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Shinde DP, Walker J, Reyna RA, Scharton D, Mitchell B, Dulaney E, Bonam SR, Hu H, Plante JA, Plante KS, Weaver SC. Mechanisms of Flavivirus Cross-Protection against Yellow Fever in a Mouse Model. Viruses 2024; 16:836. [PMID: 38932129 PMCID: PMC11209131 DOI: 10.3390/v16060836] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2024] [Revised: 05/19/2024] [Accepted: 05/21/2024] [Indexed: 06/28/2024] Open
Abstract
The complete lack of yellow fever virus (YFV) in Asia, and the lack of urban YFV transmission in South America, despite the abundance of the peridomestic mosquito vector Aedes (Stegomyia.) aegypti is an enigma. An immunologically naïve population of over 2 billion resides in Asia, with most regions infested with the urban YF vector. One hypothesis for the lack of Asian YF, and absence of urban YF in the Americas for over 80 years, is that prior immunity to related flaviviruses like dengue (DENV) or Zika virus (ZIKV) modulates YFV infection and transmission dynamics. Here we utilized an interferon α/β receptor knock-out mouse model to determine the role of pre-existing dengue-2 (DENV-2) and Zika virus (ZIKV) immunity in YF virus infection, and to determine mechanisms of cross-protection. We utilized African and Brazilian YF strains and found that DENV-2 and ZIKV immunity significantly suppresses YFV viremia in mice, but may or may not protect relative to disease outcomes. Cross-protection appears to be mediated mainly by humoral immune responses. These studies underscore the importance of re-assessing the risks associated with YF outbreak while accounting for prior immunity from flaviviruses that are endemic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Divya P. Shinde
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA; (D.P.S.); (J.W.); (R.A.R.); (D.S.); (B.M.); (E.D.); (S.R.B.); (H.H.); (J.A.P.)
- World Reference Center for Emerging Viruses and Arboviruses, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA
| | - Jordyn Walker
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA; (D.P.S.); (J.W.); (R.A.R.); (D.S.); (B.M.); (E.D.); (S.R.B.); (H.H.); (J.A.P.)
- World Reference Center for Emerging Viruses and Arboviruses, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA
| | - Rachel A. Reyna
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA; (D.P.S.); (J.W.); (R.A.R.); (D.S.); (B.M.); (E.D.); (S.R.B.); (H.H.); (J.A.P.)
- World Reference Center for Emerging Viruses and Arboviruses, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA
| | - Dionna Scharton
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA; (D.P.S.); (J.W.); (R.A.R.); (D.S.); (B.M.); (E.D.); (S.R.B.); (H.H.); (J.A.P.)
- World Reference Center for Emerging Viruses and Arboviruses, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA
| | - Brooke Mitchell
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA; (D.P.S.); (J.W.); (R.A.R.); (D.S.); (B.M.); (E.D.); (S.R.B.); (H.H.); (J.A.P.)
- World Reference Center for Emerging Viruses and Arboviruses, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA
| | - Ennid Dulaney
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA; (D.P.S.); (J.W.); (R.A.R.); (D.S.); (B.M.); (E.D.); (S.R.B.); (H.H.); (J.A.P.)
- World Reference Center for Emerging Viruses and Arboviruses, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA
| | - Srinivisa Reddy Bonam
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA; (D.P.S.); (J.W.); (R.A.R.); (D.S.); (B.M.); (E.D.); (S.R.B.); (H.H.); (J.A.P.)
| | - Haitao Hu
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA; (D.P.S.); (J.W.); (R.A.R.); (D.S.); (B.M.); (E.D.); (S.R.B.); (H.H.); (J.A.P.)
| | - Jessica A. Plante
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA; (D.P.S.); (J.W.); (R.A.R.); (D.S.); (B.M.); (E.D.); (S.R.B.); (H.H.); (J.A.P.)
