Lancemaside A from Codonopsis lanceolata modulates the inflammatory responses mediated by monocytes and macrophages

In silico guided screening of active components of C. lanceolata as 3-chymotrypsin-like protease inhibitors of novel coronavirus

Despite the intense worldwide efforts towards the identification of potential anti-CoV therapeutics, no antiviral drugs have yet been discovered. Numerous vaccines are now approved for use, but they all serve as preventative measures. To effectively treat viral infections, it is crucial to find new antiviral drugs that are derived from natural sources. Various compounds with potential activity against 3 chymotrypsin-like protease (3CLpro) were reported and some are validated by bioassay studies. Therefore, we performed the computational screening of phytoconstituents of Codonopsis lanceolata to search for potential antiviral hit candidates. The curated compounds of the plant C. lanceolata were collected and downloaded from the literature. The binding affinity of the curated datasets was predicted for the target 3CLpro. Stigmasterol exhibits the highest docking score for the 3CLpro target. In addition, molecular dynamics (MD) simulations were conducted for the validation of docking results using root mean square deviation and root mean square fluctuation plots. The MD results indicated that the docked complex was stable and retained hydrogen bonding and non-bonding interactions. Furthermore, the calculation of pharmacokinetic parameters and Lipinski's rule of five suggest that C. lanceolata has the potential for drug-likeness. In order to develop new medicines for this debilitating disease, we will focus on the primary virus-based and host-based targets that can direct medicinal chemists to identify novel treatments to produce new drugs for it.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13205-023-03745-2.

IκB kinase β (IKKβ): Structure, transduction mechanism, biological function, and discovery of its inhibitors

The effective approach to discover innovative drugs will ask natural products for answers because of their complex and changeable structures and multiple biological activities. Inhibitory kappa B kinase beta (IKKβ), known as IKK2, is a key regulatory kinase responsible for the activation of NF-κB through its phosphorylation at Ser177 and Ser181 to promote the phosphorylation of inhibitors of kappa B (IκBs), triggering their ubiquitination and degradation to active the nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB) cascade. Chemical inhibition of IKKβ or its genetic knockout has become an effective method to block NF-κB-mediated proliferation and migration of tumor cells and inflammatory response. In this review, we summarized the structural feature and transduction mechanism of IKKβ and the discovery of inhibitors from natural resources (e.g. sesquiterpenoids, diterpenoids, triterpenoids, flavonoids, and alkaloids) and chemical synthesis (e.g. pyrimidines, pyridines, pyrazines, quinoxalines, thiophenes, and thiazolidines). In addition, the biosynthetic pathway of novel natural IKKβ inhibitors and their biological potentials were discussed. This review will provide inspiration for the structural modification of IKKβ inhibitors based on the skeleton of natural products or chemical synthesis and further phytochemistry investigations.

Fermented Sprouts of Codonopsis lanceolata Suppress LPS-Induced Inflammatory Responses by Inhibiting NF-κB Signaling Pathway in RAW 264.7 Macrophages and CD1 Mice

The interest in bioconversion through fermentation of sprouts produced in smart farms is increasing due to their potential health benefits. Codonopsis lanceolata (CL) is reported to alleviate inflammatory conditions, but much research is still needed to determine which types and parts of CL are most effective. This study investigated the anti-inflammatory effects of a fermented extract of CL sprouts' aerial part (F-CSA) against LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages and mice. In the screening test, F-CSA showed the most substantial anti-inflammatory effect among several samples, containing the highest total flavonoids, tannins, and polyphenols. UPLC-ESI-Q/TOF-MS and HPLC analysis revealed that F-CSA had the highest amount of luteolin among all the CL samples analyzed. F-CSA reduced the release of inflammatory cytokines and mediators such as NO and PGE₂ by inhibiting the expression levels of iNOS and COX-2 in LPS-stimulated macrophages. Further, we found that the anti-inflammatory effects of F-CSA were mediated by inhibiting the JNK/NF-κB signaling pathway. Moreover, F-CSA improved survival rates and reduced plasma levels of NO and IL-6 in CD1 mice stimulated with LPS. These findings suggest that F-CSA, which contains luteolin, can alleviate inflammation in LPS-induced RAW 264.7 cells and a CD1 mouse model by inhibiting the JNK/NF-κB signaling pathways.

