Relationship between bone mineral density and the frequent administration of epidural steroid injections in postmenopausal women with low back pain

Risk of SARS-CoV-2 following joint and epidural corticosteroid injections: A retrospective study

OBJECTIVE

The immunosuppressive effects of corticosteroid (CS) injections have come under more scrutiny during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. The aim of the study was to explore any relationship between joint/epidural CS injection and SARS-CoV-2 (severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2) polymerase chain reaction (PCR) positivity.

METHODS

A retrospective chart review was conducted on patients 18 years or over who received at least one joint or epidural CS injection by physiatrists in a tertiary care center between January 1, 2020, and December 31, 2021. This cohort of patients was then compared to a control group who did not receive any CS injection during this time period.

RESULTS

A total of 766 patients were identified in the CS injection group and 1546 patients in the control group. Overall, 12.27% of patients turned SARS-CoV-2 PCR positive in the CS injection group, which was similar to 11.90% in the control group (p = 0.797). But 3-month SARS-CoV-2 PCR positivity rate showed a statistically significant higher rate among the CS injection group (3.30% in the CS injection group vs. 2.10% in the control group; p = 0.027). In multivariate regression analysis, after adjusting both groups for Charlson Comorbidity Index (CCI), there was statistically significant higher SARS-CoV-2 PCR positivity rate in the CS injection group (p = 0.024). However, after adjusting both groups for age and total number of comorbidities, there was no difference between the groups in regard to SARS-CoV-2 PCR positivity rate (p = 0.081). In the subgroup analysis of only COVID-19 vaccinated patients, there was an increased 3-month SARS-CoV-2 PCR positivity rate among patients with severe comorbidities in the CS injection group (p = 0.036).

CONCLUSION

The study was not conclusive on the effect of joint or epidural CS injection on SARS-CoV-2 PCR positivity rate, although adjusted analysis suggests higher 3-month SARS-CoV-2 PCR positivity rate after CS injection in patients with severe comorbidities with significant disease burden when compared to controls.

Risk and management of osteoporosis due to inhaled, epidural, intra-articular or topical glucocorticoids

Glucocorticoids (GCs) are widely used by several specialties for the treatment of a variety of diseases and conditions. The unfavorable effect of oral GCs on bone health is well-documented. The ensuing from their use glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis (GIOP) is the most common cause of medication-induced osteoporosis and fractures. It is uncertain, however, if, and in what extent, GCs administered by other routes affect the skeleton. In the present review, we quote current evidence on the effect of inhaled GCs, epidural and intra-articular steroid injections, and topical GCs on bone outcomes. Although evidence is limited and weak, it seems that a small proportion of the administered GCs may be absorbed, enter the systemic circulation, and adversely affect the skeleton. Potent GCs, higher doses, and longer treatment duration seem to infer the greater risk for bone loss and fractures. There are scarce data, and only for inhaled GCs, regarding the efficacy of antiosteoporotic medications in patients receiving GCs through routes other than oral. Further studies are needed to clarify the relationship between GC administration through these routes and bone outcomes and to help establishing guidelines for the optimal management of such patients.

Spine injections: the rationale for CT guidance

Back pain is one of the most common medical problems and is associated with high socioeconomic costs. Imaging-guided spinal injections are a minimally invasive method to evaluate where the back pain is originating from, and to treat patients with radicular pain or spinal stenosis with infiltration of corticosteroids. CT-guided spine injections are a safe procedure, characterized by precise needle placement, excellent visualization of the relevant anatomical structures, and low radiation exposure for the patient and the interventional radiologist. In this review article, the variety of applications of CT-guided injections (focused on nerve roots and epidural injections) and the optimal injection procedure as well as risks and side effects are discussed.

Epidural Steroid Injections Acutely Suppress Bone Formation Markers in Postmenopausal Women

CONTEXT

Over 9 million epidural steroid injections (ESIs) are performed annually in the United States. Although these injections effectively treat lumbar radicular pain, they may have adverse consequences, including bone loss.

