Interactions between Adipocytes and Breast Cancer Cells Stimulate Cytokine Production and Drive Src/Sox2/miR-302b-Mediated Malignant Progression

Rhein and hesperidin nanoparticles remodel tumor immune microenvironment by reducing CAFs and CCL2 secreted by CAAs for efficient triple-negative breast cancer therapy

In triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC), the tumor immune microenvironment (TIME) is a highly heterogeneous ecosystem that exerts indispensable roles in tumorigenesis and tumor progression. Cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) and cancer-associated adipocytes (CAAs) are the main matrix components in the TIME of TNBC. CAFs mediate the edesmoplastic response, which is a major driver of the immunosuppressive microenvironment to promote tumor growth. In addition, CAAs, a type of tumor-educated adipocyte, participate in crosstalk with breast cancer and are capable of secreting various cytokines, adipokines and chemokines, especially C-C Motif Chemokine Ligand 2 (CCL2), resulting in changes of cancer cell phenotype and function. Therefore, how to treat tumors by regulating the CAFs and the secretion of CCL2 by CAAs in TIME is investigated here. Our research group previously found that rhein (Rhe) has been identified as effective against CAFs, while hesperidin (Hes) could effectively diminish CCL2 secretion by CAAs. Inspired by the above, we developed unique PLGA-based nanoparticles loaded with Rhe and Hes (RH-NP) using the emulsion solvent diffusion method. The RH-NP particles have an average size of 114.1 ± 0.98 nm. RH-NP effectively reduces CAFs and inhibits CCL2 secretion by CAAs, promoting increased infiltration of cytotoxic T cells and reducing immunosuppressive cell presence within tumors. This innovative, safe, low-toxic, and highly effective anti-tumor strategy could be prospective in TNBC treatment.

Adipocyte-conditioned medium induces tamoxifen resistance by activating PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway in estrogen receptor-positive breast cancer cells

Resistance to endocrine therapy is a major clinical challenge in estrogen receptor (ER)-positive breast cancer. Obesity is associated with the clinical response to ER-positive breast cancers; however, the mechanism underlying obesity-induced resistance to endocrine therapy in ER-positive breast cancers remains unclear. In this study, we investigated the molecular mechanisms underlying obesity-induced resistance to tamoxifen (TAM), an anti-estrogen agent, in the ER-positive breast cancer cell line MCF-7 using differentiated adipocyte-conditioned medium (D-CM). Treatment of the cells with D-CM promoted TAM resistance by reducing TAM-induced apoptosis. The expression levels of the ERα target genes were higher in D-CM-treated cells than those in untreated ones. In contrast, when the cells were cultured in the presence of TAM, the expression levels were decreased, with or without D-CM. Moreover, the expression of the markers for cancer stem-like cells (CSCs) and mammosphere formation was enhanced by co-treating with D-CM and TAM, compared with TAM alone. The phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase (PI3K)/Akt/mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) pathway was activated in MCF-7 cells by D-CM treatment, even in the presence of TAM. Inhibition of the PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway decreased the expression levels of the CSC markers, suppressed mammosphere formation, and resensitized to TAM via inducing apoptosis in D-CM-treated cells. These results indicate that the conditioned medium of differentiated adipocytes promoted TAM resistance by inducing the CSC phenotype through activation of the PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway in ER-positive breast cancer cells. Thus, the PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway may be a therapeutic target in obese patients with ER-positive breast cancers.

Pregnancy, abortion, and birth control methods' complicity with breast cancer occurrence

Reproductive factors play significantly important roles in determining the breast cancer (BC) risk. The impact of pregnancy, abortion, and birth control methods on tumor development remains unclear. It has been found that early full-term pregnancies in young women can lower their lifetime risk of developing the type of cancer in question. However, having a first full-term pregnancy at an older age can increase this risk. The relationship between pregnancy and breast cancer (BC) is, however, much more complicated. Both induced and spontaneous abortions lead to sudden changes in hormonal balance, which could cause different effects on sensitive breast epithelial cells, making abortion a potential risk factor for breast cancer. The influence of hormonal contraception on carcinogenesis is not comprehensively understood, and therefore, more exhaustive analysis of existing data and further investigation is needed. This review explores how the mentioned reproductive factors affect the risk of breast cancer (BC), focusing on the molecular mechanisms that contribute to its complexity. By comprehending this intricate network of relationships, we can develop new strategies for predicting and treating the disease.