Toxicity as prime selection criterion among SARS-active herbal medications

We present here a new selection criterion for prioritizing research on efficacious drugs for the fight against COVID-19: the relative toxicity versus safety of herbal medications, which were effective against SARS in the 2002/2003 epidemic. We rank these medicines according to their toxicity versus safety as basis for preferential rapid research on their potential in the treatment of COVID-19. The data demonstrate that from toxicological information nothing speaks against immediate investigation on, followed by rapid implementation of Lonicera japonica, Morus alba, Forsythia suspensa, and Codonopsis spec. for treatment of COVID-19 patients. Glycyrrhiza spec. and Panax ginseng are ranked in second priority and ephedrine-free Herba Ephedrae extract in third priority (followed by several drugs in lower preferences). Rapid research on their efficacy in the therapy - as well as safety under the specific circumstances of COVID-19 - followed by equally rapid implementation will provide substantial advantages to Public Health including immediate availability, enlargement of medicinal possibilities, in cases where other means are not successful (non-responders), not tolerated (sensitive individuals) or just not available (as is presently the case) and thus minimize sufferings and save lives. Moreover, their moderate costs and convenient oral application are especially advantageous for underprivileged populations in developing countries.

The feeding of dietary Codonopsis pilosula polysaccharide enhances the immune responses, the expression of immune-related genes and the growth performance of red swamp crayfish (Procambarus clarkii)

Polysaccharides have many functions in aquatic animals and are widely used as immunopotentiators. However, despite the emergence of serious diseases, few studies have explored the effects of Codonopsis pilosula polysaccharide (CPP) on crustaceans. We studied the effects of CPP on the growth performance, nonspecific immunity, antioxidant activity and disease resistance of red swamp crayfish (Procambarus clarkii). Healthy crayfish (5.80 ± 0.1 g) were fed diets supplemented with 0% (control), 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.15%, 0.20%, and 0.30% CPP for 8 weeks. At the end of the 8-week feeding trial, the optimal final body weight (FBW), weight gain (WG), specific growth rate (SGR), and feed conversion ratio (FCR) were observed in the crayfish fed the diets with 0.15% and 0.20% CPP, followed by those fed the diet with 0.30% CPP and then those fed the diet with 0.10% CPP, whereas the values of these parameters were obtained with the control crayfish (P < 0.05). The crayfish fed the diets with 0.15% and 0.20% CPP exhibited a significantly higher total hemocyte count (THC) and significantly increased phenoloxidase (PO), lysozyme (LZM), hemocyte (Hc), acid phosphatase (ACP) and alkaline phosphatase (AKP) compared with those belonging to the other groups (P < 0.05). The crayfish fed the diets with 0.15% and 0.2% CPP exhibited significantly higher total superoxide dismutase (T-SOD) and glutathione peroxidase (GPx) activities, a significantly increased total antioxidant capacity (T-AOC) and a significantly lower malondialdehyde (MDA) content compared with the other groups (P < 0.05), which indicated that antioxidant capacity was significantly induced by the CPP-supplemented diets. Significantly upregulated expression of immune-related genes (anti-lipopolysaccharide factors (alf), peroxiredoxin (prx5), cathepsin B (ctsb), mitochondrial manganese superoxide dismutase (mtMnsod), cyclophilin A (cypa), glutathione peroxidase (gpx), Toll-like receptor 3 (tlr3), and heat shock protein 70 (hsp70)) was detected in the crayfish fed the diets supplemented with 0.15% and 0.20% CPP diet compared with the levels observed in the control crayfish. These results showed that dietary CPP supplementation greatly improved the growth, immunity and antioxidant capacities of crayfish, and according to the observed results, 0.15%-0.2% is the recommended optimal level of CPP dietary supplementation for crayfish.