- World Reference Center for Emerging Viruses and Arboviruses, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA
| | - Kenneth S. Plante
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA; (D.P.S.); (J.W.); (R.A.R.); (D.S.); (B.M.); (E.D.); (S.R.B.); (H.H.); (J.A.P.)
- World Reference Center for Emerging Viruses and Arboviruses, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA
- Institute for Human Infections and Immunity, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA
| | - Scott C. Weaver
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA; (D.P.S.); (J.W.); (R.A.R.); (D.S.); (B.M.); (E.D.); (S.R.B.); (H.H.); (J.A.P.)
- World Reference Center for Emerging Viruses and Arboviruses, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA
- Institute for Human Infections and Immunity, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA
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Shinde DP, Plante JA, Plante KS, Weaver SC. Yellow Fever: Roles of Animal Models and Arthropod Vector Studies in Understanding Epidemic Emergence. Microorganisms 2022; 10:1578. [PMID: 36013996 PMCID: PMC9412558 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms10081578] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2022] [Revised: 07/31/2022] [Accepted: 08/02/2022] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Yellow fever virus (YFV) is a mosquito-borne flavivirus circulating throughout the tropical and sub-tropical regions of Africa and South America. It is responsible for an estimated 30,000 deaths annually, and while there is a highly successful vaccine, coverage is incomplete, and there is no approved treatment for YFV infection. Despite advancements in the field, animal models for YFV infection remain scarce, and care must be taken to select an appropriate model for a given hypothesis. Small animal models require either adapted YFV strains or immunocompromised hosts. Non-human primates (NHPs) recapitulate human disease, but they require specialized facilities and training, are often in short supply and cost-prohibitive, and can present ethical concerns. The limitations in studying the mosquito vectors for YFV infection include inconsistency in the laboratory environment, the requirement for a high containment insectary, and difficulty in maintaining sylvatic mosquitoes. In this review, we discuss the roles of animal models and arthropod vector studies in understanding epidemic emergence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Divya P. Shinde
- World Reference Center for Emerging Viruses and Arboviruses, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA
- Center for Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA
| | - Jessica A. Plante
- World Reference Center for Emerging Viruses and Arboviruses, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA
| | - Kenneth S. Plante
- World Reference Center for Emerging Viruses and Arboviruses, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA
- Institute for Human Infections and Immunity, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA
| | - Scott C. Weaver
- World Reference Center for Emerging Viruses and Arboviruses, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA
- Center for Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA
- Institute for Human Infections and Immunity, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA
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Kuno G. The Absence of Yellow Fever in Asia: History, Hypotheses, Vector Dispersal, Possibility of YF in Asia, and Other Enigmas. Viruses 2020; 12:E1349. [PMID: 33255615 PMCID: PMC7759908 DOI: 10.3390/v12121349] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2020] [Revised: 11/12/2020] [Accepted: 11/17/2020] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Since the recent epidemics of yellow fever in Angola and Brazil as well as the importation of cases to China in 2016, there has been an increased interest in the century-old enigma, absence of yellow fever in Asia. Although this topic has been repeatedly reviewed before, the history of human intervention has never been considered a critical factor. A two-stage literature search online for this review, however, yielded a rich history indispensable for the debate over this medical enigma. As we combat the pandemic of COVID-19 coronavirus worldwide today, we can learn invaluable lessons from the historical events in Asia. In this review, I explore the history first and then critically examine in depth major hypotheses proposed in light of accumulated data, global dispersal of the principal vector, patterns of YF transmission, persistence of urban transmission, and the possibility of YF in Asia. Through this process of re-examination of the current knowledge, the subjects for research that should be conducted are identified. This review also reveals the importance of holistic approach incorporating ecological and human factors for many unresolved subjects, such as the enigma of YF absence in Asia, vector competence, vector dispersal, spillback, viral persistence and transmission mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Goro Kuno
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Formerly Division of Vector-Borne Infectious Diseases, Fort Collins, CO 80521, USA
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A vector-host model to assess the impact of superinfection exclusion on vaccination strategies using dengue and yellow fever as case studies. J Theor Biol 2019; 484:110014. [PMID: 31557473 DOI: 10.1016/j.jtbi.2019.110014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2018] [Revised: 09/05/2019] [Accepted: 09/15/2019] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Superinfection exclusion is a phenomenon whereby the co-infection of a host with a secondary pathogen is prevented due to a current infection by another closely-related pathogenic strain. We construct a novel vector-host mathematical model for two pathogens that exhibit superinfection exclusion and simultaneously account for vaccination strategies against them. We then derive the conditions under which an endemic disease will prevent the establishment of another through the action of superinfection exclusion and show that vaccination against the endemic strain can enable the previously suppressed strain to invade the population. Through appropriate parameterisation of the model for dengue and yellow fever we find that superinfection exclusion alone is unlikely to explain the absence of yellow fever in many regions where dengue is endemic, and that the rollout of the recently licensed dengue vaccine, Dengvaxia, is unlikely to enable the establishment of Yellow Fever in regions where it has previously been absent.