Stem Cell Division and Its Critical Role in Mammary Gland Development and Tumorigenesis: Current Progress and Remaining Challenges

The origin of breast cancer (BC) has traditionally been a focus of medical research. It is widely acknowledged that BC originates from immortal mammary stem cells and that these stem cells participate in two division modes: symmetric cell division (SCD) and asymmetrical cell division (ACD). Although both of these modes are key to the process of breast development and their imbalance is closely associated with the onset of BC, the molecular mechanisms underlying these phenomena deserve in-depth exploration. In this review, we first outline the molecular mechanisms governing ACD/SCD and analyze the role of ACD/SCD in various stages of breast development. We describe that the changes in telomerase activity, the role of polar proteins, and the stimulation of ovarian hormones subsequently lead to two distinct consequences: breast development or carcinogenesis. Finally, gene mutations, abnormalities in polar proteins, modulation of signal-transduction pathways, and alterations in the microenvironment disrupt the balance of BC stem cell division modes and cause BC. Important regulatory factors such as mammalian Inscuteable mInsc, Numb, Eya1, PKCα, PKCθ, p53, and IL-6 also play significant roles in regulating pathways of ACD/SCD and may constitute key targets for future research on stem cell division, breast development, and tumor therapy.

The multifaceted role of SOX2 in breast and lung cancer dynamics

Breast and lung cancers are leading causes of death among patients, with their global mortality and morbidity rates increasing. Conventional treatments often prove inadequate due to resistance development. The alteration of molecular interactions may accelerate cancer progression and treatment resistance. SOX2, known for its abnormal expression in various human cancers, can either accelerate or impede cancer progression. This review focuses on examining the role of SOX2 in breast and lung cancer development. An imbalance in SOX2 expression can promote the growth and dissemination of these cancers. SOX2 can also block programmed cell death, affecting autophagy and other cell death mechanisms. It plays a significant role in cancer metastasis, mainly by regulating the epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT). Additionally, an imbalanced SOX2 expression can cause resistance to chemotherapy and radiation therapy in these cancers. Genetic and epigenetic factors may affect SOX2 levels. Pharmacologically targeting SOX2 could improve the effectiveness of breast and lung cancer treatments.

Exploring the interplay between triple-negative breast cancer stem cells and tumor microenvironment for effective therapeutic strategies

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is a highly aggressive and metastatic malignancy with poor treatment outcomes. The interaction between the tumor microenvironment (TME) and breast cancer stem cells (BCSCs) plays an important role in the development of TNBC. Owing to their ability of self-renewal and multidirectional differentiation, BCSCs maintain tumor growth, drive metastatic colonization, and facilitate the development of drug resistance. TME is the main factor regulating the phenotype and metastasis of BCSCs. Immune cells, cancer-related fibroblasts (CAFs), cytokines, mesenchymal cells, endothelial cells, and extracellular matrix within the TME form a complex communication network, exert highly selective pressure on the tumor, and provide a conducive environment for the formation of BCSC niches. Tumor growth and metastasis can be controlled by targeting the TME to eliminate BCSC niches or targeting BCSCs to modify the TME. These approaches may improve the treatment outcomes and possess great application potential in clinical settings. In this review, we summarized the relationship between BCSCs and the progression and drug resistance of TNBC, especially focusing on the interaction between BCSCs and TME. In addition, we discussed therapeutic strategies that target the TME to inhibit or eliminate BCSCs, providing valuable insights into the clinical treatment of TNBC.

Association of Overweight and Inflammatory Indicators with Breast Cancer: A Cross-Sectional Study in Chinese Women

Objective

This cross-sectional study aimed to explore the association of overweight and inflammatory indicators with breast cancer risk in Chinese patients.

Methods

Weight, height, and peripheral blood inflammatory indicators, including white blood cell count (WBC), neutrophil count (NE), lymphocyte count (LY), platelet count (PLT) and the concentration of hypersensitivity C-reactive protein (hsCRP), were collected in 383 patients with benign breast lumps (non-cancer) and 358 patients with malignant breast tumors (cancer) at the First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, China, from March 2018 to July 2020. Body mass index (BMI), neutrophil-lymphocyte ratio (NLR), platelet-lymphocyte ratio (PLR) and systemic immune-inflammation index (SII) were determined according to the ratio equation. The correlations among overweight, inflammatory indicators, and the proportion of non-cancer or cancer cases were analyzed.