Lancemaside A Isolated from the Root of Codonopsis lanceolata Inhibits Ovarian Cancer Cell Invasion via the Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS)-Mediated p38 Pathway

Codonopsis lanceolata roots have been widely used in Korean cuisine and traditional medicine. This study aimed to investigate the antimetastatic effects of lancemaside A, a major triterpenoid saponin, isolated from the roots of C. lanceolata, in human ovarian cancer cells. Lancemaside A significantly suppressed the migration and invasion and the expression of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs)-2 and -9 in ovarian cancer A2780 and SKOV3 cells. Treatment with lancemaside A generated reactive oxygen species (ROS) in ovarian cancer cells. However, treatment with anti-oxidant N-acetyl-L-cysteine (NAC) significantly negated the anti-invasive activity of lancemaside A. Additionally, lancemaside A activated p38 MAP kinase, which is mediated by ROS generation. This is the first study, to our knowledge, to reveal that lancemaside A isolated from the roots of C. lanceolata exerts antimetastatic activity through inhibition of MMP expression and cancer cell invasion via activation of the ROS-mediated p38 pathway.

Antioxidant and Cytoprotective Effects of (-)-Epigallocatechin-3-(3″-O-methyl) Gallate

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are generated from diverse cellular processes or external sources such as chemicals, pollutants, or ultraviolet (UV) irradiation. Accumulation of radicals causes cell damage that can result in degenerative diseases. Antioxidants remove radicals by eliminating unpaired electrons from other molecules. In skin health, antioxidants are essential to protect cells from the environment and prevent skin aging. (-)-Epigallocatechin-3-(3″-O-methyl) gallate (3″Me-EGCG) has been found in limited oolong teas or green teas with distinctive methylated form, but its precise activities have not been fully elucidated. In this study, we examined the antioxidant roles of 3″Me-EGCG in keratinocytes (HaCaT cells). 3″Me-EGCG showed scavenging effects in cell and cell-free systems. Under H₂O₂ exposure, 3″Me-EGCG recovered cell viability and increased the expression of heme oxygenase 1 (HO-1). Under ultraviolet B (UVB) and sodium nitroprusside (SNP) exposure, 3″Me-EGCG protected keratinocytes and regulated the survival protein AKT1. By regulating the AKT1/NF-κB pathway, 3″Me-EGCG augmented cell survival and proliferation in HaCaT cells. These results indicate that 3″Me-EGCG exhibits antioxidant properties, resulting in cytoprotection against various external stimuli. In conclusion, our findings suggest that 3″Me-EGCG can be used as an ingredient of cosmetic products or health supplements.

Lancemaside A from Codonopsis lanceolata prevents hypertension by inhibiting NADPH oxidase 2-mediated MAPK signalling and improving NO bioavailability in rats

OBJECTIVES

This study investigated whether lancemaside A (LMA) can prevent hypertension and assessed the mechanisms of action of LMA in rats.

METHODS

Hypertension was induced by chronic immobilization stress and nicotine administration. Hypertensive vehicle rats were treated with LMA (1, 20, or 40 mg/kg) or nifedipine (10 mg/kg) as a positive control daily for 3 weeks.

KEY FINDINGS

In hypertensive vehicle rats, LMA dose-dependently reduced systolic blood pressure. LMA doses of 20 and 40 mg/kg reduced the aortic expression of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidase (NOX)2 (both P < 0.01), and 40 mg/kg LMA reduced serum malondialdehyde (P < 0.01). Serum nitrite levels were significantly higher in LMA treated rats than in hypertensive vehicle rats, with LMA doses of 20 and 40 mg/kg reducing the expression of endothelial nitric oxide synthase in rat aortas (P < 0.001 and P < 0.01, respectively). LMA also reduced the aortic levels of nuclear factor kappa B and the activation of the three isoforms of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK).

CONCLUSIONS

Lancemaside A prevents hypertension in rats by inhibiting the activation of MAPK signalling and the impairment in nitric oxide bioavailability due to NOX2-mediated oxidative stress. Thus, LMA may act as a preventive agent for hypertension.

Lancemaside A, a major triterpene saponin of Codonopsis lanceolata enhances regulation of nitric oxide synthesis via eNOS activation

Background

Many studies on the effect of saponin-rich Codonopsis lanceolata as a bioactive source for improving physical health have been performed. C. lanceolata contains triterpenoid saponins, including lancemasides. These saponins are known to be particularly involved in the regulation of blood pressure or hypertension. This study investigated whether lancemaside A (LA), a major triterpenoid saponin from C. lanceolata, regulates nitric oxide (NO) production via the activation of endothelial NO synthase (eNOS) in human umbilical vein endothelial cells.

