velocity. We suggest that gain control mechanisms, which affect target-induced changes of pursuit velocity, act similarly on predictive changes of pursuit induced by static visual cues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer Ladda
- Department of Neurology, Ludwig-Maximilians Universität, Klinikum Grosshadern, Marchioninistrasse 23, Munich, Germany
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39
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Voss HU, McCandliss BD, Ghajar J, Suh M. A quantitative synchronization model for smooth pursuit target tracking. BIOLOGICAL CYBERNETICS 2007; 96:309-22. [PMID: 17082951 DOI: 10.1007/s00422-006-0116-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2005] [Accepted: 10/04/2006] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
We propose a quantitative model for human smooth pursuit tracking of a continuously moving visual target which is based on synchronization of an internal expectancy model of the target position coupled to the retinal target signal. The model predictions are tested in a smooth circular pursuit eye tracking experiment with transient target blanking of variable duration. In subjects with a high tracking accuracy, the model accounts for smooth pursuit and repeatedly reproduces quantitatively characteristic patterns of the eye dynamics during target blanking. In its simplest form, the model has only one free parameter, a coupling constant. An extended model with a second parameter, a time delay or memory term, accounts for predictive smooth pursuit eye movements which advance the target. The model constitutes an example of synchronization of a complex biological system with perceived sensory signals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henning U Voss
- Citigroup Biomedical Imaging Center, Weill Medical College of Cornell University, 1300 York Avenue, P.O. Box 234, New York, NY 10021, USA.
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40
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Kerrigan SJ, Soechting JF. Anisotropies in the gain of smooth pursuit during two-dimensional tracking as probed by brief perturbations. Exp Brain Res 2007; 180:435-48. [PMID: 17287991 DOI: 10.1007/s00221-007-0875-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2006] [Accepted: 01/09/2007] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Previous investigations suggest the gain of smooth pursuit is directionally anisotropic and is regulated in a task-dependent manner. Smooth pursuit is also known to be influenced by expectations concerning the target's motion, but the role of such expectations in modulating feedback gain is not known. In the present work, the gain of smooth pursuit was probed by applying brief perturbations to quasi-predictable two-dimensional target motion at multiple time points. The target initially moved in a straight line, then followed the circumference of a circle for distances ranging between 180 degrees and 270 degrees . Finally, the path reverted to linear motion. Perturbations consisted of a pulse of velocity 50 or 100 ms in duration, applied in one of eight possible directions. They were applied at the onset of the curve or after the target had traversed an arc of 45 degrees or 90 degrees . Pursuit gain was measured by computing the average amplitude of the response in smooth pursuit velocity over a 100 ms interval. To do so we used a coordinate system defined by the motion of the target at the onset of the perturbation, with directions tangential and normal to the path. Responses to the perturbations had two components: one that was modulated with the direction of the perturbation and one that was directionally nonspecific. For the directional response, on average the gain in the normal direction was slightly larger than the gain in the tangential direction, with a ratio ranging from 1.0 to 1.3. The directionally nonspecific response, which was more prominent for perturbations at curve onset or at 90 degrees , consisted of a transient decrease in pursuit speed. Perturbations applied at curve onset also delayed the tracking of the curved target motion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen J Kerrigan
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, 6-145 Jackson Hall, 321 Church St. SE, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
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41
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Zorn A, Joiner WM, Lasker AG, Shelhamer M. Sensory versus motor information in the control of predictive saccade timing. Exp Brain Res 2007; 179:505-15. [PMID: 17216153 DOI: 10.1007/s00221-006-0806-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2006] [Accepted: 11/15/2006] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Humans readily make predictive saccades to periodic alternating targets. This predictive behavior depends on internal monitoring of timing error of past saccades in order to determine the time of initiation of future saccades; our earlier studies have confirmed this by finding correlations between latencies of consecutive predictive saccades. It is natural to consider that timing error is determined by visual detection of the difference between the time the target appears and the time the eyes arrive at the target; this in turn implies that saccades must actually be produced in order for their timing errors to be determined and predictive saccade timing to be established. We tested this hypothesis by having subjects view alternating visual targets while fixating a central target in order to eliminate saccade production. After six alternating target presentations, subjects began tracking the alternating targets. Tracking performance was assessed with an error measure that compared saccade latency and