Results

BMI is associated with an increased breast cancer risk. Compared with non-cancer patients, the average WBC count, NE count, NLR, and level of hsCRP were significantly higher in cancer patients. The level of hsCRP was closely associated with the size of malignant breast tumors.

Conclusion

We conclude that overweight and high levels of hsCRP may serve as putative risk factors for malignant breast tumors in Chinese women.

Potential anti-tumor effects of regulatory T cells in the tumor microenvironment: a review

Regulatory T cells (Tregs) expressing the transcription factor FoxP3 are essential for maintaining immunological balance and are a significant component of the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME). Single-cell RNA sequencing (ScRNA-seq) technology has shown that Tregs exhibit significant plasticity and functional diversity in various tumors within the TME. This results in Tregs playing a dual role in the TME, which is not always centered around supporting tumor progression as typically believed. Abundant data confirms the anti-tumor activities of Tregs and their correlation with enhanced patient prognosis in specific types of malignancies. In this review, we summarize the potential anti-tumor actions of Tregs, including suppressing tumor-promoting inflammatory responses and boosting anti-tumor immunity. In addition, this study outlines the spatial and temporal variations in Tregs function to emphasize that their predictive significance in malignancies may change. It is essential to comprehend the functional diversity and potential anti-tumor effects of Tregs to improve tumor therapy strategies.

Adipose Tissue in Breast Cancer Microphysiological Models to Capture Human Diversity in Preclinical Models

Female breast cancer accounts for 15.2% of all new cancer cases in the United States, with a continuing increase in incidence despite efforts to discover new targeted therapies. With an approximate failure rate of 85% for therapies in the early phases of clinical trials, there is a need for more translatable, new preclinical in vitro models that include cellular heterogeneity, extracellular matrix, and human-derived biomaterials. Specifically, adipose tissue and its resident cell populations have been identified as necessary attributes for current preclinical models. Adipose-derived stromal/stem cells (ASCs) and mature adipocytes are a normal part of the breast tissue composition and not only contribute to normal breast physiology but also play a significant role in breast cancer pathophysiology. Given the recognized pro-tumorigenic role of adipocytes in tumor progression, there remains a need to enhance the complexity of current models and account for the contribution of the components that exist within the adipose stromal environment to breast tumorigenesis. This review article captures the current landscape of preclinical breast cancer models with a focus on breast cancer microphysiological system (MPS) models and their counterpart patient-derived xenograft (PDX) models to capture patient diversity as they relate to adipose tissue.

Dynamic interactions in the tumor niche: how the cross-talk between CAFs and the tumor microenvironment impacts resistance to therapy

The tumor microenvironment (TME) is a complex ecosystem of cells, signaling molecules, and extracellular matrix components that profoundly influence cancer progression. Among the key players in the TME, cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) have gained increasing attention for their diverse and influential roles. CAFs are activated fibroblasts found abundantly within the TME of various cancer types. CAFs contribute significantly to tumor progression by promoting angiogenesis, remodeling the extracellular matrix, and modulating immune cell infiltration. In order to influence the microenvironment, CAFs engage in cross-talk with immune cells, cancer cells, and other stromal components through paracrine signaling and direct cell-cell interactions. This cross-talk can result in immunosuppression, tumor cell proliferation, and epithelial-mesenchymal transition, contributing to disease progression. Emerging evidence suggests that CAFs play a crucial role in therapy resistance, including resistance to chemotherapy and radiotherapy. CAFs can modulate the tumor response to treatment by secreting factors that promote drug efflux, enhance DNA repair mechanisms, and suppress apoptosis pathways. This paper aims to understand the multifaceted functions of CAFs within the TME, discusses cross-talk between CAFs with other TME cells, and sheds light on the contibution of CAFs to therapy resistance. Targeting CAFs or disrupting their cross-talk with other cells holds promise for overcoming drug resistance and improving the treatment efficacy of various cancer types.