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Faddy HM, Fryk JJ, Hall RA, Young PR, Reichenberg S, Tolksdorf F, Sumian C, Gravemann U, Seltsam A, Marks DC. Inactivation of yellow fever virus in plasma after treatment with methylene blue and visible light and in platelet concentrates following treatment with ultraviolet C light. Transfusion 2019; 59:2223-2227. [PMID: 31050821 DOI: 10.1111/trf.15332] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2018] [Revised: 03/26/2019] [Accepted: 03/30/2019] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Yellow fever virus (YFV) is endemic to tropical and subtropical areas in South America and Africa, and is currently a major public health threat in Brazil. Transfusion transmission of the yellow fever vaccine virus has been demonstrated, which is indicative of the potential for viral transfusion transmission. An approach to manage the potential YFV transfusion transmission risk is the use of pathogen inactivation (PI) technology systems, such as THERAFLEX MB-Plasma and THERAFLEX UV-Platelets (Macopharma). We aimed to investigate the efficacy of these PI technology systems to inactivate YFV in plasma or platelet concentrates (PCs). STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS YFV spiked plasma units were treated using THERAFLEX MB-Plasma system (visible light doses: 20, 40, 60, and 120 [standard] J/cm2 ) in the presence of methylene blue (approx. 0.8 μmol/L) and spiked PCs were treated using THERAFLEX UV-Platelets system (ultraviolet C doses: 0.05, 0.10, 0.15, and 0.20 [standard] J/cm2 ). Samples were taken before the first and after each illumination dose and tested for residual virus using a modified plaque assay. RESULTS YFV infectivity was reduced by an average of 4.77 log or greater in plasma treated with the THERAFLEX MB-Plasma system and by 4.8 log or greater in PCs treated with THERAFLEX UV-Platelets system. CONCLUSIONS Our study suggests the THERAFLEX MB-Plasma and the THERAFLEX UV-Platelets systems can efficiently inactivate YFV in plasma or PCs to a similar degree as that for other arboviruses. Given the reduction levels observed in this study, these PI technology systems could be an effective option for managing YFV transfusion-transmission risk in plasma and PCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Helen M Faddy
- Research and Development, Australian Red Cross Blood Service, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
- School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Jesse J Fryk
- Research and Development, Australian Red Cross Blood Service, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Roy A Hall
- Australian Infectious Diseases Research Centre, School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Paul R Young
- Australian Infectious Diseases Research Centre, School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | | | | | | | - Ute Gravemann
- German Red Cross Blood Service NSTOB, Springe, Germany
| | - Axel Seltsam
- German Red Cross Blood Service NSTOB, Springe, Germany
| | - Denese C Marks
- Research and Development, Australian Red Cross Blood Service, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
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Baba MM, Ikusemoran M. Is the absence or intermittent YF vaccination the major contributor to its persistent outbreaks in eastern Africa? Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2017; 492:548-557. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2017.01.079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2016] [Accepted: 01/17/2017] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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QTL mapping of a natural genetic polymorphism for long-term parasite persistence in Daphnia populations. Parasitology 2017; 144:1686-1694. [DOI: 10.1017/s0031182017001032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
SUMMARYKnowing the determinants of the geographic ranges of parasites is important for understanding their evolutionary ecology, epidemiology and their potential to expand their range. Here we explore the determinants of geographic range in the peculiar case of a parasite species – the microsporidian Hamiltosporidium tvaerminnensis – that has a limited geographic distribution in a wide-spread host – Daphnia magna. We conducted a quantitative trait loci (QTLs) analysis with monoclonal F2D. magna populations originating from a cross between a susceptible northern European genotype and a resistant central European genotype. Contrary to our expectations, long-term persistence turned out to be a quantitative trait across the F2 offspring. Evidence for two QTLs, one epistatic interaction and for further minor QTL was found. This finding contrasts markedly with the previously described bimodal pattern for long-term parasite persistence in natural host genotypes across Europe and leaves open the question of how a quantitative genetic trait could determine the disjunct geographic distribution of the parasite across Europe.