inter-saccade interval with desired values (zero and inter-stimulus interval, respectively). Errors in this Prior Viewing paradigm were compared to those from a conventional De Novo paradigm in which saccades began as soon as the alternating targets were presented. Saccades under Prior Viewing reached a low-error steady predictive state more rapidly than under De Novo tracking. The initial saccade under Prior Viewing had a higher latency than the others, suggesting that this saccade was reactive even though the paradigm is predictable; other reasons for this higher latency include time to disengage from the fixation target and time required to pre-program the initial set of saccades. The results show that visual detection of timing error from an actual motor act (saccades) is not necessary to establish predictive saccadic pacing: sensory-only information from viewing the moving targets can help to establish this predictive state.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Zorn
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, The Johns Hopkins University, School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21287, USA
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42
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Mrotek LA, Soechting JF. Predicting curvilinear target motion through an occlusion. Exp Brain Res 2006; 178:99-114. [PMID: 17053910 DOI: 10.1007/s00221-006-0717-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2006] [Accepted: 09/14/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
When a tracked target is occluded transiently, extraretinal signals are known to maintain smooth pursuit, albeit with a reduced gain. The extent to which extraretinal signals incorporate predictions of time-varying behavior, such as gradual changes in target direction, is not known. Three experiments were conducted to examine this question. In the experiments, subjects tracked a target that initially moved along a straight path, then (briefly) followed the arc of a circle, before it disappeared behind a visible occlusion. In the first experiment, the target did not emerge from the occlusion and subjects were asked to point to the location where they thought the target would have emerged. Gaze and pointing behaviors demonstrated that most of the subjects predicted that the target would follow a linear path through the occlusion. The direction of this extrapolated path was the same as the final visible target direction. In the second set of experiments, the target did emerge after following a curvilinear path through the occlusion, and subjects were asked to track the target with their eyes. Gaze behaviors indicated that, in this experimental condition, the subjects predicted curvilinear target motion while the target was occluded. Saccades were directed to the unseen curvilinear path and pursuit continued to follow this same path at a reduced speed in the occlusion. Importantly, the direction of smooth pursuit continued to change throughout the occlusion. Smooth pursuit angular velocity was maintained for approximately 200 ms following target disappearance. The results of the experiments indicate that extraretinal signals indeed incorporate cognitive expectations about the time-varying behavior of target motion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leigh A Mrotek
- Department of Kinesiology and Health, University of Wisconsin Oshkosh, 108 Albee Hall, 800 Algoma Boulevard, Oshkosh, WI 54901-8630, USA.
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43
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Musolino MC, Loughlin PJ, Sparto PJ, Redfern MS. Spectrally similar periodic and non-periodic optic flows evoke different postural sway responses. Gait Posture 2006; 23:180-8. [PMID: 16399514 DOI: 10.1016/j.gaitpost.2005.02.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2004] [Revised: 12/01/2004] [Accepted: 02/01/2005] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
The present study investigated the effect of optic flow periodicity on postural sway. Head and center-of-pressure (COP) displacements in response to an oscillating full-field bullseye-and-checkerboard pattern were recorded in six healthy adults. Scene movement was driven by one of five signals: (1) 0.1 Hz sinusoid, (2) 0.3 Hz sinusoid, (3) 0.5 Hz sinusoid, (4) the periodic sum of these three sinusoids (PSUM), or (5) a non-periodic counterpart (NPSUM = 0.1+ pi/10 + 0.5 Hz). Sway response power at the various stimulus frequencies were compared: (1) among the three pure sinusoidal groups; and (2) between the two sum-of-sinusoid groups. Head and COP responses displayed similar spectral content, though sway magnitude was larger for the head. Sway responses to the moving scenes were significantly larger than those observed during quiet stance. Each sinusoidal moving scene evoked a strong response at the stimulus frequency, as well as increased sway at non-stimulus frequencies, primarily below 0.2 Hz. For the sum-of-sinusoids stimuli, both PSUM and NPSUM signals elicited sway responses at each of their component frequencies. The amplitudes of these responses were similar to one another at 0.1 and 0.3 Hz, but significantly different at 0.5 Hz, with PSUM responses on average four times larger than those for NPSUM. These findings indicate that spectrally similar periodic and non-periodic stimuli elicit quantitatively different sway responses. The observed behaviors may be due to postural sensitivity to the predictability of visual motion, or due to other nonlinear and/or time-varying mechanisms in the postural control system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark C Musolino
- Department of Bioengineering, Eye and Ear Institute, 127, University of Pittsburgh, 203 Lothrop Street, PA 15213, USA.