Methods

Upon separation with petroleum ether, ethyl acetate, and n-butanol, LA was found to be abundant in the n-butanol-soluble portion. For further purification of LA, HPLC was performed to collect fraction, and LA was identified using analysis of LC/MSMS and ¹³C-NMR values. In in vitro, the effects of LA on NO release mechanism in HUVECs were investigated by Griess assay, quantitative real-time reverse-transcription PCR, and Western blotting.

Results

Our results showed that NO production was efficiently improved by treatment with LA in a dose-dependent manner. In addition, the LA treatment resulted in extensive recovery of the NO production suppressed by the eNOS inhibitor, L-NAME, compared with that in the control group. Additionally, the level of eNOS mRNA was increased by this treatment in a dose-dependent manner. These results suggested that LA is an inducer of NO synthesis via eNOS mRNA expression. Also, the study indicated that LA is involved in activating the PI3K/Akt/eNOS signaling pathway.

Conclusion

These results suggested that LA is an inducer of NO synthesis via eNOS mRNA expression. Also, the study indicated that LA is involved in activating the PI3K/Akt/eNOS signaling pathway. These findings suggest the value of using LA as a component of functional foods and natural pharmaceuticals.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12906-019-2516-6) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Codonopsis lanceolata attenuates allergic lung inflammation by inhibiting Th2 cell activation and augmenting mitochondrial ROS dismutase (SOD2) expression

Allergic asthma is a chronic inflammatory disease induced by the inhalation of allergens, which trigger the activation of T helper type 2 (Th2) cells that release Th2 cytokines. Recently, herbal medicines are being considered a major source of novel agents to treat various diseases. In the present study, we evaluated the anti-asthmatic effects of a Codonopsis lanceolata extract (CLE) and the mechanisms involved in its anti-inflammatory effects. Treatment with CLE reduced infiltration of inflammatory cells, especially eosinophils, and the production of mucus in lung tissues. Levels of Th2 cytokines, such as IL-4, IL-5, and IL-13, and chemokines were also decreased following treatment with CLE. Moreover, Th2 cell proportion in vivo and differentiation in vitro were reduced as evidenced by the decreased expression of GATA3⁺. Furthermore, the expression of superoxide dismutase (SOD)2, a mitochondrial ROS (mROS) scavenger, was increased, which was related to Th2 cell regulation. Interestingly, treatment with CLE increased the number of macrophages in the lungs and enhanced the immune-suppressive property of macrophages. Our findings indicate that CLE has potential as a novel therapeutic agent to inhibit Th2 cell differentiation by regulating mROS scavenging.

Anti-inflammatory effects of a novel compound, MPQP, through the inhibition of IRAK1 signaling pathways in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages

Small-molecule inhibitors are widely used to treat a variety of inflammatory diseases. In this study, we found a novel anti-inflammatory compound, 1-[(2R,4S)-2-methyl-4-(phenylamino)-1,2,3,4-tetrahydroquinolin-1-yl]prop-2-en-1-one (MPQP). It showed strong anti-inflammatory effects in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages. These effects were exerted through the inhibition of the production of NO and pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as interleukin (IL)-6, IL-1β, and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α). Furthermore, MPQP decreased the expression levels of inducible NO synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase 2 (COX-2). Additionally, it mediated the inhibition of the phosphorylation of p38, c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), the inhibitor of κBα (IκBα), and their upstream kinases, IκB kinase (IKK) α/β, mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase (MKK) 3/6, and MKK4. Furthermore, the expression of IL-1 receptor-associated kinase 1 (IRAK1) that regulates NF-κB, p38, and the JNK signaling pathways, was also increased by MPQP. These results indicate that MPQP regulates the IRAK1-mediated inflammatory signaling pathways by targeting IRAK1 or its upstream factors.

