The inflammatory cytokine tumor necrosis factor-alpha generates an autocrine tumor-promoting network in epithelial ovarian cancer cells

From monocyte-derived macrophages to resident macrophages-how metabolism leads their way in cancer

Macrophages are innate immune cells that play key roles during both homeostasis and disease. Depending on the microenvironmental cues sensed in different tissues, macrophages are known to acquire specific phenotypes and exhibit unique features that, ultimately, orchestrate tissue homeostasis, defense, and repair. Within the tumor microenvironment, macrophages are referred to as tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) and constitute a heterogeneous population. Like their tissue resident counterpart, TAMs are plastic and can switch function and phenotype according to the niche-derived stimuli sensed. While changes in TAM phenotype are known to be accompanied by adaptive alterations in their cell metabolism, it is reported that metabolic reprogramming of macrophages can dictate their activation state and function. In line with these observations, recent research efforts have been focused on defining the metabolic traits of TAM subsets in different tumor malignancies and understanding their role in cancer progression and metastasis formation. This knowledge will pave the way to novel therapeutic strategies tailored to cancer subtype-specific metabolic landscapes. This review outlines the metabolic characteristics of distinct TAM subsets and their implications in tumorigenesis across multiple cancer types.

Inflammation and cancer: friend or foe?

Chronic inflammation plays a crucial role in the onset and progression of pathologies like neurodegenerative and cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, and cancer, since tumor development and chronic inflammation are linked, sharing common signaling pathways. At least 20% of breast and colorectal cancers are associated with chronic inflammation triggered by infections, irritants, or autoimmune diseases. Obesity, chronic inflammation, and cancer interconnection underscore the importance of population-based interventions in maintaining healthy body weight, to disrupt this axis. Given that the dietary inflammatory index is correlated with an increased risk of cancer, adopting an anti-inflammatory diet supplemented with nutraceuticals may be useful for cancer prevention. Natural products and their derivatives offer promising antitumor activity with favorable adverse effect profiles; however, the development of natural bioactive drugs is challenging due to their variability and complexity, requiring rigorous research processes. It has been shown that combining anti-inflammatory products, such as non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), corticosteroids, and statins, with plant-derived products demonstrate clinical utility as accessible adjuvants to traditional therapeutic approaches, with known safety profiles. Pharmacological approaches targeting multiple proteins involved in inflammation and cancer pathogenesis emerge as a particularly promising option. Given the systemic and multifactorial nature of inflammation, comprehensive strategies are essential for long term success in cancer therapy. To gain insights into carcinogenic phenomena and discover diagnostic or clinically relevant biomarkers, is pivotal to understand genetic variability, environmental exposure, dietary habits, and TME composition, to establish therapeutic approaches based on molecular and genetic analysis. Furthermore, the use of endocannabinoid, cannabinoid, and prostamide-type compounds as potential therapeutic targets or biomarkers requires further investigation. This review aims to elucidate the role of specific etiological agents and mediators contributing to persistent inflammatory reactions in tumor development. It explores potential therapeutic strategies for cancer treatment, emphasizing the urgent need for cost-effective approaches to address cancer-associated inflammation.

Overexpression of Fut 2, 4, and 8, and nuclear localization of Fut 4 in ovarian cancer cell lines induced by ascitic fluids from epithelial ovarian cancer patients

Fucosyltransferases (Fut) regulate the fucosylation process associated with tumorogenesis in different cancer types. Ascitic fluid (AF) from patients diagnosed with advanced stage of epithelial ovarian cancer (EOC) is considered as a dynamic tumor microenvironment associated with poor prognosis. Previous studies from our laboratory showed increased fucosylation in SKOV-3 and OVCAR-3, cancer-derived cell lines, when these cells were incubated with AFs derived from patients diagnosed with EOC. In the present work we studied three fucosyltransferases (Fut 2, Fut 4, and Fut 8) in SKOV-3, OVCAR-3 and CAOV-3 cell lines in combination with five different AFs from patients diagnosed with this disease, confirming that all tested AFs increased fucosylation. Then, we demonstrate that mRNAs of these three enzymes were overexpressed in the three cell lines under treatment with AFs. SKOV-3 showed the higher overexpression of Fut 2, Fut 4, and Fut 8 in comparison with the control condition. We further confirmed, in the SKOV-3 cell line, by endpoint PCR, WB, and confocal microscopy, that the three enzymes were overexpressed, being Fut 4 the most overexpressed enzyme compared to Fut 2 and Fut 8. These enzymes were concentrated in vesicular structures with a homogeneous distribution pattern throughout the cytoplasm. Moreover, we found that among the three enzymes, only Fut 4 was located inside the nuclei. The nuclear location of Fut 4 was confirmed for the three cell lines. These results allow to propose Fut 2, Fut 4, and Fut 8 as potential targets for EOC treatment or as diagnostic tools for this disease.

DNA Damage-driven Inflammatory Cytokines: Reprogramming of Tumor Immune Microenvironment and Application of Oncotherapy

DNA damage occurs across tumorigenesis and tumor development. Tumor intrinsic DNA damage can not only increase the risk of mutations responsible for tumor generation but also initiate a cellular stress response to orchestrate the tumor immune microenvironment (TIME) and dominate tumor progression. Accumulating evidence documents that multiple signaling pathways, including cyclic GMP-AMP synthase-stimulator of interferon genes (cGAS-STING) and ataxia telangiectasia-mutated protein/ataxia telangiectasia and Rad3-related protein (ATM/ATR), are activated downstream of DNA damage and they are associated with the secretion of diverse cytokines. These cytokines possess multifaced functions in the anti-tumor immune response. Thus, it is necessary to deeply interpret the complex TIME reshaped by damaged DNA and tumor-derived cytokines, critical for the development of effective tumor therapies. This manuscript comprehensively reviews the relationship between the DNA damage response and related cytokines in tumors and depicts the dual immunoregulatory roles of these cytokines. We also summarize clinical trials targeting signaling pathways and cytokines associated with DNA damage and provide future perspectives on emerging technologies.

Reciprocal crosstalk between Th17 and mesothelial cells promotes metastasis-associated adhesion of ovarian cancer cells

BACKGROUND

IL-17A and TNF synergistically promote inflammation and tumorigenesis. Their interplay and impact on ovarian carcinoma (OC) progression are, however, poorly understood. We addressed this question focusing on mesothelial cells, whose interaction with tumor cells is known to play a pivotal role in transcoelomic metastasis formation.

METHODS

Flow-cytometry and immunohistochemistry experiments were employed to identify cellular sources of IL-17A and TNF. Changes in transcriptomes and secretomes were determined by bulk and single cell RNA sequencing as well as affinity proteomics. Functional consequences were investigated by microscopic analyses and tumor cell adhesion assays. Potential clinical implications were assessed by immunohistochemistry and survival analyses.

RESULTS

We identified Th17 cells as the main population of IL-17A- and TNF producers in ascites and detected their accumulation in early omental metastases. Both IL-17A and its receptor subunit IL-17RC were associated with short survival of OC patients, pointing to a role in clinical progression. IL-17A and TNF synergistically induced the reprogramming of mesothelial cells towards a pro-inflammatory mesenchymal phenotype, concomitantly with a loss of tight junctions and an impairment of mesothelial monolayer integrity, thereby promoting cancer cell adhesion. IL-17A and TNF synergistically induced the Th17-promoting cytokines IL-6 and IL-1β as well as the Th17-attracting chemokine CCL20 in mesothelial cells, indicating a reciprocal crosstalk that potentiates the tumor-promoting role of Th17 cells in OC.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings reveal a novel function for Th17 cells in the OC microenvironment, which entails the IL-17A/TNF-mediated induction of mesothelial-mesenchymal transition, disruption of mesothelial layer integrity and consequently promotion of OC cell adhesion. These effects are potentiated by a positive feedback loop between mesothelial and Th17 cells. Together with the observed clinical associations and accumulation of Th17 cells in omental micrometastases, our observations point to a potential role in early metastases formation and thus to new therapeutic options.