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44
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Mrotek LA, Flanders M, Soechting JF. Oculomotor responses to gradual changes in target direction. Exp Brain Res 2006; 172:175-92. [PMID: 16418846 DOI: 10.1007/s00221-005-0326-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2005] [Accepted: 11/24/2005] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Smooth pursuit tracking of targets moving linearly (in one dimension) is well characterized by a model where retinal image motion drives eye acceleration. However, previous findings suggest that this model cannot be simply extended to two-dimensional (2D) tracking. To examine 2D pursuit, in the present study, human subjects tracked a target that moved linearly and then followed the arc of a circle. The subjects' gaze angular velocity accurately matched target angular velocity, but the direction of smooth pursuit always lagged behind the current target direction. Pursuit speed slowly declined after the onset of the curve (for about 500 ms), even though the target speed was constant. In a second experiment, brief perturbations were presented immediately prior to the beginning of the change in direction. The subjects' responses to these perturbations consisted of two components: (1) a response specific to the parameters of the perturbation and (2) a nonspecific response that always consisted of a transient decrease in gaze velocity. With the exception of this nonspecific response, pursuit behavior in response to the gradual changes in direction and to the perturbations could be explained by using retinal slip (image velocity) as the input signal. The retinal slip was parallel and perpendicular to the instantaneous direction of pursuit ultimately resulted in changes in gaze velocity (via gaze acceleration). Perhaps due to the subjects' expectations that the target will curve, the sensitivity to the image motion in the direction of pursuit was not as strong as the sensitivity to image motion perpendicular to gaze velocity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leigh A Mrotek
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, 6-145 Jackson Hall, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
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45
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Mrotek LA, Gielen CCAM, Flanders M. Manual tracking in three dimensions. Exp Brain Res 2005; 171:99-115. [PMID: 16308688 DOI: 10.1007/s00221-005-0282-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2005] [Accepted: 10/11/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Little is known about the manual tracking of targets that move in three dimensions. In the present study, human subjects followed, with the tip of a hand-held pen, a virtual target moving four times (period 5 s) around a novel, unseen path. Two basic types of target paths were used: a peanut-shaped Cassini ellipse and a quasi-spherical shape where four connected semicircles lay in orthogonal planes. The quasi-spherical shape was presented in three different sizes, and the Cassini shape was varied in spatial orientation and by folding it along one of the three bend axes. During the first cycle of Cassini shapes, the hand lagged behind the target by about 150 ms on average, which decreased to 100 ms during the last three cycles. Tracking performance gradually improved during the first 3 s of the first cycle and then stabilized. Tracking was especially good during the smooth, planar sections of the shapes, and time lag was significantly shorter when the tracking of a low-frequency component was compared to performance at a higher frequency (-88 ms at 0.2 Hz vs. -101 ms at 0.6 Hz). Even after the appropriate adjustment of the virtual target path to a virtual shape tracing condition, tracking in depth was poor compared to tracking in the frontal plane, resulting in a flattening of the hand path. In contrast to previous studies where target trajectories were linear or sinusoidal, these complex trajectories may have involved estimation of the overall shape, as well as prediction of target velocity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leigh A Mrotek
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, 6-145 Jackson Hall, 312 Church St. S.E., Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
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46
