Energy Drink Administration in Combination with Alcohol Causes an Inflammatory Response and Oxidative Stress in the Hippocampus and Temporal Cortex of Rats

Oral administration of resveratrol reduces oxidative stress generated in the hippocampus of Wistar rats in response to consumption of ethanol

Introduction

Chronic ethanol intake has been found to favor hippocampal deterioration and alter neuronal morphological maturation; resveratrol has been suggested as an antioxidant that may counteract these effects. The objective of this study was to analyze the effect of resveratrol on oxidative stress markers, endogenous antioxidant system in the hippocampus, and the behavior of male Wistar rats administered different concentrations of ethanol.

Methods

The animals, at 3 months old, were randomly distributed into 11 study groups (n = 6/group), orally administered (5 days on, 2 days off) with water (control), ethanol (10, 20, 30, 40 or 50%), or ethanol (10, 20, 30, 40 or 50%) plus resveratrol (10 mg/Kg/day) for 2 months. Subsequently, the production of nitrites, malondialdehyde, and 4-hydroxy-alkenal (HNE) and the enzymatic activity of catalase and superoxide dismutase (SOD) were quantified.

Results

The levels of nitric oxide and lipid peroxidation products were significantly increased in each ethanol concentration and were statistically different compared to the control group; however, resveratrol significantly reduced oxidative stress caused by high ethanol concentration. The SOD and CAT did not present significant changes with respect to the controls in any of the study groups. In the different concentrations of ethanol used, GR increases significantly in the groups administered with resveratrol but not GPx. Resveratrol was shown to maintain the results similar to the control at most ethanol concentrations.

Discussion

Our results suggest that resveratrol prevents oxidative stress induced by ethanol in the hippocampus by decreasing cellular lipid peroxidation, but does not prevent the activation of catalase or SOD enzymes; however, allows glutathione to be kept active and in adequate concentrations in its reduced form and avoids alterations in the locomotor system.

Histopathological Changes in the Myocardium Caused by Energy Drinks and Alcohol in the Mid-term and Their Effects on Skeletal Muscle Following Ischemia-reperfusion in a Rat Model

BACKGROUND

Although energy drinks have been consumed for many years, their effects on the cardiovascular system continue to be investigated. Today, the most frequently used area of energy drinks is the entertainment sector, and this study investigates the effects of energy drinks and alcohol consumption on rats' limb and myocardium tissue.

METHODS

Forty Wistar Albino rats were used and divided into 4 groups. Energy drinks were given to the first group (the energy drink group), alcohol was given to the second group, and energy drinks and alcohol were given to the third group Redbull-Alcohol (RA). Blood samples, leg muscles, and heart tissues were studied after the ischemia-reperfusion model was created at the infrarenal level.

RESULTS

In the histopathological examination of heart muscles, the damage was significantly more severe in the RA group than in the control group (P <.05). There was no significant change in the RA group in the limb muscle; however, muscle fiber abnormality was higher. The energy drink group was more prone to carbon dioxide retention and hypoxia, resulting in respiratory acidosis. (P =.05). Lactate was significantly higher in the energy drink group (P =.002). Glucose concentrations of energy drink and RA groups were higher (P =.02).

CONCLUSION

The high lactate values of the energy drink group and more damaged fibers in the striated muscles in the RA group showed that they are more susceptible to ischemia. Long-term energy drinks and alcohol use may cause damage to the heart muscle and endothelium. Also, the effects of long-term alcohol and energy drink use on the respiratory system should be investigated with more specific studies.

ROS and ERK Pathway Mechanistic Approach on Hepatic Insulin Resistance After Chronic Oral Exposure to Cadmium NOAEL Dose