OBJECTIVE

To investigate acute changes in bone turnover following ESI. We focused on postmenopausal women, who may be at greatest risk for adverse skeletal consequences due to the combined effects of ESIs with aging and estrogen deficiency.

METHODS

Single-center prospective observational study. Postmenopausal women undergoing lumbar ESIs and controls with no steroid exposure were included. Outcomes were serum cortisol, markers of bone formation, osteocalcin, and procollagen type-1 N-terminal propeptide (P1NP), and bone resorption by C-telopeptide (CTX) measured at baseline, 1, 4, 12, 26, and 52 weeks after ESIs.

RESULTS

Among ESI-treated women, serum cortisol declined by ~50% 1 week after injection. Bone formation markers significantly decreased 1 week following ESIs: osteocalcin by 21% and P1NP by 22%. Both markers remained suppressed at 4 and 12 weeks, but returned to baseline levels by 26 weeks. There was no significant change in bone resorption measured by CTX. Among controls, there were no significant changes in cortisol or bone turnover markers.

CONCLUSION

These results provide evidence of an early and substantial reduction in bone formation markers following ESIs. This effect persisted for over 12 weeks, suggesting that ESIs may have lasting skeletal consequences. Given the large population of older adults who receive ESIs, further investigation into the long-term skeletal sequelae of these injections is warranted.

Changes in pain scores and walking distance after epidural steroid injection in patients with lumbar central spinal stenosis

Lumbar spinal stenosis is a common degenerative disorder that is characterized by pain and neurogenic claudication. Previous studies have evaluated the effects of an epidural steroid injection (ESI) on spinal stenosis, based on changes to the spinal canal diameter.This study aimed to examine the impact of the ESI on pain scores and walking distance in patients with lumbar central spinal stenosis, stratified based on disease severity, which was graded according to the degree of cauda equina separation.We reviewed the medical records of patients who received the ESI for lumbar spinal central canal stenosis. A total of 128 patients were divided into moderate and severe groups, based on the degree of cauda equina separation.Relative to baseline values, 2 weeks after the ESI, the moderate group showed a significant decrease in the numeric rating scale (NRS) scores and an increase in walking distance. Meanwhile, the severe group showed a significant decrease in the NRS scores and no significant change in walking distance. The moderate group had lower NRS scores and a longer walking distance than did the severe group 2 weeks after the ESI. The proportion of patients with improved levels of satisfaction was higher in the moderate group than in the severe group.Lumbar interlaminar ESI may reduce pain scores and increase walking distance in patients with moderate lumbar spinal central canal stenosis. Patients with moderate spinal stenosis achieved better outcomes than did patients with severe stenosis.

The skeletal consequences of epidural steroid injections: a literature review

This literature review summarized studies that evaluated the effects of epidural steroid injections (ESIs) on skeletal health. While evidence is limited, studies suggest that ESIs may cause bone loss. Better understanding of these skeletal consequences will help foster strategies to prevent bone loss in the growing population of patients receiving ESIs.

PURPOSE

Approximately nine million epidural steroid injections (ESIs) are administered annually in the United States to treat radicular back pain. ESIs often provide pain relief and functional improvement. While the overall incidence of adverse events resulting from ESIs is low, their effects on the skeleton are poorly understood. This is an important consideration given the profound skeletal impact of other forms of glucocorticoids.

METHODS

Ovid MEDLINE and PubMed search results since 2010, including older, frequently referenced publications were reviewed.

RESULTS

Systemic absorption of glucocorticoids occurs after ESI, which can cause hyperglycemia and endogenous cortisol suppression. The majority of studies investigating the skeletal effects of ESIs are retrospective. Several have found a relationship between low areal bone mineral density (BMD) by dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry and ESI exposure, but this finding is not uniform. Recently a dose-response relationship between ESI exposure and low spine volumetric BMD by computed tomography has been reported. Few studies have investigated the relationship between ESI exposure and fracture risk. Results of these studies are conflicting, and most have not been adequately powered to detect fracture outcomes.