Inflammation as a driver of hematological malignancies

Hematopoiesis is a tightly regulated process that produces all adult blood cells and immune cells from multipotent hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs). HSCs usually remain quiescent, and in the presence of external stimuli like infection or inflammation, they undergo division and differentiation as a compensatory mechanism. Normal hematopoiesis is impacted by systemic inflammation, which causes HSCs to transition from quiescence to emergency myelopoiesis. At the molecular level, inflammatory cytokine signaling molecules such as tumor necrosis factor (TNF), interferons, interleukins, and toll-like receptors can all cause HSCs to multiply directly. These cytokines actively encourage HSC activation, proliferation, and differentiation during inflammation, which results in the generation and activation of immune cells required to combat acute injury. The bone marrow niche provides numerous soluble and stromal cell signals, which are essential for maintaining normal homeostasis and output of the bone marrow cells. Inflammatory signals also impact this bone marrow microenvironment called the HSC niche to regulate the inflammatory-induced hematopoiesis. Continuous pro-inflammatory cytokine and chemokine activation can have detrimental effects on the hematopoietic system, which can lead to cancer development, HSC depletion, and bone marrow failure. Reactive oxygen species (ROS), which damage DNA and ultimately lead to the transformation of HSCs into cancerous cells, are produced due to chronic inflammation. The biological elements of the HSC niche produce pro-inflammatory cytokines that cause clonal growth and the development of leukemic stem cells (LSCs) in hematological malignancies. The processes underlying how inflammation affects hematological malignancies are still not fully understood. In this review, we emphasize the effects of inflammation on normal hematopoiesis, the part it plays in the development and progression of hematological malignancies, and potential therapeutic applications for targeting these pathways for therapy in hematological malignancies.

Sindbis Virus Vaccine Platform: A Promising Oncolytic Virus-Mediated Approach for Ovarian Cancer Treatment

This review article provides a comprehensive overview of a novel Sindbis virus vaccine platform as potential immunotherapy for ovarian cancer patients. Ovarian cancer is the most lethal of all gynecological malignancies. The majority of high-grade serous ovarian cancer (HGSOC) patients are diagnosed with advanced disease. Current treatment options are very aggressive and limited, resulting in tumor recurrences and 50-60% patient mortality within 5 years. The unique properties of armed oncolytic Sindbis virus vectors (SV) in vivo have garnered significant interest in recent years to potently target and treat ovarian cancer. We discuss the molecular biology of Sindbis virus, its mechanisms of action against ovarian cancer cells, preclinical in vivo studies, and future perspectives. The potential of Sindbis virus-based therapies for ovarian cancer treatment holds great promise and warrants further investigation. Investigations using other oncolytic viruses in preclinical studies and clinical trials are also presented.

Targeting the immune microenvironment for ovarian cancer therapy

Ovarian cancer (OC) is an aggressive malignancy characterized by a complex immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME). Immune checkpoint inhibitors have emerged as a breakthrough in cancer therapy by reactivating the antitumor immune response suppressed by tumor cells. However, in the case of OC, these inhibitors have failed to demonstrate significant improvements in patient outcomes, and existing biomarkers have not yet identified promising subgroups. Consequently, there remains a pressing need to understand the interplay between OC tumor cells and their surrounding microenvironment to develop effective immunotherapeutic approaches. This review aims to provide an overview of the OC TME and explore its potential as a therapeutic strategy. Tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs) are major actors in OC TME. Evidence has been accumulating regarding the spontaneous TILS response against OC antigens. Activated T-helpers secrete a wide range of inflammatory cytokines with a supportive action on cytotoxic T-cells. Simultaneously, mature B-cells are recruited and play a significant antitumor role through opsonization of target antigens and T-cell recruitment. Macrophages also form an important subset of innate immunity (M1-macrophages) while participating in the immune-stimulation context. Finally, OC has shown to engage a significant natural-killer-cells immune response, exerting direct cytotoxicity without prior sensitization. Despite this initial cytotoxicity, OC cells develop various strategies to induce an immune-tolerant state. To this end, multiple immunosuppressive molecules are secreted to impair cytotoxic cells, recruit regulatory cells, alter antigen presentation, and effectively evade immune response. Consequently, OC TME is predominantly infiltrated by immunosuppressive cells such as FOXP3+ regulatory T-cells, M2-polarized macrophages and myeloid-derived suppressor cells. Despite this strong immunosuppressive state, PD-1/PD-L1 inhibitors have failed to improve outcomes. Beyond PD-1/PD-L1, OC expresses multiple other immune checkpoints that contribute to immune evasion, and each representing potential immune targets. Novel immunotherapies are attempting to overcome the immunosuppressive state and induce specific immune responses using antibodies adoptive cell therapy or vaccines. Overall, the OC TME presents both opportunities and obstacles. Immunotherapeutic approaches continue to show promise, and next-generation inhibitors offer exciting opportunities. However, tailoring therapies to individual immune characteristics will be critical for the success of these treatments.

Impaired immune response against SARS-CoV-2 infection is the major factor indirectly altering reproductive function in COVID-19 patients: a narrative review

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is an infectious disease affecting multiple systems and organs, including the reproductive system. SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes COVID-19, can damage reproductive organs through direct (angiotensin converting enzyme-2, ACE-2) and indirect mechanisms. The immune system plays an essential role in the homeostasis and function of the male and female reproductive systems. Therefore, an altered immune response related to infectious and inflammatory diseases can affect reproductive function and fertility in both males and females. This narrative review discussed the dysregulation of innate and adaptive systems induced by SARS-CoV-2 infection. We reviewed the evidence showing that this altered immune response in COVID-19 patients is the major indirect mechanism leading to adverse reproduction outcomes in these patients. We summarized studies reporting the long-term effect of SARS-CoV-2 infection on women's reproductive function and proposed the chronic inflammation and chronic autoimmunity characterizing long COVID as potential underlying mechanisms. Further studies are needed to clarify the role of autoimmunity and chronic inflammation (long COVID) in altered female reproduction function in COVID-19.

SARS-CoV-2 infection as a potential risk factor for the development of cancer

The COVID-19 pandemic has a significant impact on public health and the estimated number of excess deaths may be more than three times higher than documented in official statistics. Numerous studies have shown an increased risk of severe COVID-19 and death in patients with cancer. In addition, the role of SARS-CoV-2 as a potential risk factor for the development of cancer has been considered. Therefore, in this review, we summarise the available data on the potential effects of SARS-CoV-2 infection on oncogenesis, including but not limited to effects on host signal transduction pathways, immune surveillance, chronic inflammation, oxidative stress, cell cycle dysregulation, potential viral genome integration, epigenetic alterations and genetic mutations, oncolytic effects and reactivation of dormant cancer cells. We also investigated the potential long-term effects and impact of the antiviral therapy used in COVID-19 on cancer development and its progression.

Lymphatic vasculature in ovarian cancer

Ovarian cancer (OVCA) is the second most common gynecological cancer and one of the leading causes of cancer related mortality among women. Recent studies suggest that among ovarian cancer patients at least 70% of the cases experience the involvement of lymph nodes and metastases through lymphatic vascular network. However, the impact of lymphatic system in the growth, spread and the evolution of ovarian cancer, its contribution towards the landscape of ovarian tissue resident immune cells and their metabolic responses is still a major knowledge gap. In this review first we present the epidemiological aspect of the OVCA, the lymphatic architecture of the ovary, we discuss the role of lymphatic circulation in regulation of ovarian tumor microenvironment, metabolic basis of the upregulation of lymphangiogenesis which is often observed during progression of ovarian metastasis and ascites development. Further we describe the implication of several mediators which influence both lymphatic vasculature as well as ovarian tumor microenvironment and conclude with several therapeutic strategies for targeting lymphatic vasculature in ovarian cancer progression in present day.