TANK-binding kinase 1 and Janus kinase 2 play important roles in the regulation of mitogen-activated protein kinase phosphatase-1 expression after toll-like receptor 4 activation

Inflammation is a response that protects the body from pathogens. Through several inflammatory signaling pathways mediated by various families of transcription factors, such as nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB), activator protein-1 (AP-1), interferon regulatory factors (IRFs), and signal transducers and activators of transcription (STATs), various inflammatory cytokines and chemokines are induced and inflammatory responses are boosted. Simultaneously, inhibitory systems are activated and provide negative feedback. A typical mechanism by which this process occurs is that inflammatory signaling molecules upregulate mitogen-activated protein kinase phosphatase-1 (MKP1) expression. Here, we investigated how kinases regulate MKP1 expression in lipopolysaccharide-triggered cascades. We found that p38 and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) inhibitors decreased MKP1 expression. Using specific inhibitors, gene knockouts, and gene knockdowns, we also found that tumor necrosis factor receptor-associated factor family member-associated nuclear factor κB activator (TANK)-binding kinase 1 (TBK1) and Janus kinase 2 (JAK2) are involved in the induction of MKP1 expression. By analyzing JAK2-induced activation of STATs, STAT3-specific inhibitors, promoter binding sites, and STAT3^-/- cells, we found that STAT3 is directly linked to TBK1-mediated and JAK2-mediated induction of MKP1 expression. Our data suggest that MKP1 expression can be differentially regulated by p38, JNK, and the TBK1-JAK2-STAT3 pathway after activation of toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4). These data also imply crosstalk between the AP-1 pathway and the IRF3 and STAT3 pathways.

Cytoprotective Effect of Epigallocatechin Gallate (EGCG)-5'-O-α-Glucopyranoside, a Novel EGCG Derivative

Epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) is a well-studied polyphenol with antioxidant effects. Since EGCG has low solubility and stability, many researchers have modified EGCG residues to ameliorate these problems. A novel EGCG derivative, EGCG-5′-O-α-glucopyranoside (EGCG-5′Glu), was synthesized, and its characteristics were investigated. EGCG-5′Glu showed antioxidant effects in cell and cell-free systems. Under SNP-derived radical exposure, EGCG-5′Glu decreased nitric oxide (NO) production, and recovered ROS-mediated cell viability. Moreover, EGCG-5′Glu regulated apoptotic pathways (caspases) and cell survival molecules (phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) and phosphoinositide-dependent kinase 1 (PDK1)). In another radical-induced condition, ultraviolet B (UVB) irradiation, EGCG-5′Glu protected cells from UVB and regulated the PI3K/PDK1/AKT pathway. Next, the proliferative effect of EGCG-5′Glu was examined. EGCG-5′Glu increased cell proliferation by modulating nuclear factor (NF)-κB activity. EGCG-5′Glu protects and repairs cells from external damage via its antioxidant effects. These results suggest that EGCG-5′Glu could be used as a cosmetics ingredient or dietary supplement.

Codonopsis lanceolata extract prevents hypertension in rats

BACKGROUND

Codonopsis lanceolata, a plant with antioxidant, anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory and blood lipid improving effects, has been widely used as a therapeutic agent in traditional medicine.

PURPOSE

The present study investigated the ability of an ethanol extract of Codonopsis lanceolata (ECL) to prevent hypertension in hypertensive rats.

METHODS

Rats were orally administered daily doses of 0 mg/kg, 200 mg/kg and 400 mg/kg ECL for 3 weeks. As a positive control, rats were orally administered 10 mg/kg/day nifedipine. Hypertension was induced by immobilization stress for 2 h/day and by administration of 0.8 mg/kg/day nicotine for 3 weeks, followed by injection of 3 mg/kg nicotine on the day of sacrifice. Blood pressure and heart rate were measured using a volume pressure recording system. Vasoconstriction and vasodilation of aortic cross sections were measured with a physiological recorder. Neutrophil counts in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid were estimated with an automated cell counter.

RESULTS

Treatment with both dosages of ECL significantly reduced systolic blood pressure (SBP) in hypertensive rats. Both doses of ECL tended to increase ACh- and SNP-induced vascular relaxation in hypertensive rats. Treatment with 200 mg/kg ECL significantly reduced neutrophil in hypertensive rats.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest that ECL is effective in reducing SBP and inflammation in hypertensive conditions.