CONCLUSIONS

While evidence is limited, studies suggest that ESIs may cause bone loss, particularly those investigating volumetric BMD. Larger doses appear to confer greater risk. Further prospective studies are needed to investigate the relationship between ESI and fracture risk. Better understanding of the skeletal consequences of ESIs will help foster strategies to prevent bone loss in the growing population of patients receiving this treatment.

Ultrasound-Guided Transforaminal Injections of Platelet-Rich Plasma Compared with Steroid in Lumbar Disc Herniation: A Prospective, Randomized, Controlled Study

Transforaminal steroid injection is extensively used as a treatment in cases of herniated disc, but it is associated with complications. In comparison, platelet-rich plasma (PRP) injection has been used in musculoskeletal disorders and could be another option. This study is aimed at comparing the efficacy and safety aspects between ultrasound-guided transforaminal injections of PRP and steroid in patients who suffer from radicular pain due to lumbar disc herniation. In a randomized controlled trial, ultrasound-guided transforaminal injections of either PRP (n = 61) or steroid (n = 63) were administered to a total of 124 patients who suffer from radicular pain due to lumbar disc herniation. Patients were assessed by the visual analogue scale (VAS), pressure pain thresholds (PPTs), Oswestry disability index (ODI), and the physical function (PF) and bodily pain (BP) domains of the 36-item short form health survey (SF-36) before operation and 1 week, 1 month, 3 months, 6 months, and 12 months after operation. The rate and latency of F-wave were obtained before operation and 12 months postoperation. There was no statistical difference in terms of age and sex between both groups. Statistically significant improvements from the patients' data before operation to data obtained 1-month postoperation were observed in VAS, PPTs, ODI, and PF and BP of SF-36 in both groups and kept for 1 year. F-wave rate and latency were improved significantly at 1-year postoperation in both groups. Intergroup differences during follow-ups over a period of 1 year were not found to be significant in all the above assessment between the PRP and steroid groups. No complications were reported. The results showed similar outcome for both transforaminal injections using PRP and steroid in the treatment of lumbar disc herniation, suggesting the possible application of PRP injection as a safer alternative. The trial was registered in the Chinese Clinical Trial Registry (ChiCTR-INR-17011825).

Safety of epidural steroids: a review

Spine disease is one of the most common musculoskeletal diseases, especially in an aging society. An epidural steroid injection (ESI) is a highly effective treatment that can be used to bridge the gap between physical therapy and surgery. Recently, it has been increasingly used clinically. The purpose of this article is to review the complications of corticosteroids administered epidurally. Common complications include: hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis suppression, adrenal insufficiency, iatrogenic Cushing's syndrome, hyperglycemia, osteoporosis, and immunological or infectious diseases. Other less common complications include psychiatric problems and ocular ailments. However, the incidence of complications related to epidural steroids is not high, and most of them are not serious. The use of nonparticulate steroids is recommended to minimize the complications associated with epidural steroids. The appropriate interval and dosage of ESI are disputed. We recommend that the selection of appropriate ESI protocol should be based on the suppression of HPA axis, which reflects the systemic absorption of the corticosteroid.

Effect of Lumbar Epidural Steroid Injections on Osteoporotic Fracture and Bone Mineral Density in Elderly Women with Diabetes Mellitus