Tumor Microenvironment: A Niche for Cancer Stem Cell Immunotherapy

Tumorigenic Cancer Stem Cells (CSCs), often called tumor-initiating cells (TICs), represent a unique subset of cells within the tumor milieu. They stand apart from the bulk of tumor cells due to their exceptional self-renewal, metastatic, and differentiation capabilities. Despite significant progress in classifying CSCs, these cells remain notably resilient to conventional radiotherapy and chemotherapy, contributing to cancer recurrence. In this review, our objective is to explore novel avenues of research that delve into the distinctive characteristics of CSCs within their surrounding tumor microenvironment (TME). We will start with an overview of the defining features of CSCs and then delve into their intricate interactions with cells from the lymphoid lineage, namely T cells, B cells, and natural killer (NK) cells. Furthermore, we will discuss their dynamic interplay with myeloid lineage cells, including macrophages, neutrophils, and myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs). Moreover, we will illuminate the crosstalk between CSCs and cells of mesenchymal origin, specifically fibroblasts, adipocytes, and endothelial cells. Subsequently, we will underscore the pivotal role of CSCs within the context of the tumor-associated extracellular matrix (ECM). Finally, we will highlight pre-clinical and clinical studies that target CSCs within the intricate landscape of the TME, including CAR-T therapy, oncolytic viruses, and CSC-vaccines, with the ultimate goal of uncovering novel avenues for CSC-based cancer immunotherapy.

Obesity-Associated Breast Cancer: Analysis of Risk Factors and Current Clinical Evaluation

Several studies show that a significantly stronger association is obvious between increased body mass index (BMI) and higher breast cancer incidence. Additionally, obese and postmenopausal women are at higher risk of all-cause and breast cancer-specific mortality compared with non-obese women with breast cancer. In this context, increased levels of estrogens, excessive aromatization activity of the adipose tissue, overexpression of pro-inflammatory cytokines, insulin resistance, adipocyte-derived adipokines, hypercholesterolemia, and excessive oxidative stress contribute to the development of breast cancer in obese women. Genetic evaluation is an integral part of diagnosis and treatment for patients with breast cancer. Despite trimodality therapy, the four-year cumulative incidence of regional recurrence is significantly higher. Axillary lymph nodes as well as primary lesions have diagnostic, prognostic, and therapeutic significance for the management of breast cancer. In clinical setting, because of the obese population primary lesions and enlarged lymph nodes could be less palpable, the diagnosis may be challenging due to misinterpretation of physical findings. Thereby, a nomogram has been created as the "Breast Imaging Reporting and Data System" (BI-RADS) to increase agreement and decision-making consistency between mammography and ultrasonography (USG) experts. Additionally, the "breast density classification system," "artificial intelligence risk scores," ligand-targeted receptor probes," "digital breast tomosynthesis," "diffusion-weighted imaging," "18F-fluoro-2-deoxy-D-glucose positron emission tomography," and "dynamic contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)" are important techniques for the earlier detection of breast cancers and to reduce false-positive results. A high concordance between estrogen receptor (ER) and progesterone receptor (PR) status evaluated in preoperative percutaneous core needle biopsy and surgical specimens is demonstrated. Breast cancer surgery has become increasingly conservative; however, mastectomy may be combined with any axillary procedures, such as sentinel lymph node biopsy (SLNB) and/or axillary lymph node dissection whenever is required. As a rule, SLNB-guided axillary dissection in breast cancer patients who have clinically axillary lymph node-positive to node-negative conversion following neoadjuvant chemotherapy is recommended, because lymphedema is the most debilitating complication after any axillary surgery. There is no clear consensus on the optimal treatment of occult breast cancer, which is much discussed today. Similarly, the current trend in metastatic breast cancer is that the main palliative treatment option is systemic therapy.

Breast adipose tissue-derived extracellular vesicles from obese women alter tumor cell metabolism

Breast adipose tissue is an important contributor to the obesity-breast cancer link. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are nanosized particles containing selective cargo, such as miRNAs, that act locally or circulate to distant sites to modulate target cell functions. Here, we find that long-term education of breast cancer cells with EVs obtained from breast adipose tissue of women who are overweight or obese (O-EVs) results in increased proliferation. RNA-seq analysis of O-EV-educated cells demonstrates increased expression of genes involved in oxidative phosphorylation, such as ATP synthase and NADH: ubiquinone oxidoreductase. O-EVs increase respiratory complex protein expression, mitochondrial density, and mitochondrial respiration in tumor cells. The mitochondrial complex I inhibitor metformin reverses O-EV-induced cell proliferation. Several miRNAs-miR-155-5p, miR-10a-3p, and miR-30a-3p-which promote mitochondrial respiration and proliferation, are enriched in O-EVs relative to EVs from lean women. O-EV-induced proliferation and mitochondrial activity are associated with stimulation of the Akt/mTOR/P70S6K pathway, and are reversed upon silencing of P70S6K. This study reveals a new facet of the obesity-breast cancer link with human breast adipose tissue-derived EVs causing metabolic reprogramming of breast cancer cells.