Deciphering Common Traits of Breast and Ovarian Cancer Stem Cells and Possible Therapeutic Approaches

Breast cancer (BC) and ovarian cancer (OC) are among the most common and deadly cancers affecting women worldwide. Both are complex diseases with marked heterogeneity. Despite the induction of screening programs that increase the frequency of earlier diagnosis of BC, at a stage when the cancer is more likely to respond to therapy, which does not exist for OC, more than 50% of both cancers are diagnosed at an advanced stage. Initial therapy can put the cancer into remission. However, recurrences occur frequently in both BC and OC, which are highly cancer-subtype dependent. Therapy resistance is mainly attributed to a rare subpopulation of cells, named cancer stem cells (CSC) or tumor-initiating cells, as they are capable of self-renewal, tumor initiation, and regrowth of tumor bulk. In this review, we will discuss the distinctive markers and signaling pathways that characterize CSC, their interactions with the tumor microenvironment, and the strategies they employ to evade immune surveillance. Our focus will be on identifying the common features of breast cancer stem cells (BCSC) and ovarian cancer stem cells (OCSC) and suggesting potential therapeutic approaches.

High Expression of Triggering Receptor Expressed on Myeloid Cells 1 Predicts Poor Prognosis in Glioblastoma

Background

Glioblastoma (GBM) is a highly malignant tumor with poor prognosis, and new treatment strategies are urgently needed. Currently, the role of triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells 1 (TREM-1) in tumors has been studied, but the role of TREM-1 in GBM remains unclear.

Methods

Immunohistochemical staining for TREM-1 was performed in 91 patients diagnosed with GBM. Clinicopathological characteristics and survival times were recorded. TREM-1 expression and its effect on prognosis were analyzed using online Gene Expression Profiling Interactive Analysis (GEPIA), The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA), and Chinese Glioma Genome Atlas (CGGA) databases. The expression profile of TCGA-GBM cohort was used to perform functional enrichment analysis. The CIBERSORT method and Tumor Immune Estimation Resource (TIMER) database were used to estimate the tumor-infiltrating immune cells (TIICs). The ESTIMATE algorithm was used to estimate the immune-stromal scores. Finally, the relationships of TREM-1 with TIICs, immune-stromal score, and immune checkpoint genes (ICGs) were analyzed.

Results

The expression of TREM-1 was upregulated in GBM, and high TREM-1 expression predicted a poor prognosis. TREM-1, surgical resection, postoperative radiotherapy, and temozolomide (TMZ) chemotherapy were associated with the survival time of patients with GBM, but only surgical resection and TREM-1 expression were independent prognostic factors. GBM with high TREM-1 expression exhibited increased neutrophil and macrophage infiltration. TREM-1 was positively associated with the immune-stromal score and multiple ICGs, and most of which were involved in immunosuppressive responses.

Conclusion

The present study revealed that high expression of TREM-1 in GBM is an independent poor prognosis factor and that TREM-1 is associated with the immunosuppressive microenvironment. Thus, blocking TREM-1 may be a strategy for enhancing the GBM immune response.

Prepregnancy Body Mass Index and Risk of Differentiated Thyroid Cancer: A Prospective Cohort Study of More than 440,000 Danish Women

Background: High body mass index (BMI) has previously been associated with increased risk of differentiated thyroid cancer (DTC); however, only few studies have investigated the association with BMI in a large cohort assessed at a young age and with sufficient data on confounding factors. We assessed the association between excess body weight and the risk of DTC and papillary thyroid cancer (PTC) in a large cohort of young Danish women with substantial confounder control. Methods: We included all parous Danish women registered with a prepregnancy BMI ≥18.5 kg/m² during 2004-2016 in the Danish Medical Birth Registry in the study population. Cox proportional hazards regression models were used to estimate the hazard ratios (HRs) with confidence intervals (CIs) of DTC according to BMI. In subanalyses, we investigated PTC as a separate group. Analyses were adjusted for calendar time, education, smoking status, benign thyroid disease (BTD), type II diabetes, parity, and oral contraceptive use. In addition, we examined the association with increasing BMI stratified for previous BTD. Results: A total of 443,403 women were included in the study population, and the median age at baseline was 30.0 years. Altogether, 463 women were diagnosed with DTC during follow-up. Excess body weight was associated with a higher rate of DTC (overweight, BMI 25-29.9 kg/m²: HR = 1.54; CI 1.25-1.90. Obese, BMI ≥30 kg/m²: HR = 1.32; CI 1.00-1.75) compared with normal weight. Results were similar in PTC. In addition, we found an increased rate of DTC with increasing BMI, when investigating BMI as a continuous variable per 5 kg/m² increase (HR = 1.17; CI 1.07-1.27). The results were similar in women without previous BTD. Conclusions: Our study confirms that excess body weight is associated with an increased incidence of DTC and PTC in women.

Analysis of the Occurrence of Predicative Factors of Chronic Fatigue in Female Patients with Cancer of the Reproductive Organs with Respect to Stage of Treatment

The aim of this study was to search for mechanisms contributing to cancer-related fatigue in patients with gynecologic cancer. The study involved 51 women with advanced endometrial cancer and ovarian cancer undergoing chemotherapy. Data were gathered at four points in time. After giving consent, each of the women had their blood drawn several times (before surgery and the first, third, and sixth cycle of chemotherapy) to determine serum levels of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines. Empirical data were collected using the MFSI-SF and an original questionnaire. Cancer-related fatigue (CRF) was present at every stage of treatment, but the highest mean scores were noted before cytoreductive surgery (8.745 ± 4.599), and before the sixth cycle of chemotherapy (9.667 ± 4.493). Statistically significant relationships were found between IL-1α, IL-1β, IL-2, Il-6, and IL-10 and fatigue at different stages of treatment. Older age and an above-normal BMI were the major prerequisite factors for the occurrence of fatigue in female oncological patients. The analysis of changes in cytokine levels and the severity of fatigue may be used to improve our understanding of cancer-related fatigue, and to take action to alleviate the obtrusive symptoms experienced by female patients with cancer of the reproductive organs.

Inflammatory Responses of Women with Polycystic Ovary Syndrome in Vitro Differ from Healthy Women

Polycystic ovary syndrome is a low-grade inflammatory state with increased serum levels of TNF-α. The present study has compared the inflammatory responses to breast cancer cell lines in women with PCOS with healthy women. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) isolated from 50 women with PCOS and 50 healthy controls were cultured in the trans-well co-culture system. These cells were stimulated with two distinct breast cancer cell lines. The proliferation of PBMCs, CD3+CD8+T cell percentages, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) concentration were evaluated after 48 and 72 hours of incubation. TNF-α concentration and the proliferation rate of PBMCs after 48 hours of incubation significantly increased in the PCOS group. However, after 72 hours, TNF-α secretion significantly decreased in the PCOS group. The ability of PBMCs to produce TNF-α decreased gradually in women with PCOS. When the effects of low-grade inflammation and endocrine conditions on the cells decrease, the inability of PBMCs to create an inflammatory response will be altered.

Emerging role of Protein Kinase CK2 in Tumor immunity

Protein kinase CK2, a conserved serine/threonine-protein kinase, is ubiquitous in cells and regulates various intracellular processes, especially in tumor cells. As one of the earliest discovered protein kinases in humans, CK2 plays a crucial role in phosphorylating or associating with hundreds of substrates to modulate several signaling pathways. Excellent reviews have reported that the overexpression of CK2 could be observed in many cancers and was closely associated with tumor occurrence and development. The elevation of CK2 is also an indicator of a poor prognosis. Recently, increasing attention has been paid to the relationship between CK2 and tumor immunity. However, there is no comprehensive description of how CK2 regulates the immune cells in the tumor microenvironment (TME). Also, the underlying mechanisms are still not very clear. In this review, we systematically summarized the correlation between CK2 and tumor immunity, primarily the effects on various immune cells, both in innate and adaptive immunity in the TME. With the comprehensive development of immunotherapy and the mounting transformation research of CK2 inhibitors from the bench to the clinic, this review will provide vital information to find new treatment options for enhancing the efficacy of immunotherapy.