Cadmium is a critical toxic agent in occupational and non-occupational settings and acute and chronic environmental exposure situations that have recently been associated with metabolic disease development. Until now, the no observed adverse effect level (NOAEL) of cadmium has not been studied regarding insulin resistance development. Therefore, we aimed to monitor whether chronic oral exposure to cadmium NOAEL dose induces insulin resistance in Wistar rats and investigate if oxidative stress and/or inflammation are related. Male Wistar rats were separated into control (standard normocalorie diet + water free of cadmium) and cadmium groups (standard normocalorie diet + drinking water with 15 ppm CdCl₂). At 15, 30, and 60 days, oral glucose tolerance, insulin response, and insulin resistance were analyzed using mathematical models. In the liver glycogen, triglyceride, pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines, cadmium, zinc, metallothioneins, and redox balance were quantified. Immunoreactivity analysis of proteins involved in metabolic and mitogenic insulin signaling was performed. The results showed that a cadmium NOAEL dose after 15 days of exposure causes ROS and mitogenic arm of insulin signaling to increase while hepatic glycogen diminishes. At 30 days, Cd accumulation accentuated ROS production, hepatic triglyceride overaccumulation, and mitogenic signals that develop insulin resistance. Finally, inflammation and lipid peroxidation appear after 60 days of Cd exposure, while lipids and carbohydrate homeostasis deteriorate. In conclusion, environmental exposure to cadmium NAOEL dose causes hepatic Cd accumulation and ROS overproduction that chronically declines the antioxidant defense, deteriorates metabolic homeostasis associated with the mitogenic pathway of insulin signaling, and induces insulin resistance.

Effect of intermittent access to alcohol mixed in energy drink during adolescence on alcohol self-administration, anxiety, and memory during adulthood in rats

BACKGROUND

Mixing alcohol with caffeinated energy drinks is a common practice among young people. Consumption of alcohol mixed in energy drink is associated with increased risk of binge drinking and alcohol dependence. The purpose of this study was to determine whether voluntary intermittent access to alcohol mixed in energy drink in adolescent rats alters adult self-administration of alcohol, anxiety, and memory.

METHODS

For 10 weeks in the home-cage, two groups of adolescent female Sprague-Dawley rats had intermittent access to energy drink (ED) or 10% alcohol mixed in energy drink (AmED) with water concurrently available. Other rat groups had daily continuous access to ED or AmED. Anxiety was measured with an open field test and memory was assessed with a novel place recognition test. For self-administration, rats pressed levers for 10% alcohol alone on a fixed ratio (FR1) and on a progressive ratio (PR).

RESULTS

Intermittent access to AmED generated greater intake during the initial 30 min of access (AmED 1.70 ± 0.04 g/kg vs. ED 1.01 ± 0.06 g/kg) and during the subsequent 24 h (AmED 7.04 ± 0.25 g/kg vs. ED 5.60 ± 0.29 g/kg). Intermittent AmED caused a significant but small decrease in anxiety while neither ED nor AmED altered memory. During alcohol self-administration, group differences emerged only during PR testing during which intermittent AmED rats responded more than all other groups.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings suggest that intermittent access to AmED generates binge-like consumption that supports human findings that AmED generates greater alcohol consumption. Furthermore, experience with AmED may alter the motivational properties of alcohol into adulthood without necessarily causing a major impact on anxiety or memory.

Ethanol combined with energy drinks: Two decades of research in rodents

Many studies raised concerns on alcoholic beverages consumption mixed with energy drinks (AmED), which can induce higher rates of binge drinking and earlier development of alcohol use disorders. After 20 years of research, few studies with laboratory animals have focused on the effects of this mixture and the neurobiological and pharmacological mechanisms underlying them. We found 16 articles on AmED administration to rodents evaluating its effects on voluntary consumption, locomotion, anxiety-like behavior, memory, influence on the onset time of seizures, biochemical and neurochemical measures. Some of these studies indicated energy drinks (ED) can alter the pattern of use and motivation to consume ethanol (EtOH); increase the expression of sensitization to EtOH stimulant effect and the proportion of sensitized mice; decrease the aversiveness of high concentrations of EtOH, among other effects. In addition AmED hastens the loss of righting reflex and its effects on memory are controversial. After acute administration no difference was found in blood ethanol concentration (BEC) of rodents which received EtOH with or without ED, but after 60 days of treatment, AmED group had lower BEC levels than EtOH group. Data on biochemical and neurochemical parameters after AmED are not consistent. Although the AmED group presented higher glucose levels than the EtOH group when drugs were administered by gavage, this was not observed in a self-administration protocol. AmED may induce higher kidney damage, higher levels of plasma urea, uric acid and creatinine when compared to EtOH. Chronic consumption of AmED causes an inflammatory response and oxidative stress, which may induce cell death in the cortex and hypothalamus of adult rats. These controversial results show that AmED diverse effects depend on sex, age and lineage of the animals, duration of the treatment and route of administration. Further research is necessary to evaluate the mechanisms underlying AmED biological effects.