The incidence of osteoporosis and diabetes mellitus (DM) is known to increase with aging. DM is associated with osteoporotic fractures and decreased bone mineral metabolism. However, no studies have compared the effects of DM on the changes in bone mineral density (BMD) and osteoporotic fracture after epidural steroid injections (ESIs). The present study aimed to analyze the relationship between ESI and BMD changes in elderly women with and without DM. The medical records of elderly women who underwent ESI were retrospectively analyzed. All patients had radiographic and BMD assessments performed before and after receiving lumbar ESIs. A total of 172 patients were divided into two groups according to the presence of DM. The duration of BMD monitoring was 16.1 and 16.8 months in the non-DM and DM groups, respectively. The mean total number of ESIs was 3.4 and 3.2, and the mean cumulative administered dose of glucocorticoids (dexamethasone) was 17 and 16 mg in the non-DM and DM groups, respectively. There were no significant differences between baseline and posttreatment BMD in the lumbar spine, total femur, and femoral neck region in either group. The incidence of osteoporotic fractures at the hip joint and thoracolumbar spine was not significantly different in both groups. ESIs could be used without concerns regarding osteoporosis and fractures in elderly women with DM if low doses of glucocorticoids are used.

Effect of medications and epidural steroid injections on fractures in postmenopausal women with osteoporosis

Osteoporosis is a common problem, especially among postmenopausal women. Postmenopausal women with osteoporosis have major risk factors for osteoporotic fractures. The abuse of epidural steroid injections (ESIs) or the misunderstanding of their proper use could cause osteoporotic fractures. Therefore, we aimed to investigate whether ESIs are associated with osteoporotic fractures in postmenopausal women with low back pain and osteoporosis. Furthermore, we aimed to provide evidence on whether ESIs could be used in postmenopausal women with osteoporosis who are at high risk for osteoporotic fractures.We reviewed the medical records of postmenopausal women with osteoporosis but no fractures. A total of 172 postmenopausal women were divided into 2 groups. Group 1 comprised patients receiving medications and Group 2 comprised patients receiving ESIs. All participants received medications for treating osteoporosis. Each patient's age, bone mineral density, body mass index, medical history, and status with respect to smoking, drinking, physical activity, and exercise were obtained using a questionnaire and medical records.The mean total number of ESIs was 6.2, and the mean cumulative administered dose of glucocorticoids (dexamethasone) was 31 mg. The incidences of fractures in the medication and ESI groups were 22% and 24%, respectively, in the thoracolumbar spine, and 2% and 5%, respectively, in the hip joint.There was no significant difference in the incidences of osteoporotic fractures at the thoraco-lumbar spine and hip joint in postmenopausal women with osteoporosis between those who received ESIs (a mean of 6.2 ESIs, a cumulative dexamethasone dose of 31 mg) and those who did not, with both groups taking anti-osteoporotic medications for low back pain. Our data suggest that ESI treatment using a mean of 6.2 ESIs to deliver a maximum cumulative dexamethasone dose of 31 mg could be safely used in postmenopausal women with osteoporosis, without any significant impact on the their risk for osteoporotic fractures.

Systemic Absorption and Side Effects of Locally Injected Glucocorticoids

Local glucocorticoid injections are often used to treat joint, soft tissue, or spinal pain, but the systemic side effects associated with these injections are poorly understood and not well recognized. There are significant known risks to systemic administration of glucocorticoids. However, there are no guidelines that address issues of systemic absorption, overall systemic risks, or other side effects of locally injected glucocorticoids. For this review, a literature search was performed, and the available evidence on systemic absorption and clinical side effects of intra-articular and epidural glucocorticoids was synthesized. The goal was to improve clinical understanding of risks associated with these injections. Existing data suggest there is significant individual variability in the amount of systemic absorption and clinical effects of locally injected glucocorticoids. However, it is clear that both intra-articular and epidural injections can have systemic effects for weeks and that complications may be associated with their use, including Cushing syndrome, loss of bone density, infection, and hyperglycemia. The concurrent use of oral steroids, the number of injections, and the type and dose of glucocorticoids used all are important considerations in estimating risks. The total dose calculation of cumulative glucocorticoid exposure should include all local injections. Caution should be exercised when local glucocorticoid injections are used in higher risk patients, such as postmenopausal women, people with diabetes, and those considering surgery in the near term. Better provider awareness of possible systemic risks should improve decision making and informed consent with patients when considering intra-articular and epidural steroid injections for painful conditions. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: IV.