Hallmarks of Cancer Expression in Oral Lichen Planus: A Scoping Review of Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses

Oral lichen planus (OLP) is a common chronic inflammatory disease of unknown etiology and likely autoimmune nature that is currently considered an oral potentially malignant disorder, implying that patients suffering from this process are at risk of developing oral cancer in their lifetime. The molecular alterations that develop in OLP and that make the affected oral epithelium predisposed to malignancy are unknown, although, as in other autoimmune diseases (ulcerative colitis, primary biliary cirrhosis, etc.), they may be linked to oncogenesis-promoting effects mediated by the inflammatory infiltrate. So far there is no in-depth knowledge on how these hallmarks of cancer are established in the cells of the oral epithelium affected by OLP. In this scoping review of systematic reviews and meta-analyses the state of evidence based knowledge in this field is presented, to point out gaps of evidence and to indicate future lines of research. MEDLINE, Embase, Cochrane Library and Dare were searched for secondary-level studies published before October 2022. The results identified 20 systematic reviews and meta-analyses critically appraising the hallmarks tumor-promoting inflammation (n = 17, 85%), sustaining proliferative signaling (n = 2, 10%), and evading growth suppressors (n = 1, 5%). No evidence was found for the other hallmarks of cancer in OLP. In conclusion, OLP malignization hypothetically derives from the aggressions of the inflammatory infiltrate and a particular type of epithelial response based on increased epithelial proliferation, evasion of growth-suppressive signals and lack of apoptosis. Future evidence-based research is required to support this hypothesis.

Elucidating tumor heterogeneity from spatially resolved transcriptomics data by multi-view graph collaborative learning

Spatially resolved transcriptomics (SRT) technology enables us to gain novel insights into tissue architecture and cell development, especially in tumors. However, lacking computational exploitation of biological contexts and multi-view features severely hinders the elucidation of tissue heterogeneity. Here, we propose stMVC, a multi-view graph collaborative-learning model that integrates histology, gene expression, spatial location, and biological contexts in analyzing SRT data by attention. Specifically, stMVC adopting semi-supervised graph attention autoencoder separately learns view-specific representations of histological-similarity-graph or spatial-location-graph, and then simultaneously integrates two-view graphs for robust representations through attention under semi-supervision of biological contexts. stMVC outperforms other tools in detecting tissue structure, inferring trajectory relationships, and denoising on benchmark slices of human cortex. Particularly, stMVC identifies disease-related cell-states and their transition cell-states in breast cancer study, which are further validated by the functional and survival analysis of independent clinical data. Those results demonstrate clinical and prognostic applications from SRT data.

Combination therapy with interferon-gamma as a potential therapeutic medicine in rat's glioblastoma: A multi-mechanism evaluation

BACKGROUND

This study assessed the effects of single or combined administration of temozolomide (TMZ) and interferon-gamma (IFN-ᵞ) on anxiety-like behaviors, balance disorders, learning and memory, TNF-α, IL-10, some oxidant and antioxidants factors with investigating the toll-like receptor-4 (TLR4) and p-CREB signaling pathway in C6-induced glioblastoma of rats.

METHODS

40 male Sprague-Dawley rats bearing intra-caudate nucleus (CN) culture medium or C6 inoculation were randomly divided into five groups as follows: Sham, Tumor, TMZ, IFN-ᵞ and a TMZ + IFN-ᵞ combination. The open-field test (OFT), elevated plus maze (EPM), rotarod, and passive avoidance test (PAT) were done on days 14-17. On day 17 after tumor implantation, brain tissues were extracted for histopathological evaluation. TNF-α, IL-10, SOD, GPX, TAC, MDA, the protein level of TLR4 and p-CREB was measured.

RESULTS

Combination therapy inhibited the growth of the tumor. Treatment groups alleviated tumor-induced anxiety-like behaviors and improved imbalance and memory impairment. SOD, GPX, and TAC decreased in the tumor group. The combination group augmented GPX and TAC. MDA decreased in treatment groups. TMZ, IFN-ᵞ reduced tumor-increased TNF-α and IL-10 level. The combination group declined TNF-α level in serum and IL-10 level in serum and brain. Glioblastoma induced significant upregulation of TLR4 and p-CREB in the brain which inhibited by IFN-ᵞ and TMZ+ IFN-ᵞ.

CONCLUSION

The beneficial effects of TMZ, IFN-ᵞ, and TMZ+ IFN-ᵞ on neurocognitive functioning of rats with C6-induced glioblastoma may be mediated via modulating oxidative stress, reduced cytokines, and the downregulation of expression of TLR4 and p-CREB. Combination treatment appears to be more effective than single treatment.

Tumor-Associated Macrophages and Ovarian Cancer: Implications for Therapy

The tumor microenvironment (TME) has been implicated to play an important role in the progression of ovarian cancer. One of the most important components of the TME is tumor associated macrophages (TAMs). Phenotypically, macrophages are broadly categorized as M1 pro-inflammatory or M2 anti-inflammatory, based on the cytokines and chemokines that they secrete. The tumor microenvironment is associated with macrophages of an M2 phenotype which suppress the surrounding immune environment, assist tumor cells in evading immune targeting, and support tumor growth and metastasis. Contrarily, M1 macrophages help mount an immune response against tumors, and are associated with a more favorable prognosis in solid tumors. One of the characteristic indicators of a poor prognosis in ovarian cancer is the overrepresentation of M2-type TAMs. As such, therapeutic modalities targeting TME and TAMs are of increasing interest. Pharmacological approaches to eliminate TAMs, include decreasing macrophage survival and recruitment and increasing phagocytosis, have been underwhelming. Clinical strategies targeting these macrophage subtypes via repolarization to an M1 antitumoral state deserve increasing attention, and may serve as a new modality for immunotherapy.

Comparing the Secretomes of Chemorefractory and Chemoresistant Ovarian Cancer Cell Populations

High-grade serous ovarian cancer (HGSOC) constitutes the majority of all ovarian cancer cases and has staggering rates of both refractory and recurrent disease. While most patients respond to the initial treatment with paclitaxel and platinum-based drugs, up to 25% do not, and of the remaining that do, 75% experience disease recurrence within the subsequent two years. Intrinsic resistance in refractory cases is driven by environmental stressors like tumor hypoxia which alter the tumor microenvironment to promote cancer progression and resistance to anticancer drugs. Recurrent disease describes the acquisition of chemoresistance whereby cancer cells survive the initial exposure to chemotherapy and develop adaptations to enhance their chances of surviving subsequent treatments. Of the environmental stressors cancer cells endure, exposure to hypoxia has been identified as a potent trigger and priming agent for the development of chemoresistance. Both in the presence of the stress of hypoxia or the therapeutic stress of chemotherapy, cancer cells manage to cope and develop adaptations which prime populations to survive in future stress. One adaptation is the modification in the secretome. Chemoresistance is associated with translational reprogramming for increased protein synthesis, ribosome biogenesis, and vesicle trafficking. This leads to increased production of soluble proteins and extracellular vesicles (EVs) involved in autocrine and paracrine signaling processes. Numerous studies have demonstrated that these factors are largely altered between the secretomes of chemosensitive and chemoresistant patients. Such factors include cytokines, growth factors, EVs, and EV-encapsulated microRNAs (miRNAs), which serve to induce invasive molecular, biophysical, and chemoresistant phenotypes in neighboring normal and cancer cells. This review examines the modifications in the secretome of distinct chemoresistant ovarian cancer cell populations and specific secreted factors, which may serve as candidate biomarkers for aggressive and chemoresistant cancers.

Tocilizumab overcomes chemotherapy resistance in mesenchymal stem-like breast cancer by negating autocrine IL-1A induction of IL-6

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) patients with mesenchymal stem-like (MSL) subtype have responded poorly to chemotherapy whereas patients with basal-like 1 (BL1) subtype achieved the best clinical response. In order to gain insight into pathways that may contribute to the divergent sensitivity to chemotherapy, we compared the inflammatory profile of the two TNBC subtypes treated with docetaxel. Cellular signaling analysis determined that docetaxel activated MAPK pathway in MSL TNBCs but not BL1 TNBCs. The subsequent MAPK pathway activation in MSL TNBCs led to an IL-1A mediated cascade of autocrine inflammatory mediators including IL-6. Utilizing the humanized IL-6R antibody, tocilizumab, our in vitro and in vivo data show that MSL TNBCs treated with tocilizumab together with chemotherapy results in delayed tumor progression compared to MSL TNBCs treated with docetaxel alone. Our study highlights a molecular subset of TNBC that may be responsive to tocilizumab therapy for potential translational impact.