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Avila MT, Hong LE, Moates A, Turano KA, Thaker GK. Role of anticipation in schizophrenia-related pursuit initiation deficits. J Neurophysiol 2005; 95:593-601. [PMID: 16267121 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00369.2005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Schizophrenia patients exhibit several smooth pursuit abnormalities including poor pursuit initiation. Velocity discrimination is also impaired and is correlated with pursuit initiation performance-suggesting that pursuit deficits are related to impairments in processing velocity information. Studies suggest that pursuit initiation is influenced by prior target motion information and/or expectations and that this is likely caused by expectation-based changes in the perceptual inputs to the pursuit system. We examined whether poor pursuit initiation in schizophrenia results from inaccurate encoding of immediate velocity signals, or whether these deficits reflect a failure to use prior target motion information to "optimize" the response. Twenty-eight patients and 24 controls performed an adapted version of a "remembered pursuit task." Trials consisted of a series of target motions, the first of which occurred unexpectedly, followed by four to seven identical targets each preceded by an auditory cue and a "catch target" in which a cue was given followed by target extinction. Initiation eye velocity in response to unexpected, first targets was similar in the patient and control groups. In contrast, patients showed lower eye velocity in response to repeated, cued targets compared with controls. Patients also showed reduced eye velocity in response to catch targets. Reduction in pursuit latency across repeated targets was less robust in patients. Results suggest that processing of immediate velocity information is unaffected in schizophrenia and that pursuit initiation deficits reflect an inability to accurately generate, store, and/or access "remembered" velocity signals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew T Avila
- Maryland Psychiatric Research Ctr., PO Box 21247, Baltimore, MD 21228, USA
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47
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Poliakoff E, Collins CJS, Barnes GR. Attention and selection for predictive smooth pursuit eye movements. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2005; 25:688-700. [PMID: 16243495 DOI: 10.1016/j.cogbrainres.2005.08.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2004] [Revised: 07/13/2005] [Accepted: 08/31/2005] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Humans cannot typically produce smooth eye movements in the absence of a moving stimulus. However, they can produce predictive smooth eye movements if they expect a target of a known velocity to reappear. Here, we observed that participants could extract velocity information from two simultaneously presented moving targets in order to produce a subsequent predictive smooth eye movement for one of the two targets. Subjects fixated a stationary cross during the presentation of two targets, moving rightward at different velocities. In the next presentation, a single target was presented, which participants tracked with their eyes. A static cue, presented 700 ms before the moving target, indicated which of the two targets would be presented. Predictive eye movements were of an appropriate velocity, even when participants did not know in advance which of the two targets would subsequently be cued. However, the scaling of predictive eye velocity was marginally less accurate in this divided attention condition than when participants knew the identity of the cued target in advance, or a single target was presented during fixation. In a second experiment, we found that the velocity cued on the previous trial had a greater effect than the uncued velocity on the current trial. The negligible effect of the uncued velocity indicates that participants were extremely effective at selectively reproducing one of two recently viewed velocities. However, other influences, such as past history, also affected predictive smooth eye movements.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Poliakoff
- School of Psychological Sciences, University of Manchester, Oxford Rd, Manchester, M13 9PL, UK.