The Effect of Epidural Steroid Injections on Bone Mineral Density and Vertebral Fracture Risk: A Systematic Review and Critical Appraisal of Current Literature

Objective

The aim of this paper is to review the available literature investigating the effect of epidural steroid injections (ESIs) on bone mineral density (BMD) and vertebral fracture risk.

Study design

Systematic review of current literature.

Methods

The sources of the data were PubMed, Embase, Cochrane, and Scopus. Papers included in the review were original research articles in peer-reviewed journals.

Results

A total of 7,233 patients (eight studies) with a mean age ranging between 49 and 74 years and an average follow-up between six and 60 months were studied. Steroids that were used included triamcinolone, dexamethasone, and methylprednisolone (MP), with a mean number of injections ranging from one to 14.7 and an average cumulative dose in MP equivalents between 80 and 8,130 mg. Epidural steroids were associated with significantly decreased BMD in four out of six included studies, and with increased risk of vertebral fracture in one out of two included studies. Significant reductions in BMD were associated with a cumulative MP dose of 200 mg over a one-year period and 400 mg over three years, but not in doses of less than 200 mg of MP equivalents for postmenopausal women and at least 3 g for healthy men. The risk of osteopenia and osteoporosis was lower in patients who were receiving anti-osteoporotic medication during the treatment course.

Conclusions

ESIs should be recommended with caution, especially in patients at risk for osteoporotic fractures, such as women of postmenopausal age. Anti-osteoporotic medication might be considered prior to ESI.

Lower Spine Volumetric Bone Density in Patients With a History of Epidural Steroid Injections

CONTEXT

Epidural steroid injections (ESIs) are a common, effective treatment of lumbar radiculopathy and sciatica. Although the negative skeletal effects of oral glucocorticoids are well established, little is known about the impact of ESI on bone quality.

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the relationship between ESI exposure and volumetric bone mineral density (vBMD) at the lumbar spine (LS) using central quantitative CT.

DESIGN

Retrospective study.

SETTING

University hospital outpatient facility.

PATIENTS

All patients had CT scans of the LS between 2011 and 2016. Cases received at least three ESIs prior to the date of CT (n = 121). Controls were matched for age and sex (n = 121).

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Cumulative ESI dose was calculated. vBMD was measured at T12 through L5 using QCT Pro phantomless software (MindWays).

RESULTS

Mean age of subjects was 65 ± 14 years, and 49% were women. Median number of ESIs was 4 (range: 3 to 16). Median cumulative ESI dosage was 340 mg of triamcinolone or equivalent (range: 150 to 1400 mg). Compared with controls, ESI subjects had lower vBMD at each vertebral level. Higher cumulative dose was associated with lower mean vBMD at T12 to L5 (r = -0.22, P = 0.02).

CONCLUSIONS

Greater cumulative ESI dose was related to lower vBMD at the LS. To our knowledge, this is the first study to measure vBMD in patients treated with ESIs. Prospective studies are needed to confirm these findings and to help identify the best strategies for preventing bone loss in this population.

Safe Use of Epidural Corticosteroid Injections: Recommendations of the WIP Benelux Work Group

BACKGROUND

Epidural corticosteroid injections are used frequently worldwide in the treatment of radicular pain. Concerns have arisen involving rare major neurologic injuries after this treatment. Recommendations to prevent these complications have been published, but local implementation is not always feasible due to local circumstances, necessitating local recommendations based on literature review.

METHODS

A work group of 4 stakeholder pain societies in Belgium, The Netherlands, and Luxembourg (Benelux) has reviewed the literature involving neurological complications after epidural corticosteroid injections and possible safety measures to prevent these major neurologic injuries.

RESULTS

Twenty-six considerations and recommendations were selected by the work group. These involve the use of imaging, injection equipment particulate and nonparticulate corticosteroids, epidural approach, and maximal volume to be injected.

CONCLUSION

Raising awareness about possible neurological complications and adoption of safety measures recommended by the work group aim at reducing the risks for these devastating events.