Quercetin Alleviates Red Bull Energy Drink-Induced Cerebral Cortex Neurotoxicity via Modulation of Nrf2 and HO-1

The current work was aimed at evaluating the ameliorative role of quercetin (QR) on the possible toxicity of Red Bull energy drink (RB-Ed) in the cerebral cortex of rats. To achieve the goal, the rats were allocated into 4 groups. The first group received distilled water as control. Groups II and III were given Red Bull energy drink alone and in combination with quercetin, respectively. The fourth group served as recovery to group II. The experimental duration was four weeks for all groups whereas the recovery period of group IV was two weeks. QR upregulated the mRNA and protein expression levels of nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) and heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) genes, which can protect against RB-Ed neurotoxicity. Moreover, by reducing the thiobarbituric acid reactive substance and increasing the total antioxidant capacity levels, QR protected rats' cerebral cortex against Red Bull energy drink-induced oxidative damage. Quercetin also inhibited RB-Ed-induced histomorphological degeneration which was confirmed by the increase in the intact neurons and the rise in the neuron-specific enolase immunoreaction. QR increased the reduction of the brain-derived neurotrophic factor that was elicited by RB-Ed and acts as an anti-inflammatory agent by reducing the proinflammatory marker, interleukin 1 beta and DNA damage markers, heat shock protein 70, and 8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine. It could be concluded that the alleviating impacts of QR on RB-Ed neurotoxicity in rats could be related to the modulation of Nrf2 and HO-1 which in turn affects the redox status.

Short-term consumption of alcohol (vodka) mixed with energy drink (AMED) attenuated alcohol-induced cerebral capillary disturbances and neuroinflammation in adult wild-type mice

Background: The ingestion of combinatory Alcohol Mixed with Energy Drink (AMED) beverages continues to increase markedly, particularly among young adults. Some studies suggest detrimental health effects related to the combination of alcohol with energy drink formulations; however, the consumption of AMED has not been investigated in context of the cerebral microvasculature or neuroinflammation. We hypothesized that cerebral capillary integrity and glial cells are particularly vulnerable to the combination of AMED.Methods:12-week old wild-type C57BL/6J mice were orally gavaged with either vehicle (water), alcohol (vodka), an energy drink (Mother^TM), or a combination AMED, daily for five days. Thereafter, mice were sacrificed, blood alcohol concentrations were analysed and cryosections of brain specimens were subjected to confocal immunofluorescent analysis for measures of cerebral capillary integrity via immunoglobulin G (IgG), and markers of neuroinflammation, ionized-calcium-binding-adaptor-molecule 1 (Iba1) and Glial-Fibrillary-Acidic-Protein (GFAP). Proinflammatory cytokines, IL-2, IL-17A, IFN-ϒ, and anti-inflammatory cytokines, IL-4, IL-6 and IL-10, were also measured in serum.Results: Consistent with previous studies, cerebral capillary dysfunction and astroglial cell activation were markedly greater in the alcohol-only group (AO); however, the AO-induced effects were profoundly attenuated with the AMED combination. Mice maintained on AO and AMED interventions exhibited a moderate increase in microglial recruitment. There were no significant changes in pro-inflammatory nor anti-inflammatory cytokines in ED or AMED treated mice.Conclusion: This study suggests that paradoxically the acute detrimental effects of alcohol on cerebral capillary integrity and astrogliosis are counteracted with the co-provision of an ED, rich in caffeine and taurine and containing B-group vitamins.