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A fatal yellow fever virus infection in China: description and lessons. Emerg Microbes Infect 2016; 5:e69. [PMID: 27406389 PMCID: PMC5141266 DOI: 10.1038/emi.2016.89] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2016] [Revised: 05/31/2016] [Accepted: 06/13/2016] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Yellow fever (YF) is a viral disease endemic to the tropical regions of Africa and South America. An outbreak of YF has been occurring in Angola, since the beginning of 2016. In March 2016, a 32-year-old Chinese man who returned from Angola was hospitalized and diagnosed with the first case of imported YF in China. Clinical observations, blood viral RNA detection, serological testing and treatments for the patient were performed daily. The virus was isolated in Vero cells, and the complete viral genome was sequenced and analyzed using the next-generation genomic sequencing platform. The patient presented with hemorrhagic fever, jaundice and oliguria at day 3 after onset, which rapidly progressed to multisystem organ failure with extremely elevated liver, pancreatic and myocardial enzymes. The patient died despite the intensive supportive treatments that were performed. A liver biopsy showed severe and multilobular necrosis. Viral RNA was detectable throughout the clinical course of the disease. Whole-genomic sequence analysis revealed that the virus belongs to the Angola71 genotype. Although the virus has been circulating in Angola for 45 years, only 14 amino-acid substitutions and no amino-acid changes were observed in the membrane and envelope proteins compared with the virus collected in 1971. The presence of this imported YF case in China indicated that with the increase in business travel among countries, YF outbreaks in Africa can lead to the international spread of the disease. The production and use of YF vaccines is, therefore, an urgent issue.
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Apoptosis, autophagy and unfolded protein response pathways in Arbovirus replication and pathogenesis. Expert Rev Mol Med 2016; 18:e1. [PMID: 26781343 PMCID: PMC4836210 DOI: 10.1017/erm.2015.19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Arboviruses are pathogens that widely affect the health of people in different communities around the world. Recently, a few successful approaches toward production of effective vaccines against some of these pathogens have been developed, but treatment and prevention of the resulting diseases remain a major health and research concern. The arbovirus infection and replication processes are complex, and many factors are involved in their regulation. Apoptosis, autophagy and the unfolded protein response (UPR) are three mechanisms that are involved in pathogenesis of many viruses. In this review, we focus on the importance of these pathways in the arbovirus replication and infection processes. We provide a brief introduction on how apoptosis, autophagy and the UPR are initiated and regulated, and then discuss the involvement of these pathways in regulation of arbovirus pathogenesis.