Skin Protective Effect of Epigallocatechin Gallate

Epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) is a catechin and an abundant polyphenol in green tea. Although several papers have evaluated EGCG as a cosmetic constituent, the skin hydration effect of EGCG is poorly understood. We aimed to investigate the mechanism by which EGCG promotes skin hydration by measuring hyaluronic acid synthase (HAS) and hyaluronidase (HYAL) gene expression and antioxidant and anti-pigmentation properties using cell proliferation assay, Western blotting analysis, luciferase assay, 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) assay, and reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) analysis. RT-PCR showed that EGCG increased the expression of natural moisturizing factor-related genes filaggrin (FLG), transglutaminase-1, HAS-1, and HAS-2. Under UVB irradiation conditions, the expression level of HYAL was decreased in HaCaT cells. Furthermore, we confirmed the antioxidant activity of EGCG and also showed a preventive effect against radical-evoked apoptosis by downregulation of caspase-8 and -3 in HaCaT cells. EGCG reduced melanin secretion and production in melanoma cells. Together, these results suggest that EGCG might be used as a cosmetic ingredient with positive effects on skin hydration, moisture retention, and wrinkle formation, in addition to radical scavenging activity and reduction of melanin generation.

Molecular association of CD98, CD29, and CD147 critically mediates monocytic U937 cell adhesion

Adhesion events of monocytes represent an important step in inflammatory responses induced by chemokines. The β1-integrin CD29 is a major adhesion molecule regulating leukocyte migration and extravasation. Although several adhesion molecules have been known as regulators of CD29, the molecular interactions between CD29 and its regulatory adhesion molecules (such as CD98 and CD147) have not been fully elucidated. Therefore, in this study, we examined whether these molecules are functionally, biochemically, and cell-biologically associated using monocytic U937 cells treated with aggregation-stimulating and blocking antibodies, as well as enzyme inhibitors. The surface levels of CD29, CD98, and CD147 (but not CD43, CD44, and CD82) were increased. The activation of CD29, CD98, and CD147 by ligation of them with aggregation-activating antibodies triggered the induction of cell-cell adhesion, and sensitivity to various enzyme inhibitors and aggregation-blocking antibodies was similar for CD29-, CD98-, and CD147-induced U937 cell aggregation. Molecular association between these molecules and the actin cytoskeleton was confirmed by confocal microscopy and immunoprecipitation. These results strongly suggest that CD29 might be modulated by its biochemical and cellular regulators, including CD98 and CD147, via the actin cytoskeleton.

1-(2,3-Dibenzimidazol-2-ylpropyl)-2-methoxybenzene Is a Syk Inhibitor with Anti-Inflammatory Properties

Inflammation is the protective action of our bodies against external pathogens by recognition of pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) via pattern recognition receptors (PRRs). Proper regulation of inflammatory responses is required to maintain our body’s homeostasis, as well as there are demands to develop proper acute or chronic inflammation. In this study, we elucidated the regulatory mechanism of NF-κB-mediated inflammatory responses by a novel compound, 1-(2,3-dibenzimidazol-2-ylpropyl)-2-methoxybenzene (DBMB). We found that DBMB suppressed inflammatory mediators, nitric oxide (NO) and prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂), reacted to exposure to a number of toll like receptor (TLR) ligands. Such observations occurred following to decreased mRNA expression of several pro-inflammatory mediators, and such diminished mRNA levels were caused by inhibited transcriptional factor nuclear factor (NF)-κB, as evaluated by luciferase reporter assay and molecular biological approaches. To find the potential targets of DBMB, we screened phosphorylated forms of NF-κB signal molecules: inhibitor of κBα (IκBα), IκB kinase (IKK)α/β, Akt, 3-phosphoinositide dependent protein kinase-1 (PDK1), p85, and spleen tyrosine kinase (Syk). We found that DBMB treatment could suppress signal transduction through these molecules. Additionally, we conducted in vitro kinase assays using immunoprecipitated Syk and its substrate, p85. Consequently, we could say that DBMB clearly suppressed the kinase activity of Syk kinase activity. Together, our results demonstrate that synthetic DBMB has an effect on the inflammatory NF-κB signaling pathway and suggest the potential for clinical use in the treatment of inflammatory diseases.