Early Neutrophilia Marked by Aerobic Glycolysis Sustains Host Metabolism and Delays Cancer Cachexia

An elevated neutrophil-lymphocyte ratio negatively predicts the outcome of patients with cancer and is associated with cachexia, the terminal wasting syndrome. Here, using murine model systems of colorectal and pancreatic cancer we show that neutrophilia in the circulation and multiple organs, accompanied by extramedullary hematopoiesis, is an early event during cancer progression. Transcriptomic and metabolic assessment reveals that neutrophils in tumor-bearing animals utilize aerobic glycolysis, similar to cancer cells. Although pharmacological inhibition of aerobic glycolysis slows down tumor growth in C26 tumor-bearing mice, it precipitates cachexia, thereby shortening the overall survival. This negative effect may be explained by our observation that acute depletion of neutrophils in pre-cachectic mice impairs systemic glucose homeostasis secondary to altered hepatic lipid processing. Thus, changes in neutrophil number, distribution, and metabolism play an adaptive role in host metabolic homeostasis during cancer progression. Our findings provide insight into early events during cancer progression to cachexia, with implications for therapy.

YAP/Hippo Pathway and Cancer Immunity: It Takes Two to Tango

Hippo pathway with its main molecule YAP is a crucial pathway for development, tissue homeostasis, wound healing, tissue regeneration, and cancer. In this review, we discuss the multiple effects of the YAP/Hippo pathway in the immune system and cancer. We analyzed a series of effects: extracellular vesicles enhanced immunity through inhibition of LATS1/2, ways of modulation of the tumor microenvironment, YAP- and TAZ-mediated upregulation of PDL1, high expression of YAP and PDL1 in EGFR-TKI-resistant cells, enhanced YAP activity in inflammation, and the effect of the Hippo pathway on T cells, B cells, Tregs, macrophages, and myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs). These pleiotropic effects render the YAP and Hippo pathway a key pathway for exploitation in the future, in order to enhance our immunotherapy treatment strategies in oncology.

Prognostic model of AU-rich genes predicting the prognosis of lung adenocarcinoma

Background

AU-rich elements (ARE) are vital cis-acting short sequences in the 3’UTR affecting mRNA stability and translation. The deregulation of ARE-mediated pathways can contribute to tumorigenesis and development. Consequently, ARE-genes are promising to predict prognosis of lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD) patients.

Methods

Differentially expressed ARE-genes between LUAD and adjacent tissues in TCGA were investigated by Wilcoxon test. LASSO and Cox regression analyses were performed to identify a prognostic genetic signature. The genetic signature was combined with clinicopathological features to establish a prognostic model. LUAD patients were divided into high- and low-risk groups by the model. Kaplan–Meier curve, Harrell’s concordance index (C-index), calibration curves and decision curve analyses (DCA) were used to assess the model. Function enrichment analysis, immunity and tumor mutation analyses were performed to further explore the underlying molecular mechanisms. GEO data were used for external validation.

Results

Twelve prognostic genes were identified. The gene riskScore, age and stage were independent prognostic factors. The high-risk group had worse overall survival and was less sensitive to chemotherapy and radiotherapy (P < 0.01). C-index and calibration curves showed good performance on survival prediction in both TCGA (1, 3, 5-year ROC: 0.788, 0.776, 0.766) and the GSE13213 validation cohort (1, 3, 5-year ROC: 0.781, 0.811, 0.734). DCA showed the model had notable clinical net benefit. Furthermore, the high-risk group were enriched in cell cycle, DNA damage response, multiple oncological pathways and associated with higher PD-L1 expression, M1 macrophage infiltration. There was no significant difference in tumor mutation burden (TMB) between high- and low-risk groups.

Conclusion

ARE-genes can reliably predict prognosis of LUAD and may become new therapeutic targets for LUAD.

Local biomaterial-assisted antitumour immunotherapy for effusions in the pleural and peritoneal cavities caused by malignancies

Malignant pleural effusion (MPE) and malignant ascites (MA), which are common but serious conditions caused by malignancies, are related to poor quality of life and high mortality. Current treatments, including therapeutic thoracentesis and indwelling pleural catheters or paracentesis and catheter drainage, are largely palliative. An effective treatment is urgently needed. MPE and MA are excellent candidates for intratumoural injections that have direct contact with tumour cells and kill tumour cells more effectively and efficiently with fewer side effects, and the fluid environment of MPE and MA can provide a homogeneous area for drug distribution. The immunosuppressive environments within the pleural and peritoneal cavities suggest the feasibility of local immunotherapy. In this review, we introduce the current management of MPE and MA, discuss the latest advances and challenges in utilizing local biomaterial-assisted antitumour therapies for the treatment of MPE and MA, and discuss further opportunities in this field.

HSP47 contributes to angiogenesis by induction of CCL2 in bladder cancer

Heat shock protein 47 (HSP47) is a collagen-specific molecular chaperone and is involved in tumor progression by promoting angiogenesis. However, the regulatory network of HSP47 in angiogenesis remains elusive. In this study, we report a novel mechanism of HSP47-induced angiogenesis in bladder cancer (BC). We find that HSP47 is abnormally overexpressed in BC and is correlated with poor prognosis. HSP47 down-regulation suppresses angiogenesis in BC cells. Mechanistically, activation of the ERK pathway and induction of C-C Motif Chemokine Ligand 2 (CCL2) are responsible for HSP47-induced angiogenesis. The correlation between HSP47 with CCL2 and angiogenesis is further confirmed in BC clinical samples. Taken together, our findings suggest that HSP47 contributes to BC angiogenesis by induction of CCL2 and provide a potential anti-angiogenesis target for BC therapy.

Kaempferia parviflora extract inhibits TNF-α-induced release of MCP-1 in ovarian cancer cells through the suppression of NF-κB signaling

Ovarian clear cell carcinoma (OCCC) is an uncommon subtype of epithelial cell ovarian cancers (EOCs) that has poor response to conventional platinum-based therapy. Therefore, finding new potential therapeutic agents is required. Since inflammatory cytokine, tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), is strongly expressed in EOCs and associated with the level of tumor grade, disruption of this inflammation pathway may provide another potential target for OCCC treatment. We previously reported that Kaempferia parviflora (KP) extract decreased cell proliferation and induced apoptosis. However, the effects of KP on OCCC, especially the aspects related to inflammatory cytokines, have not been elucidated. Our current study demonstrated the effects of KP extract on cytokine production in TNF-α-induced OCCC TOV-21G cell line. This study showed that KP extract inhibited interleukin 6 (IL-6) and monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) production at both transcription and translation levels via the suppression of nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) signal transduction. In contrast, KP extract increased the expression of inhibitor kappa B (IκB) protein which may delay NF-κB translocation into the nucleus upon TNF-α activation. Moreover, the suppression of cytokines released from KP treated-TOV-21G reduced the migration of monocyte cell (THP-1). KP extract also exhibited the inhibition of IL-6 and MCP-1 production from THP-1 activated by lipopolysaccharides (LPS). Cells treated with KP extract exhibited a decrease in extracellular signal-regulated kinases (ERK1/2) and protein kinase B (AKT) phosphorylation and induced myeloid leukemia cell differentiation protein Mcl-1 (MCL-1) expression. Suppression of inflammatory cytokine and chemokine production and inhibition of tumor-associated macrophage (TAM) migration support the possibility of using KP for OCCC treatment.