Chronic Red Bull Consumption during Adolescence: Effect on Mesocortical and Mesolimbic Dopamine Transmission and Cardiovascular System in Adult Rats

Energy drinks are very popular nonalcoholic beverages among adolescents and young adults for their stimulant effects. Our study aimed to investigate the effect of repeated intraoral Red Bull (RB) infusion on dopamine transmission in the nucleus accumbens shell and core and in the medial prefrontal cortex and on cardiac contractility in adult rats exposed to chronic RB consumption. Rats were subjected to 4 weeks of RB voluntary consumption from adolescence to adulthood. Monitoring of in vivo dopamine was carried out by brain microdialysis. In vitro cardiac contractility was studied on biomechanical properties of isolated left-ventricular papillary muscle. The main finding of the study was that, in treated animals, RB increased shell dopamine via a nonadaptive mechanism, a pattern similar to that of drugs of abuse. No changes in isometric and isotonic mechanical parameters were associated with chronic RB consumption. However, a prolonged time to peak tension and half-time of relaxation and a slower peak rate of tension fall were observed in RB-treated rats. It is likely that RB treatment affects left-ventricular papillary muscle contraction. The neurochemical results here obtained can explain the addictive properties of RB, while the cardiovascular investigation findings suggest a hidden papillary contractility impairment.

The Effects of Direct Red Bull Administration to Isolated Hearts of Trained and Untrained Rats Who Regularly Consumed or Did Not Consume Energy Drink: Focus on Cardiodynamics and Oxidative Stress

Energy drinks (EDs) contain caffeine and other active ingredients which affect cardiovascular system. The aims of this study were to examine direct effects of Red Bull (RB) on cardiodynamics and oxidative stress in isolated hearts of rats. The rats were divided into four groups: untrained rats who never consumed ED (dEDUT); untrained rats who consumed ED 5 days a week during 4 weeks (ch+dED-UT); rats trained 5 times a week for 4 weeks, but did not consume ED (dED-T); rats trained and consumed ED 5 times a week for 4 weeks (ch+dED-T). After sacrificing, hearts were isolated and perfused according to Langendorff technique. Through the isolated heart of all rats in each group, RB was administered. The parameters of cardiac function were recorded, and the levels of prooxidants were measured in the coronary effluent during coronary autoregulation. Rats in ch+dED-UT group had significantly lower rates of myocardial contraction and relaxation compared to rats in dED-UT group. The same effect was recorded in the dED-T group compared to dED-UT group. The levels of hydrogen peroxide were significantly higher in trained rats. Rats in ch+dED-T group also had significantly higher levels of superoxide anion radical and index of lipid peroxidation, as well as lower levels of nitrites when compared to ch+dED-UT group, while opposite effect was recorded in rats in dED-T group compared to dEDUT group. The RB could have a potentially negative inotropic effect in chronic consumers. Prooxidative effect of RB was most pronounced in trained chronic consumers.

The Consumption of Energy Drinks Induces Blood-Brain Barrier Dysfunction in Wild-Type Mice

Energy drinks containing significant quantities of caffeine and sugar are increasingly consumed, particularly by adolescents and young adults. Chronic ingestion of energy drinks may potentially regulate vascular risk factors. This study investigated the effects of chronic ingestion of energy drinks on blood-brain barrier (BBB) integrity and neuroinflammation. Male C57BL/6J mice were maintained on water (control), Mother^TM (ED), sugar-free Mother^TM (sfED), or Coca Cola^TM soft drink (SD) for 13 weeks. The BBB integrity and neuroinflammation were analyzed with semi-quantitative immunofluorescent microscopy. Blood pressure, plasma inflammatory cytokine levels and blood glucose were also considered. Following 13 weeks of intervention, mice treated with ED, sfED, and SD showed significant disruption of BBB. However, marked neuroinflammation was observed only in sfED group mice. The consumption of ED and sfED significantly altered the blood pressure and plasma concentrations of inflammatory cytokines, TNF-a, IL-4, IL-6, and IL-10, and both increased plasma glucose. Correlation analyses showed significant associations between BBB dysfunction and hypotension, hyperglycaemia and cytokine dyshomeostasis. The intake of energy drink, particularly the sugar free formulation, may compromise the integrity of BBB and induce neuroinflammation via hypotension, hyperglycaemia and inflammatory pathways.