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48
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Han YH, Kumar AN, Reschke MF, Somers JT, Dell'Osso LF, Leigh RJ. Vestibular and non-vestibular contributions to eye movements that compensate for head rotations during viewing of near targets. Exp Brain Res 2005; 165:294-304. [PMID: 15889244 DOI: 10.1007/s00221-005-2305-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2004] [Accepted: 02/04/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Geometry dictates that when subjects view a near target during head rotation the eyes must rotate more than the head. The relative contribution to this compensatory response by adjustment of the vestibulo-ocular reflex gain (Gvor), visual tracking mechanisms including prediction, and convergence is debated. We studied horizontal eye movements induced by sinusoidal 0.2-2.8 Hz, en-bloc yaw rotation as ten normal humans viewed a near target that was either earth-fixed (EFT) or head-fixed (HFT). For EFT, group median gain was 1.49 at 0.2 Hz declining to 1.08 at 2.8 Hz. For HFT, group median gain was 0.03 at 0.2 Hz increasing to 0.71 at 2.8 Hz. By applying transient head perturbations (peak acceleration >1,000 degrees s(-2)) during sinusoidal rotation, we determined that Gvor was similar during either EFT or HFT conditions, and contributed only approximately 75% to the compensatory response. We confirmed that retinal image slip contributed to the compensatory response by demonstrating reduced gain during EFT viewing under strobe illumination. Gain also declined during sum-of-sines head rotations, confirming the contribution of predictive mechanisms. The gain of compensatory eye movements was similar during monocular or binocular viewing, although vergence angle was greater during binocular viewing. Comparison with previous studies indicates that mechanisms for generation of eye rotations during near viewing depend on head stimulus type (rotation or translation), waveform (transient or sinusoidal), and the species being tested.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanning H Han
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Case Western Reserve University, 11100 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, OH 44106-5040, USA
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49
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Barnes GR, Paige GD. Anticipatory VOR Suppression Induced by Visual and Nonvisual Stimuli in Humans. J Neurophysiol 2004; 92:1501-11. [PMID: 15331647 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00611.2003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
We compared the predictive behavior of smooth pursuit (SP) and suppression of the vestibuloocular reflex (VOR) in humans by examining anticipatory smooth eye movements, a phenomenon that arises after repeated presentations of sudden target movement preceded by an auditory warning cue. We investigated whether anticipatory smooth eye movements also occur prior to cued head motion, particularly when subjects expect interaction between the VOR and either real or imagined head-fixed targets. Subjects were presented with horizontal motion stimuli consisting of a visual target alone (SP), head motion in darkness (VOR), or head motion in the presence of a real or imagined head-fixed target (HFT and IHFT, respectively). Stimulus sequences were delivered as single cycles of a velocity sinusoid (frequency: 0.5 or 1.0 Hz) that were either cued (a sound cue 400 ms earlier) or noncued. For SP, anticipatory smooth eye movements developed over repeated trials in the cued, but not the noncued, condition. In the VOR condition, no such anticipatory eye movements were observed even when cued. In contrast, anticipatory responses were observed under cued, but not noncued, HFT and IHFT conditions, as for SP. Anticipatory HFT responses increased in proportion to the velocity of preceding stimuli. In general, anticipatory gaze responses were similar in cued SP, HFT, and IHFT conditions and were appropriate for expected target motion in space. Anticipatory responses may represent the output of a central mechanism for smooth-eye-movement generation that operates during predictive SP as well as VOR modulations that are linked with SP even in the absence of real visual targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- G R Barnes
- Dept. of Optometry and Neuroscience, University of Manchester Institute of Science and Technology, PO Box 88, Manchester M60 1QD, UK.
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50
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Bennett SJ, Barnes GR. Predictive Smooth Ocular Pursuit During the Transient Disappearance of a Visual Target. J Neurophysiol 2004; 92:578-90. [PMID: 14960562 DOI: 10.1152/jn.01188.2003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
When a moving target disappears and there is a complete absence of visual feedback signals, eye velocity decays rapidly but often recovers to previous levels if there is an expectation the target will reappear further along its trajectory Given that eye velocity cannot be maintained under such circumstances, the anticipatory recovery may function to minimize the developing velocity error. When there is a change in target velocity during a transient, any recovery should ideally be scaled and hence predictive of the expected target velocity at reappearance. This study confirmed that subjects did not maintain eye velocity close to target velocity for the duration of the inter-stimulus interval (ISI). The majority of subjects exhibited an initial reduction in eye velocity followed by a scaled recovery prior to target reappearance. Eye velocity during the ISI was, therefore, predictive of the expected change in target velocity. These behavioral data were simulated using a model in which gain applied to the visuomotor drive is reduced after the loss of visual feedback and then modulated depending on subject’s expectation regarding the target’s future trajectory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon J Bennett
- Department of Optometry and Neuroscience, University of Manchester Institute of Science and Technology, United Kingdom.
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