The use of lumbar epidural injection of platelet lysate for treatment of radicular pain

Background

Epidural steroid injections (ESI) are the most common pain management procedure performed in the US, however evidence of efficacy is limited. In addition, there is early evidence that the high dose of corticosteroids used can have systemic side effects. We describe the results of a case series evaluating the use of platelet lysate (PL) epidural injections for the treatment of lumbar radicular pain as an alternative to corticosteroids.

Methods

Registry data was obtained for patients (N = 470) treated with PL epidural injections presenting with symptoms of lumbar radicular pain and MRI findings that were consistent with symptoms. Collected outcomes included numeric pain score (NPS), functional rating index (FRI), and a modified single assessment numeric evaluation (SANE) rating.

Results

Patients treated with PL epidurals reported significantly lower (p < .0001) NPS and FRI change scores at all time points compared to baseline. Post-treatment FRI change score means exceeded the minimal clinically important difference beyond 1 month. Average modified SANE ratings showed 49.7% improvement at 24 months post-treatment. Twenty-nine (6.3%) patients reported mild adverse events related to treatment.

Conclusion

Patients treated with PL epidurals reported significant improvements in pain, exceeded the minimal clinically important difference (MCID) for FRI, and reported subjective improvement through 2-year follow-up. PL may be a promising substitute for corticosteroid.

Subacromial corticosteroid injections transiently decrease suture anchor pullout strength: biomechanical studies in rats

BACKGROUND

Arthroscopic rotator cuff (RC) repair incorporates suture anchors to secure torn RC tendons to the greater tuberosity (GT) bone. RC repair strength depends on the anchor-bone interface and on the quality of the GT. We evaluated the effect of single and multiple corticosteroid injections on the pullout strength of suture anchors.

METHODS

Fifty rats were divided into those receiving saline solution injection (control group), a single methylprednisolone acetate (MTA) injection (MTA1 group), or 3 once-weekly MTA injections (MTA3 group). Rats were killed humanely at 1 or 4 weeks after the last injection. A mini-suture anchor was inserted into the humeral head through the GT. Specimens were tested biomechanically.

RESULTS

At 1 week after the last injection, the mean maximal pullout strength was significantly reduced in the MTA1 group (63.5%) and MTA3 group (56%) compared with the control group (P < .05 for both). Mean stiffness decreased significantly in both treatment groups compared with controls (P < .05). At 4 weeks after the last injection, there was a significant increase in the mean maximal pullout strength after single and triple MTA injections compared with values recorded at the 1-week time point (P < .05). At 4 weeks, the mean maximal pullout strength after a single MTA injection was 92.8% of the pullout strength measured in the control group.

CONCLUSIONS

We showed a significant detrimental effect of corticosteroid exposure on the pullout strength of a suture anchor at 1 week. However, this effect was transient and resolved within a relatively short period. These findings indicate that a waiting period is required between subacromial corticosteroid injection and RC repair surgery that involves the use of suture anchors.

Characteristics of particulate and non-particulate corticosteroids. Indications for their use in chronic pain treatments

Corticosteroids been used frequently in pain treatments since the middle of last century (1952). Due to a review of the complications as a result of their application in epidural injections, the United States of America Food and Drug Administration (FDA) issued an «alert controversy» requesting that a warning label should be added to injectable corticosteroids, where risks must be described (loss of sight, brain damage, paralysis and death) when administering by this route. It must be mentioned that there are different types of corticosteroids with diverse characteristics, which as a result, may produce different side-effects. Due to the aforementioned developments, the controversies that have arisen, and the lack of well-conducted studies on the use of steroids in epidural injections, we must begin by reviewing their indications in different pain conditions.

Detrimental Effect of Repeated and Single Subacromial Corticosteroid Injections on the Intact and Injured Rotator Cuff: A Biomechanical and Imaging Study in Rats

BACKGROUND

The effect of corticosteroids on tendons is poorly understood, and current data are insufficient and conflicting.