Ovarian Cancer-Associated Ascites Have High Proportions of Cytokine-Responsive CD56bright NK Cells

Ovarian cancer is the most lethal gynecological malignancy, with serous histotype as the most prevalent epithelial ovarian cancer (EOC). Peritoneal ascites is a frequent comorbidity in advanced EOC. EOC-associated ascites provide a reliable sampling source for studying lymphocytes directly from tumor environment. Herein, we carried out flow cytometry-based analysis to readdress issues on NK and T lymphocyte subsets in women with advanced EOC, additionally evaluating phenotypic modulation of their intracellular pathways involved in interleukin (IL)-2 and IL-15 signaling. Results depicted ascites as an inflammatory and immunosuppressive environment, presenting significantly (p < 0.0001) higher amounts of IL-6 and IL-10 than in the patients' blood, as well as significantly (p < 0.05) increased expression of checkpoint inhibitory receptors (programmed death protein-1, PD-1) and ectonucleotidase (CD39) on T lymphocytes. However, NK lymphocytes from EOC-associated ascites showed higher (p < 0.05) pS6 phosphorylation compared with NK from blood. Additionally, in vitro treatment of lymphocytes with IL-2 or IL-15 elicited significantly (p < 0.001) phosphorylation of the STAT5 protein in NK, CD3 and CD8 lymphocytes, both from blood and ascites. EOC-associated ascites had a significantly (p < 0.0001) higher proportion of NK CD56bright lymphocytes than blood, which, in addition, were more responsive (p < 0.05) to stimulation by IL-2 than CD56dim NK. EOC-associated ascites allow studies on lymphocyte phenotype modulation in the tumor environment, where inflammatory profile contrasts with the presence of immunosuppressive elements and development of cellular self-regulating mechanisms.

Predictive Value of IL-6 Combined with NLR in Inflammation and Cancer

The strong association between inflammation and cancer is reflected by the high interleukin-6 (IL-6) levels in the tumor microenvironment, where it promotes carcinogenesis by regulating all hallmarks of cancer and multiple signaling pathways. In this study, we investigated the prognostic value of IL-6 and other clinical indexes in inflammatory and cancer patients. All the patients were divided into the inflammation group (n = 400) and the cancer group (n = 672) composed of hematological malignancies group (n = 338) and solid tumors group (n = 334). Continuous variables were measured by one-way ANOVA and t-test, and the independent risk factors for carcinogenesis were determined by multivariate logistic regression analysis. The receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves subsequently performed the predictive value of significant serological parameters and the Corheatmaps illustrated the correlation of these parameters in every case. Our retrospective study revealed that various serological indexes could reflect carcinogenesis in inflammatory patients, as significant differences existed in many indexes between them. It was notable that indicator composed of IL-6 and neutrophils/lymphocytes ratio (NLR) occupied the superior position of Area Under Curve (AUC) values in cancer cases, especially in patients with solid tumors (AUC = 0.85). The newly-found indicator could also be referred as an independent risk factor, which provided us with novel clues on the investigation of more reliable and affordable clinical indexes in tumor prediction.

Exploring the long noncoding RNAs-based biomarkers and pathogenesis of malignant transformation from dysplasia to oral squamous cell carcinoma by bioinformatics method

Long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) play an important role in many biological processes and carcinogenesis. We aimed to explore lncRNA-based pathogenesis, diagnostic biomarkers, and predictive factors of malignant transformation from dysplasia to oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC). Microarray data of GSE30784 consisting of 167 OSCC, 17 dysplasia, and 45 normal oral tissues were downloaded from the GEO database. The differentially expressed genes (DEGs) and lncRNAs between the three samples were identified using R, followed by lncRNA-mRNA coexpression and coregulation network analysis for the prediction of lncRNA target genes. Gene Ontology and Kyoto encydopedia of gene and genomes pathway analysis were performed to further characterize potential interactions. A total of 4462 DEGs and 76 differentially expressed lncRNAs were screened between the three groups, and 200 DEGs and only double homeobox A pseudogene 10 (DUXAP10) were screened among the three groups. A total of 1662 interactions of 46 lncRNAs and their coexpressed target genes were predicted, and 38 pairs of lncRNA-lncRNA coregulated 843 target genes. The coregulated target genes significantly enriched in antigen adaptive immune response, activation of phagocytosis receptor signaling, mast granule NF-κB inflammation, etc. Overall, lncRNAs were differentially expressed in OSCC and dysplasia. The target genes might play an important role in the carcinogenesis and development of OSCC. These results improve our understanding regarding the lncRNA-based pathogenesis and identify some potential targets for early diagnosis of malignant transformation from dysplasia to OSCC.

Prognostic effects of cytokine levels on patients treated with taxane and zoledronic acid for metastatic breast cancer in bone (BEAT-ZO) (KCSG BR 10-13)

Advanced breast cancer frequently metastasizes to the skeleton causing major mobility issues and hazards to quality of life. To manage osteolytic bone metastasis, bone-modifying agents and chemotherapy are recommended as the standard of care. Here, we investigated serologic biomarkers that might be associated with prognosis in breast cancer patients treated with zoledronic acid (ZA) and taxane-based chemotherapy. We collected serum samples from breast cancer patients with bone metastasis who received taxane plus ZA as palliative treatment. Fourteen biomarkers of angiogenesis, immunogenicity, and apoptosis were assessed, and the correlation between serum cytokine levels and patient's prognosis was statistically analyzed. Sixty-six patients were enrolled, and samples from 40 patients were analyzed after laboratory quality control. Patients with low baseline PDGF-AA, high IFN-γ, low MCP-2, low TGF-β1, and low TNF-α were significantly associated with longer progression-free survival (PFS). Decreasing VEGF and TNF-α and increasing FGF-2 and PDGF-AA in the early treatment phase indicated longer PFS. In univariate and multivariate analyses, low TGF-β1 and TNF-α and high IFN-γ at baseline were associated with a significantly low hazard ratio for disease progression. Further, we designed a risk score with TGF-β1, TNF-α, and IFN-γ levels, which could prognosticate patients for PFS. In conclusion, serum cytokine level, such as TGF-β1, TNF-α, and IFN-γ, could be a potential prognostic biomarker for breast cancer patients with bone metastasis treated with ZA and taxane-based chemotherapy.

Promising Effects of Zerumbone on the Regulation of Tumor-promoting Cytokines Induced by TNF-α-activated Fibroblasts

Inflammation plays an important role in the development of several cancers. Inflammatory cytokines, including tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), are associated with the induction of inflammation. Chronic inflammation contributes to the progression of cancer through several mechanisms, including increased cytokine production and activation of transcription factors, such as nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB). Zerumbone (ZER), a component of subtropical ginger (Zingiber zerumbet Smith), seems to have anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, and antioxidant activities. In this study, we aimed to explore the protective function and mechanisms of ZER against TNF-α-induced cancer-promoting cytokines. We found that the viability of stimulated human fibroblast cell lines was reduced after treatment with ZER (IC₅₀=18 µmol/L), compared to un-stimulated fibroblasts (IC₅₀=40 µmol/L). Besides, ZER inhibited mRNA expression and protein secretion of transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β), interleukin-33 (IL-33), monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1), and stromal cell-derived factor 1 (SDF-1), which were produced by TNF-α-induced fibroblasts, as measured by quantitative real time-PCR (qRT-PCR) and ELISA assays. The mRNA expression levels of TGF-β, IL-33, SDF-1, and MCP-1 showed 8, 5, 2.5, and 4-fold reductions, respectively. Moreover, secretion of TGF-β, IL-33, SDF-1, and MCP-1 was reduced to 3.65±0.34 ng/mL, 6.3±0.26, 1703.6±295.2, and 5.02±0.18 pg/mL, respectively, compared to the untreated group. In addition, the conditioned media (CM) of TNF-α-stimulated fibroblasts increased the NF-κB expression in colorectal cancer cell lines (HCT-116 and Sw48), while in the vicinity of ZER, the expression of NF-κB was reversed. Considering the significant effects of ZER, this component can be used as an appropriate alternative herbal treatment for cancer-related chronic inflammation.