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Approach to clinical syndrome of jaundice and encephalopathy in tropics. J Clin Exp Hepatol 2015; 5:S116-30. [PMID: 26041951 PMCID: PMC4442860 DOI: 10.1016/j.jceh.2014.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2014] [Accepted: 05/14/2014] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
A large number of patients present with jaundice and encephalopathy in tropical country like India and acute liver failure is the usual cause. Clinical presentation like ALF is also a complication of many tropical infections, and these conditions may mimic ALF but may have subtle differences from ALF. Moreover, what hepatologists see as acute liver failure in tropics is different from what is commonly described in Western Textbooks. Paracetamol overdose, which is possibly the commonest cause of ALF in UK and USA, is hardly ever seen in India. Most common etiology here is viral hepatitis (hepatitis E > hepatitis B> hepatitis A). Apart from ALF, one may also come across subacute hepatic failure (SAHF) as well as acute-on-chronic liver failure (ACLF) due to viral hepatitis. Interestingly, a host of other conditions can mimic ALF because clinical presentation in these conditions can be dominated by jaundice and encephalopathy. Malarial hepatopathy is possibly the best-known condition out of these and is not an uncommon manifestation of severe malaria. A similar presentation can also be seen in other common infections in tropics such as dengue fever, typhoid fever, leptospirosis, scrub typhus, amoebic liver abscesses, tuberculosis and other bacterial and fungal infections with or without human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) related disease. In many of these conditions, liver failure may not be underlying pathophysiology. Some pregnancy related liver diseases could also present with jaundice and encephalopathy. This review summarizes the commonly seen presentations in tropical country like India, where jaundice and encephalopathy dominate the clinical picture.
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Comment on “Is There a Risk of Yellow Fever Virus Transmission in South Asian Countries with Hyperendemic Dengue?”. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2015; 2015:154146. [PMID: 26693476 PMCID: PMC4677030 DOI: 10.1155/2015/154146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2015] [Accepted: 10/05/2015] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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Beasley DWC, McAuley AJ, Bente DA. Yellow fever virus: genetic and phenotypic diversity and implications for detection, prevention and therapy. Antiviral Res 2014; 115:48-70. [PMID: 25545072 DOI: 10.1016/j.antiviral.2014.12.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2014] [Revised: 12/05/2014] [Accepted: 12/11/2014] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Yellow fever virus (YFV) is the prototypical hemorrhagic fever virus, yet our understanding of its phenotypic diversity and any molecular basis for observed differences in disease severity and epidemiology is lacking, when compared to other arthropod-borne and haemorrhagic fever viruses. This is, in part, due to the availability of safe and effective vaccines resulting in basic YFV research taking a back seat to those viruses for which no effective vaccine occurs. However, regular outbreaks occur in endemic areas, and the spread of the virus to new, previously unaffected, areas is possible. Analysis of isolates from endemic areas reveals a strong geographic association for major genotypes, and recent epidemics have demonstrated the emergence of novel sequence variants. This review aims to outline the current understanding of YFV genetic and phenotypic diversity and its sources, as well as the available animal models for characterizing these differences in vivo. The consequences of genetic diversity for detection and diagnosis of yellow fever and development of new vaccines and therapeutics are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- David W C Beasley
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, 301 University Blvd., Galveston, TX 77555, United States; Sealy Center for Vaccine Development, University of Texas Medical Branch, 301 University Blvd., Galveston, TX 77555, United States; Center for Biodefense and Emerging Infectious Diseases, University of Texas Medical Branch, 301 University Blvd., Galveston, TX 77555, United States; Institute for Human Infections and Immunity, University of Texas Medical Branch, 301 University Blvd., Galveston, TX 77555, United States.
| | - Alexander J McAuley
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, 301 University Blvd., Galveston, TX 77555, United States
| | - Dennis A Bente
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, 301 University Blvd., Galveston, TX 77555, United States; Sealy Center for Vaccine Development, University of Texas Medical Branch, 301 University Blvd., Galveston, TX 77555, United States; Center for Biodefense and Emerging Infectious Diseases, University of Texas Medical Branch, 301 University Blvd., Galveston, TX 77555, United States; Institute for Human Infections and Immunity, University of Texas Medical Branch, 301 University Blvd., Galveston, TX 77555, United States
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