PURPOSE

To evaluate the effects of corticosteroid injections on intact and injured rotator cuffs (RCs) through biomechanical and radiographic analyses in a rat model.

STUDY DESIGN

Controlled laboratory study.

METHODS

A total of 70 rats were assigned to 7 groups. Uninjured rats (no tear) received either a single saline injection, a single methylprednisolone acetate (MTA) injection, or triple MTA injections. Injured rats (unilateral supraspinatus injury) received either a single saline injection, triple saline injections, a single MTA injection, or triple MTA injections (injections were subacromial; repeat injections were administered weekly). Rats were sacrificed 1 week after final injection. Shoulders were harvested and grossly inspected, and the supraspinatus tendon was evaluated biomechanically. Bone density at the tendon insertion site on the greater tuberosity was assessed by micro-computed tomography.

RESULTS

Intact RCs exposed to triple MTA injections had significantly decreased maximal load and stiffness compared with the control group (14.43 vs 21.25 N and 8.21 vs 16.6 N/mm, respectively; P < .05). Injured RCs exposed to steroid treatment had significantly lower maximal load (single saline: 10.91 N, single steroid: 8.43 N [P < .05]; triple control: 15.77 N, triple steroid: 11.65 N [P < .05]) compared with the control at 3 weeks. Greater tuberosity volume density and connectivity density were significantly lower in undamaged rats after triple MTA injection (P < .05).

CONCLUSION

The study results clearly showed that repeated doses of corticosteroids significantly weaken rat RC and negatively affect bone quality in addition to possibly causing deterioration of the osteotendinous junction. However, data retrieved from animals must be scrupulously analyzed before extrapolation to humans. As such, the potential benefits and harms of subacromial corticosteroid treatment must be considered before administration.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE

The potential benefit and detrimental effects of corticosteroid injection should be thoroughly considered before it is administered subacromially in patients with RC injuries.

Comparison of the efficacy of saline, local anesthetics, and steroids in epidural and facet joint injections for the management of spinal pain: A systematic review of randomized controlled trials

BACKGROUND

The efficacy of epidural and facet joint injections has been assessed utilizing multiple solutions including saline, local anesthetic, steroids, and others. The responses to these various solutions have been variable and have not been systematically assessed with long-term follow-ups.

METHODS

Randomized trials utilizing a true active control design were included. The primary outcome measure was pain relief and the secondary outcome measure was functional improvement. The quality of each individual article was assessed by Cochrane review criteria, as well as the criteria developed by the American Society of Interventional Pain Physicians (ASIPP) for assessing interventional techniques. An evidence analysis was conducted based on the qualitative level of evidence (Level I to IV).

RESULTS

A total of 31 trials met the inclusion criteria. There was Level I evidence that local anesthetic with steroids was effective in managing chronic spinal pain based on multiple high-quality randomized controlled trials. The evidence also showed that local anesthetic with steroids and local anesthetic alone were equally effective except in disc herniation, where the superiority of local anesthetic with steroids was demonstrated over local anesthetic alone.

CONCLUSION

This systematic review showed equal efficacy for local anesthetic with steroids and local anesthetic alone in multiple spinal conditions except for disc herniation where the superiority of local anesthetic with steroids was seen over local anesthetic alone.

Epidural steroid injections: an updated review on recent trends in safety and complications

SUMMARY 

Epidural steroid injections (ESIs), which can provide significant but temporary pain relief in well-selected patients, are the most commonly performed procedure in pain management. The anatomy of the epidural space provides a framework for understanding risks associated with ESIs, a topic relevant to both patients and physicians in interventional pain, surgery and primary care. Safety considerations of epidural steroids include drug preparation and myriad physiological effects stemming from steroid exposure. Although major complications associated with ESI occur rarely, potentially catastrophic events resulting from infectious, hematologic and neurologic morbidity may lead to permanent injury. The safety profile of ESIs may improve with development and dissemination of sound injection technique, safer compounds manufactured in a sterile manner and deficient of thromboembolic potential and the application of existing technology.