1-Methylnicotinamide is an immune regulatory metabolite in human ovarian cancer

Immune regulatory metabolites are key features of the tumor microenvironment (TME), yet with a few exceptions, their identities remain largely unknown. Here, we profiled tumor and T cells from tumor and ascites of patients with high-grade serous carcinoma (HGSC) to uncover the metabolomes of these distinct TME compartments. Cells within the ascites and tumor had pervasive metabolite differences, with a notable enrichment in 1-methylnicotinamide (MNA) in T cells infiltrating the tumor compared with ascites. Despite the elevated levels of MNA in T cells, the expression of nicotinamide N-methyltransferase, the enzyme that catalyzes the transfer of a methyl group from S-adenosylmethionine to nicotinamide, was restricted to fibroblasts and tumor cells. Functionally, MNA induces T cells to secrete the tumor-promoting cytokine tumor necrosis factor alpha. Thus, TME-derived MNA contributes to the immune modulation of T cells and represents a potential immunotherapy target to treat human cancer.

Death Receptors and Their Ligands in Inflammatory Disease and Cancer

On binding to their cognate ligands, death receptors can initiate a cascade of events that can result in two distinct outcomes: gene expression and cell death. The study of three different death receptor-ligand systems, the tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-TNF receptor 1 (TNFR1), the CD95L-CD95, and the TNF-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL)-TRAIL-R1/2 system, has drawn the attention of generations of scientists over the past 50 years. This scientific journey, as often happens in science, has been anything but a straight line to success and discoveries in this field were often made by serendipity, catching the scientists by surprise. However, as Louis Pasteur pointed out, luck prefers the prepared mind. It is therefore not surprising that the most impactful discovery of the field to date, the fact that TNF inhibition serves as an effective treatment for several inflammatory and autoimmune diseases, has been like this. Luckily, the scientists who made this discovery were prepared and, most importantly, determined to harness their discovery for therapeutic benefit. Today's research on these death receptor-ligand systems has led to the discovery of a causal link between cell death induced by a variety of these systems and inflammation. In this review, we explain why we predict that therapeutic exploitation of this discovery may profoundly impact the future treatment of inflammatory disease and cancer.

Lysophosphatidic acid induces tumor necrosis factor-alpha to regulate a pro-inflammatory cytokine network in ovarian cancer

Epithelial ovarian carcinoma tissues express high levels of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) and other inflammatory cytokines. The underlying mechanism leading to the abnormal TNF-α expression in ovarian cancer remains poorly understood. In the current study, we demonstrated that lysophosphatidic acid (LPA), a lipid mediator present in ascites of ovarian cancer patients, induced expression of TNF-α mRNA and release of TNF-α protein in ovarian cancer cells. LPA also induced expression of interleukin-1β (IL-1β) mRNA but no significant increase in IL-1β protein was detected. LPA enhanced TNF-α mRNA through NF-κB-mediated transcriptional activation. Inactivation of ADAM17, a disintegrin and metalloproteinase, with a specific inhibitor TMI-1 or by shRNA knockdown prevented ovarian cancer cells from releasing TNF-α protein in response to LPA, indicating that LPA-mediated TNF-α production relies on both transcriptional upregulations of the TNF-α gene and the activity of ADAM17, the membrane-associated TNF-α-converting enzyme. Like many other biological responses to LPA, induction of TNF-α by LPA also depended on the transactivation of the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR). Interestingly, our results revealed that ADAM17 was also the shedding protease responsible for the transactivation of EGFR by LPA in ovarian cancer cells. To explore the biological outcomes of LPA-induced TNF-α, we examined the effects of a TNF-α neutralizing antibody and recombinant TNF-α soluble receptor on LPA-stimulated expression of pro-tumorigenic cytokines and chemokines overexpressed in ovarian cancer. Blockade of TNF-α signaling significantly reduced the production of IL-8, IL-6, and CXCL1, suggesting a hierarchy of mechanisms contributing to the robust expression of the inflammatory mediators in response to LPA in ovarian cancer cells. In contrast, TNF-α inhibition did not affect LPA-dependent cell proliferation. Taken together, our results establish that the bioactive lipid LPA drives the expression of TNF-α to regulate an inflammatory network in ovarian cancer.

Molecular mediators of peritoneal metastasis in pancreatic cancer

Pancreatic cancer is the third leading cause of cancer death in the USA, and pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDA) constitutes 85% of pancreatic cancer diagnoses. PDA frequently metastasizes to the peritoneum, but effective treatment of peritoneal metastasis remains a clinical challenge. Despite this unmet need, understanding of the biological mechanisms that contribute to development and progression of PDA peritoneal metastasis is sparse. By contrast, a vast number of studies have investigated mechanisms of peritoneal metastasis in ovarian and gastric cancers. Here, we contrast similarities and differences between peritoneal metastasis in PDA as compared with those in gastric and ovarian cancer by outlining molecular mediators involved in each step of the peritoneal metastasis cascade. This review aims to provide mechanistic insights that could be translated into effective targeted therapies for patients with peritoneal metastasis from PDA.

Anti-tumor effects of mevalonate pathway inhibition in ovarian cancer

BACKGROUND

Ovarian cancer remains the most fatal gynecological malignancy. Current therapeutic options are limited due to late diagnosis in the majority of the cases, metastatic spread to the peritoneal cavity and the onset of chemo-resistance. Thus, novel therapeutic approaches are required. Statins and amino-bisphosphonates are inhibitors of the mevalonate pathway, which is a fundamental pathway of cellular metabolism, essential for cholesterol production and posttranslational protein farnesylation and geranylgeranylation. While this pathway has emerged as a promising treatment target in several human malignancies, its potential as a therapeutic approach in ovarian cancer is still not fully understood.

METHODS

Human ovarian cancer cell lines (IGROV-1, A2780, A2780cis) were treated with increasing concentrations (0.5-100 μM) of statins (simvastatin, atorvastatin, rosuvastatin) and zoledronic acid. Effects on cell vitality and apoptosis were assessed using Cell Titer Blue®, Caspase 3/7 Glo®, clonogenic assays as well as cleaved poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase (cPARP) detection. The inhibition of the mevalonate pathway was confirmed using Western Blot of unprenylated Ras and Rap1a proteins. Quantitative real-time PCR and ELISA were used to analyze modulations on several key regulators of ovarian cancer tumorigenesis.

RESULTS

The treatment of IGROV-1 and A2780 cells with statins and zoledronic acid reduced vitality (by up to 80%; p < 0.001) and induced apoptosis by up to 8-folds (p < 0.001) in a dose-dependent fashion. Rescue experiments using farnesyl pyrophosphate or geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate evidenced that blocked geranylgeranylation is the major underlying mechanism of the pro-apoptotic effects. Gene expression of the tumor-promoting cytokines and mediators, such as transforming growth factor (TGF)-β1, vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), interleukin (IL)-8, and IL-6 were significantly suppressed by statins and zoledronic acid by up to 90% (p < 0.001). For all readouts, simvastatin was most potent of all agents used. Cisplatin-resistant A2780cis cells showed a relative resistance to statins and zoledronic acid. However, similar to the effects in A2780 cells, simvastatin and zoledronic acid significantly induced caspase 3/7 activation (6-folds; p < 0.001).

CONCLUSION

Our in vitro findings point to promising anti-tumor effects of statins and zoledronic acid in ovarian cancer and warrant additional validation in preclinical and clinical settings.

Immune Suppression in Pregnancy and Cancer: Parallels and Insights

Immune system has evolved to maintain homeostatic balance between effector and regulatory immunity, which is critical to both elicit an adequate protective response to fight pathogens and disease, such as cancer, and to prevent damage to healthy tissues. Transient immune suppression can occur under normal physiological conditions, such as during wound healing to enable repair of normal tissue, or for more extended periods of time during fetal development, where the balance is shifted towards regulatory immunity to prevent fetal rejection. Interestingly, tumors can exhibit patterns of immune suppression very similar to those observed during fetal development. Here some of the key aspects of normal patterns of immune suppression during pregnancy are reviewed, followed by a discussion of parallels that exist with tumor-related immune suppression and consequent potential therapeutic implications.