Effect of caffeinated energy drinks on the structure of hippocampal cornu ammonis 1 and dentate gyrus of adult male albino rats

Energy drinks are available worldwide and frequently consumed to increase energy level and compensate lack of sleep. Energy drinks consumers aim to improve their cognitive functions. Red Bull is the most popular energy drink consumed in Egypt. However, the link between the impact of energy drinks on the structure of hippocampal cornu ammonis 1 (CA1) and dentate gyrus (DG), a highly vulnerable brain regions to various insults, has not yet documented. To study the effect of energy drinks on structure of hippocampal CA1 and DG of adult male albino rats. Twenty one adult male albino rats were divided into three groups; group I control group, groups II and III received Red Bull, with a dose of 3.75 ml/kg/day orally using gastric tube for four and eight consecutive weeks respectively. At the end of the experiment, brains were dissected and hippocampal specimens were processed for histopathological and immunohistochemical studies. Histopathological examination of hippocampal sections in group II revealed vacuoles, decrease thickness of pyramidal cell layer with irregular dark or ghost nuclei. However, changes were more severe in group III with cracks in pyramidal cell layer, massive vacuolation and signet ring cells. Moreover, star shaped astrocytes and glial fibrillary acidic protein immuno-reactivity were more abundant in group III than in group II. Caffeinated energy drinks produced neurodegenerative changes and reactive astrocytosis in hippocampal CA1 and DG of adult male albino rats. These changes were duration-dependent being more severe in longer duration of intake.

Oxidative Stress-Induced Brain Damage Triggered by Voluntary Ethanol Consumption during Adolescence: A Potential Target for Neuroprotection?

Alcohol consumption, in particular ethanol (EtOH), typically begins in human adolescence, often in a "binge like" manner. However, although EtOH abuse has a high prevalence at this stage, the effects of exposure during adolescence have been less explored than prenatal or adult age exposure. Several authors have reported that EtOH intake during specific periods of development might induce brain damage. Although the mechanisms are poorly understood, it has been postulated that oxidative stress may play a role. In fact, some of these studies revealed a decrease in brain antioxidant enzymes' level and/or an increase in reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. Nevertheless, although existing literature shows a number of studies in which ROS were measured in developing animals, fewer reported the measurement of ROS levels after EtOH exposure in adolescence. Importantly, neuroprotective agents aimed to these potential targets may be relevant tools useful to reduce EtOH-induced neurodegeneration, restore cognitive function and improve treatment outcomes for alcohol use disorders (AUDs). The present paper reviews significant evidences about the mechanisms involved in EtOH-induced brain damage, as well as the effect of different potential neuroprotectants that have shown to be able to prevent EtOH-induced oxidative stress. A selective inhibitor of the endocannabinoid anandamide metabolism, a flavonol present in different fruits (quercetin), an antibiotic with known neuroprotective properties (minocycline), a SOD/catalase mimetic, a potent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory molecule (resveratrol), a powerful ROS scavenger (melatonin), an isoquinoline alkaloid (berberine), are some of the therapeutic strategies that could have some clinical relevance in the treatment of AUDs. As most of these works were performed in adult animal models and using EtOH-forced paradigms, the finding of neuroprotective tools that could be effective in adolescent animal models of voluntary EtOH intake should be encouraged.

Beware Energy Drinks: A Case of a Toxic Triad Syndrome in a Diabetic Patient With Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease

Energy drinks are widely used and very popular. They are touted as "harmless" energy boosters for use in professional, recreational and domestic settings. They are typically high in monosaccharides, and caffeine with other assorted products like ginseng. Careful study of the potential risks of their use is nonexistent while rigorous documentation of their touted energy boosting capacity is also meagre. We present the cautionary case of a 46-year-old Caucasian man with well-controlled type 2 diabetes and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease who developed a toxic triad syndrome of gastritis, hepatitis and pancreatitis within 4 months of commencing daily consumption of 2-3 160z cans of the energy drink Monster Energy. His clinical symptoms and biochemical derangements promptly resolved with stopping the beverage. We discuss the potential risks inherent in unsupervised liberal consumption of energy drinks and the need for both caution and vigilance among clinicians and patients.