The genus Codonopsis (Campanulaceae): a review of phytochemistry, bioactivity and quality control

Codonopsis, in the family Campanulaceae, is a genus containing 42 species of dicotyledonous herbaceous perennial plants, predominantly found in Central, East and South Asia. Several Codonopsis species are widely used in traditional medicine and are considered to have multiple medicinal properties. Among the Codonopsis species, Codonopsis pilosula (Franch.) Nannf. and C. lanceolata (Sieb. et Zucc.) Benth. & Hook. f. ex Trautv. are more popular than others according to the findings, especially phytochemical and bioactive studies. Phytochemical research shows that Codonopsis species contain mainly polyacetylenes, phenylpropanoids, alkaloids, triterpenoids and polysaccharides, which contribute to multiple bioactivities. However, the mechanisms of their bioactivities need to be further elucidated. The less popular Codonopsis species remain to be studied and exploited. In addition, although a series of methods for the quality evaluation of Codonopsis species have been developed, a feasible and reliable approach to the efficacious and safe use of various Codonopsis species is still needed, with considering botanical origin, chemical constituents and bioactive effects. This review aims to provide up-to-date and comprehensive information on the phytochemistry, bioactivity and quality control of medicinal plants in the genus Codonopsis and to highlight current gaps in knowledge, which is useful for the wider development of the Codonopsis genus.

21-O-angeloyltheasapogenol E3, a novel triterpenoid saponin from the seeds of tea plants, inhibits macrophage-mediated inflammatory responses in a NF-κB-dependent manner

21-O-Angeloyltheasapogenol E3 (ATS-E3) is a triterpenoid saponin recently isolated from the seeds of the tea tree Camellia sinensis (L.) O. Kuntze. ATS-E3 has several beneficial properties including anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, antiatherosclerotic, and anticancer effects. Unlike other phenolic compounds isolated from tea plants, there are no studies reporting the pharmacological action of ATS-E3. In this study, we therefore aimed to explore the cellular and molecular inhibitory activities of ATS-E3 in macrophage-mediated inflammatory responses. ATS-E3 remarkably diminished cellular responses of macrophages such as FITC-dextran-induced phagocytic uptake, sodium nitroprusside- (SNP-) induced radical generation, and LPS-induced nitric oxide (NO) production. Analysis of its molecular activity showed that this compound significantly suppressed the expression of inducible NO synthase (iNOS), nuclear translocation of nuclear factor- (NF-) κB subunits (p50 and p65), phosphorylation of inhibitor of κB kinase (IKK), and the enzyme activity of AKT1. Taken together, the novel triterpenoid saponin compound ATS-E3 contributes to the beneficial effects of tea plants by exerting anti-inflammatory and antioxidative activities in an AKT/IKK/NF-κB-dependent manner.

NF-κB/AP-1-targeted inhibition of macrophage-mediated inflammatory responses by depigmenting compound AP736 derived from natural 1,3-diphenylpropane skeleton

AP736 was identified as an antimelanogenic drug that can be used for the prevention of melasma, freckles, and dark spots in skin by acting as a suppressor of melanin synthesis and tyrosinase expression. Since macrophage-mediated inflammatory responses are critical for skin health, here we investigated the potential anti-inflammatory activity of AP736. The effects of AP736 on various inflammatory events such as nitric oxide (NO)/prostaglandin (PG) E₂ production, inflammatory gene expression, phagocytic uptake, and morphological changes were examined in RAW264.7 cells. AP736 was found to strongly inhibit the production of both NO and PGE₂ in lipopolysaccharide- (LPS-) treated RAW264.7 cells. In addition, AP736 strongly inhibited both LPS-induced morphological changes and FITC-dextran-induced phagocytic uptake. Furthermore, AP736 also downregulated the expression of multiple inflammatory genes, such as inducible NO synthase (iNOS), cyclooxygenase- (COX-) 2, and interleukin- (IL-) 1β in LPS-treated RAW264.7 cells. Transcription factor analysis, including upstream signalling events, revealed that both NF-κB and AP-1 were targeted by AP736 via inhibition of the IKK/IκBα and IRAK1/TAK1 pathways. Therefore, our results strongly suggest that AP736 is a potential anti-inflammatory drug due to its suppression of NF-κB-IKK/IκBα and AP-1-IRAK1/TAK1 signalling, which may make AP736 useful for the treatment of macrophage-mediated skin inflammation.