Invited Commentary: Relationship Between Ovulation and Markers of Systemic Inflammation Versus Markers of Localized Inflammation

In this issue of the American Journal of Epidemiology, Huang et al. (Am J Epidemiol. 2020;189(7):660-670) report an inverse relationship between lifetime ovulatory years (LOY) and circulating levels of C-reactive protein (CRP), counter to their hypothesis. CRP is a nonspecific systemic marker of chronic inflammation, and there is evidence that there are other drivers of systemic inflammation as measured by CRP. There also is a body of evidence supporting the possibility that ovulation may be responsible for a localized inflammatory response. Because ovarian cancer is the fifth most common cause of cancer death in women, preventive strategies are urgently needed. The findings of this report underscore the need for new research initiatives to determine the relationship between incessant ovulation and ovarian cancer risk in order to identify mechanisms of carcinogenesis.

Cardiovascular diseases and metabolic abnormalities associated with obesity: What is the role of inflammatory responses? A systematic review

INTRODUCTION

Obesity is a chronic disease responsible for a high morbidity and mortality rate, with an increasing worldwide prevalence. Obesity is associated with immune responses characterized by chronic systemic inflammation. This article focuses on the mechanisms that explain the proposed link between obesity-associated diseases and inflammation. Also, it describes the role of inflammatory molecules in obesity-associated metabolic abnormalities.

METHODS

More than 200 articles were selected and consulted by an online English search using various electronic search databases. Predefined key-words for the pathogenesis of obesity-induced inflammation and associated diseases, as well as the role of various inflammatory molecules, were used.

RESULTS

We have summarized the data of the articles consulted in this research and we have found that obesity is associated with a low-grade inflammation resulting from the change of adipose tissue (AT). The AT produces a variety of inflammatory molecules called adipocytokines that are involved in the onset of systemic low-grade inflammation which is the link between obesity and associated-chronic abnormalities; such as insulin resistance, metabolic syndrome, cardiovascular disease (CVD), hypertension, diabetes, and some cancers. Also, we have searched all the inflammatory molecules involved in this pathogenesis and we have briefly described the role of 16 of them which are the most related to obesity-associated inflammation. The results have shown that there are inflammatory molecules that have a positive relationship with the pathogenesis of obesity-related diseases and others have a negative relationship with this pathogenesis.

CONCLUSION

Inflammation plays a crucial role in the development of various metabolic-abnormalities related to obesity. In this regard, the management of obesity may help reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease and other metabolic complications by inhibiting inflammatory mechanisms.

The Role of Tumor-Associated Macrophages in the Progression and Chemoresistance of Ovarian Cancer

Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) constitute the main population of immune cells present in the ovarian tumor microenvironment. These cells are characterized by high plasticity and can be easily polarized by colony-stimulating factor-1, which is released by tumor cells, into an immunosuppressive M2-like phenotype. These cells are strongly implicated in both the progression and chemoresistance of ovarian cancer. The main pro-tumoral function of M2-like TAMs is the secretion of a variety of cytokines, chemokines, enzymes and exosomes that reach microRNAs, directly inducing the invasion potential and chemoresistance of ovarian cancer cells by triggering their pro-survival signaling pathways. The M2-like TAMs are also important players in the metastasis of ovarian cancer cells in the peritoneum through their assistance in spheroid formation and attachment of cancer cells to the metastatic area—the omentum. Moreover, TAMs interplay with other immune cells, such as lymphocytes, natural killer cells, and dendritic cells, to inhibit their responsiveness, resulting in the development of immunosuppression. The detrimental character of the M2-like type of TAMs in ovarian tumors has been confirmed by a number of studies, demonstrating the positive correlation between their high level in tumors and low overall survival of patients.

Organochlorine pesticides induce inflammation, ROS production, and DNA damage in human epithelial ovary cells: An in vitro study

Although the etiology of ovarian cancer is not clear, certain factors are implicated in this disease, such as ovulation, gonadotropic and steroid hormones, growth factors, cytokines, environmental agents, etc. Epidemiological studies have proven environmental exposure to pesticides with an increased risk of Epithelial Ovarian Cancer (EOC); however, the molecular mechanism underlying the carcinogenic effects of pesticides in human ovary remains poorly understood. The present study aimed to study the pro-inflammatory response of organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) namely β-hexachlorocyclohexane (β-HCH), dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (DDE) and Dieldrin following exposure to human ovary surface epithelial cells (HOSE) for risk prediction of epithelial ovarian cancer. We found high level of Reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and DNA damage along with up-regulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, nuclear factor kappa B (NF-kB) and cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 expression in OCPs treated HOSE cells compared to control (DMSO). The result of the present study suggests that β-HCH, DDE, and Dieldrin exposure induce ROS and pro-inflammatory response as well as DNA damage in HOSE cells. These various results show that OCPs may account for the neoplastic transformation of HOSE cells in the ovary.

Di-Ras2 promotes renal cell carcinoma formation by activating the mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway in the absence of von Hippel-Lindau protein

Clear cell renal cell carcinoma (ccRCC) is one of the most common and lethal human urological malignancies in the world. One of the pathological drivers for ccRCC is the Ras family of small GTPases that function as "molecular switches" in many diseases including ccRCC. Among the GTPases in the Di-Ras family, DIRAS2 gene encodes a GTPase that shares 60% homology to Ras and Rap. Yet little is known about the biological function(s) of Di-Ras2 or how its activities are regulated. In this study, we focused on Di-Ras2, and determined its functions and underlying mechanism during formation of ccRCC. We found that Di-Ras2 was upregulated in ccRCC, and promoted the proliferation, migration and invasion of human ccRCC cells in the absence of von Hippel-Lindau protein (pVHL). Mechanistically, Di-Ras2 induces and regulates ccRCC formation by modulating phosphorylation of the downstream effectors and activating the Ras/mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathway. Moreover, Di-Ras2 interacts with E3 ubiquitin ligase, pVHL, which facilitates the ubiquitination and degradation of Di-Ras2. Together, these results indicate a potential function of Di-Ras2 as an oncogene in ccRCC, and these data provide a new perspective of the relationship between pVHL and the MAPK pathway in ccRCC tumorigenesis.

Tumor Necrosis Factor α Blockade: An Opportunity to Tackle Breast Cancer

Breast cancer is the most frequently diagnosed cancer and the principal cause of mortality by malignancy in women and represents a main problem for public health worldwide. Tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα) is a pro-inflammatory cytokine whose expression is increased in a variety of cancers. In particular, in breast cancer it correlates with augmented tumor cell proliferation, higher malignancy grade, increased occurrence of metastasis and general poor prognosis for the patient. These characteristics highlight TNFα as an attractive therapeutic target, and consequently, the study of soluble and transmembrane TNFα effects and its receptors in breast cancer is an area of active research. In this review we summarize the recent findings on TNFα participation in luminal, HER2-positive and triple negative breast cancer progression and metastasis. Also, we describe TNFα role in immune response against tumors and in chemotherapy, hormone therapy, HER2-targeted therapy and anti-immune checkpoint therapy resistance in breast cancer. Furthermore, we discuss the use of TNFα blocking strategies as potential therapies and their clinical relevance for breast cancer. These TNFα blocking agents have long been used in the clinical setting to treat inflammatory and autoimmune diseases. TNFα blockade can be achieved by monoclonal antibodies (such as infliximab, adalimumab, etc.), fusion proteins (etanercept) and dominant negative proteins (INB03). Here we address the different effects of each compound and also analyze the use of potential biomarkers in the selection of patients who would benefit from a combination of TNFα blocking agents with HER2-targeted treatments to prevent or overcome therapy resistance in breast cancer.

Importance of TNF-alpha and its alterations in the development of cancers

TNF-alpha is involved in many physiologic and pathologic cellular pathways, including cellular proliferation, differentiation, and death, regulation of immunologic reactions to different cells and molecules, local and vascular invasion of neoplasms, and destruction of tumor vasculature. It is obvious that because of integrated functions of TNF-alpha inside different physiologic systems, it cannot be used as a single-agent therapy for neoplasms; however, long-term investigation of its different cellular pathways has led to recognition of a variety of subsequent molecules with more specific interactions, and therefore, might be suitable as prognostic and therapeutic factors for neoplasms. Here, we will review different aspects of the TNF-alpha as a cytokine involved in both physiologic functions of cells and pathologic abnormalities, most importantly, cancers.