Ethanol and Cytokines in the Central Nervous System

The innate immune system plays a critical role in the ethanol-induced neuroimmune response in the brain. Ethanol initiates the innate immune response via activation of the innate immune receptors Toll-like receptors (TLRs, e.g., TLR4, TLR3, TLR7) and NOD-like receptors (inflammasome NLRs) leading to a release of a plethora of chemokines and cytokines and development of the innate immune response. Cytokines and chemokines can have pro- or anti-inflammatory properties through which they regulate the immune response. In this chapter, we will focus on key cytokines (e.g., IL-1, IL-6, TNF-α) and chemokines (e.g., MCP-1/CCL2) that mediate the ethanol-induced neuroimmune responses. In this regard, we will use IL-1β, as an example cytokine, to discuss the neuromodulatory properties of cytokines on cellular properties and synaptic transmission. We will discuss their involvement through a set of evidence: (1) changes in gene and protein expression following ethanol exposure, (2) association of gene polymorphisms (humans) and alterations in gene expression (animal models) with increased alcohol intake, and (3) modulation of alcohol-related behaviors by transgenic or pharmacological manipulations of chemokine and cytokine systems. Over the last years, our understanding of the molecular mechanisms mediating cytokine- and chemokine-dependent regulation of immune responses has advanced tremendously, and we review evidence pointing to cytokines and chemokines serving as neuromodulators and regulators of neurotransmission.

Epicatechin Reduces Spatial Memory Deficit Caused by Amyloid-β25⁻35 Toxicity Modifying the Heat Shock Proteins in the CA1 Region in the Hippocampus of Rats

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by dementia and the aggregation of the amyloid beta peptide (Aβ). Aβ_25-35 is the most neurotoxic sequence, whose mechanism is associated with the neuronal death in the Cornu Ammonis 1 (CA1) region of the hippocampus (Hp) and cognitive damage. Likewise, there are mechanisms of neuronal survival regulated by heat shock proteins (HSPs). Studies indicate that pharmacological treatment with flavonoids reduces the prevalence of AD, particularly epicatechin (EC), which shows better antioxidant activity. The aim of this work was to evaluate the effect of EC on neurotoxicity that causes Aβ_25-35 at the level of spatial memory as well as the relationship with immunoreactivity of HSPs in the CA1 region of the Hp of rats. Our results show that EC treatment reduces the deterioration of spatial memory induced by the Aβ_25-35, in addition to reducing oxidative stress and inflammation in the Hp of the animals treated with EC + Aβ_25-35. Likewise, the immunoreactivity to HSP-60, -70, and -90 is lower in the EC + Aβ_25-35 group compared to the Aβ_25-35 group, which coincides with a decrease of dead neurons in the CA1 region of the Hp. Our results suggest that EC reduces the neurotoxicity induced by Aβ_25-35, as well as the HSP-60, -70, and -90 immunoreactivity and neuronal death in the CA1 region of the Hp of rats injected with Aβ_25-35, which favors an improvement in the function of spatial memory.

Perinatal exposure to energy drink induces oxidative damage in the liver, kidney and brain, and behavioral alterations in mice offspring

The worldwide consumption of energy drinks (EDs) has increased in recent years. EDs have several side effects and can be linked to liver injury, kidney damage and risk-seeking behavior. The impact of perinatal consumption of EDs on the newborns has not been previously investigated. In this study, we evaluated the effects of perinatal exposure to a caffeinated ED on the liver, kidney, brain, locomotor activity and anxiety in mice newborns. Pregnant mice received 2.5 or 5 ml ED by oral gavage from the first day of pregnancy until day 15 after birth. Perinatal exposure to the ED induced a significant increase in lipid peroxidation and declined antioxidant defenses in the liver, kidney, cerebrum, cerebellum and medulla oblongata of the newborns at days 21 and 35 after birth. ED induced several histological alterations, including vacuolations and lipid infiltration of hepatocytes, developing and degenerated glomeruli and dilated urinary spaces in the renal cortex, pyknosis and chromatolysis of the cerebral and medullary neurons, and degenerated and abnormal Purkinje cells in the cerebellum. In addition, ED increased the locomotion and induced anxiety-like behavior in mice newborns. In conclusion, perinatal exposure to EDs induces oxidative stress, tissue injury and behavioral alterations in the mice newborns. Therefore, the consumption of EDs during pregnancy and lactation has a negative impact on the newborns and should be treated as a significant health problem that warrants attention.

Consumption of Energy Drinks among Undergraduate Students in Taiwan: Related Factors and Associations with Substance Use

Background: This study aimed to investigate the consumption of energy drinks and associated factors among undergraduate students in Taiwan. Methods: Data came from a cross-sectional survey conducted in 2015. Eligible participants completed a self-administered questionnaire assessing use and perceptions of energy drinks, tobacco, alcohol, and betel nut. Results: Among 606 surveyed undergraduate students, 24.8% reported consuming energy drinks in the past 30 days. The major reasons for use included keeping alert at work (48.7%), being curious about the products (32.0%), enjoying the flavor (31.3%), or preparing for school exams (26.7%). Among energy drink users, half have never read the nutrition label, and 15.3% reported that they had ever mixed energy drinks with alcohol. Most participants showed negative attitudes toward using tobacco, alcohol, or betel nut, while 54.1% reported positive attitudes toward consuming energy drinks. Being male, living away from parents’ home, tobacco use, alcohol use, and positive perceptions of energy drink’s effects significantly predicted energy drink consumption. Conclusions: In addition to exploring motivations of energy drink consumption in undergraduate students in Taiwan, the study findings indicated that energy drink consumption might relate to the use of tobacco and alcohol, which should be taken into account in substance use prevention programs.

IGF-II promotes neuroprotection and neuroplasticity recovery in a long-lasting model of oxidative damage induced by glucocorticoids

Insulin-like growth factor-II (IGF-II) is a naturally occurring hormone that exerts neurotrophic and neuroprotective properties in a wide range of neurodegenerative diseases and ageing. Accumulating evidence suggests that the effects of IGF-II in the brain may be explained by its binding to the specific transmembrane receptor, IGFII/M6P receptor (IGF-IIR). However, relatively little is known regarding the role of IGF-II through IGF-IIR in neuroprotection. Here, using adult cortical neuronal cultures, we investigated whether IGF-II exhibits long-term antioxidant effects and neuroprotection at the synaptic level after oxidative damage induced by high and transient levels of corticosterone (CORT). Furthermore, the involvement of the IGF-IIR was also studied to elucidate its role in the neuroprotective actions of IGF-II. We found that neurons treated with IGF-II after CORT incubation showed reduced oxidative stress damage and recovered antioxidant status (normalized total antioxidant status, lipid hydroperoxides and NAD(P) H:quinone oxidoreductase activity). Similar results were obtained when mitochondria function was analysed (cytochrome c oxidase activity, mitochondrial membrane potential and subcellular mitochondrial distribution). Furthermore, neuronal impairment and degeneration were also assessed (synaptophysin and PSD-95 expression, presynaptic function and FluoroJade B® stain). IGF-II was also able to recover the long-lasting neuronal cell damage. Finally, the effects of IGF-II were not blocked by an IGF-IR antagonist, suggesting the involvement of IGF-IIR. Altogether these results suggest that, in or model, IGF-II through IGF-IIR is able to revert the oxidative damage induced by CORT. In accordance with the neuroprotective role of the IGF-II/IGF-IIR reported in our study, pharmacotherapy approaches targeting this pathway may be useful for the treatment of diseases associated with cognitive deficits (i.e., neurodegenerative disorders, depression, etc.).

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First evidence that IGF-II reverts oxidative synaptic damage produced by corticoids.

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IGF-II recovers mitochondrial function in synapses after oxidative damage.

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IGF-II restores mitochondrial distribution in neurons after oxidative damage.

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Evidence of the involvement of IGF-II receptor in the recovery of synaptic function.

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IGF-II reverts neurodegeneration induced by oxidative damage produced by corticoids.

Metabolic syndrome causes recognition impairments and reduced hippocampal neuronal plasticity in rats

Metabolic syndrome (MS) is a serious public health problem, which can promote neuronal alterations in cognitive regions related to learning and memory processes, such as the hippocampus. However, up to now there has been information of a regional segregation of this damage. In this study, we evaluate the MS effect on the neuronal morphology of the hippocampus. Our results demonstrate that 90days of a high-calorie diet alters the metabolic energy markers causing the MS and causes memory impairments, evaluated by the recognition of novel objects test (NORT). In addition, MS animals showed significant differences in dendritic order, total dendritic length and density of dendritic spines in CA1, CA3 and the dentate gyrus (DG) of the hippocampal area, compared with rats fed with a normocaloric diet (vehicle group). Furthermore, the immunoreactivity to synaptophysin (Syp) decreased in the hippocampus of the MS animals compared to the vehicle group. These results indicate that metabolic alterations induced by the MS affect hippocampal plasticity and hippocampal dependent memory processes.