The Effect of Adipocyte-Secreted Factors in Activating Focal Adhesion Kinase-Mediated Cell Signaling Pathway towards Metastasis in Breast Cancer Cells

Obesity-associated perturbations in the normal secretion of adipocytokines from white adipocytes can drive the metastatic progression of cancer. However, the association between obesity-induced changes in secretory factors of white adipocytes and subsequent transactivation of the downstream effector proteins impacting metastasis in breast cancer cells remains unclear. Focal adhesion kinase, a cytoplasmic signal transducer, regulates the biological phenomenon of metastasis by activating downstream targets such as beta-catenin and MMP9. Thus, the possible role of phosphorylated FAK in potentiating cancer cell migration was investigated. To elucidate this potential relationship, MCF7 (ER+), MDA-MB-231 (Triple Negative) breast cancer cells, and MCF-10A non-tumorigenic breast cells were exposed to in vitro murine adipocyte-conditioned medium derived from 3T3-L1 MBX cells differentiated to obesity with fatty acid supplementation. Our results show that the conditioned medium derived from these obese adipocytes enhanced motility and invasiveness of breast cancer cells. Importantly, no such changes were observed in the non-tumorigenic breast cells. Our results also show that increased FAK autophosphorylation was followed by increased expression of beta-catenin and MMP9 in the breast cancer cells when exposed to obese adipocyte-conditioned medium, but not in the MCF10A cells. These results indicate that adipocyte-derived secretory factors induced FAK activation through phosphorylation. This in turn increased breast cancer cell migration and invasion by activating its downstream effector proteins beta-catenin and MMP9.

Adipocyte regulation of cancer stem cells

Cancer stem cells (CSCs) are a highly tumorigenic subpopulation of the cancer cells within a tumor that drive tumor initiation, progression, and therapy resistance. In general, stem cell niche provides a specific microenvironment in which stem cells are present in an undifferentiated and self-renewable state. CSC niche is a specialized tumor microenvironment for CSCs which provides cues for their maintenance and propagation. However, molecular mechanisms for the CSC-niche interaction remain to be elucidated. We have revealed that adipsin (complement factor D) and its downstream effector hepatocyte growth factor are secreted from adipocytes and enhance the CSC properties in breast cancers in which tumor initiation and progression are constantly associated with the surrounding adipose tissue. Considering that obesity, characterized by excess adipose tissue, is associated with an increased risk of multiple cancers, it is reasonably speculated that adipocyte-CSC interaction is similarly involved in many types of cancers, such as pancreas, colorectal, and ovarian cancers. In this review, various molecular mechanisms by which adipocytes regulate CSCs, including secretion of adipokines, extracellular matrix production, biosynthesis of estrogen, metabolism, and exosome, are discussed. Uncovering the roles of adipocytes in the CSC niche will propose novel strategies to treat cancers, especially those whose progression is linked to obesity.

Excess body weight and postmenopausal breast cancer: Emerging molecular mechanisms and perspectives

Postmenopausal, obese women have a significantly higher risk of developing estrogen receptor-positive (ER+) breast tumors, that are resistant to therapies and are associated with higher recurrence and death rates. The global prevalence of overweight/obese women has reached alarming proportions and with postmenopausal ER+ breast carcinoma (BC) having the highest incidence among the three obesity-related cancers in females (i.e., breast, endometrial and ovarian), this is of significant concern. Elucidation of the precise molecular mechanisms underlying the pro-cancerous action of obesity in ER+BC is therefore critical for disease prevention and novel treatment initiatives. Interestingly, accumulating data has shown opposing relationships between obesity and cancer in either pre- or post-menopausal women. Excess body weight is associated with an increased risk of breast cancer in postmenopausal women and a decreased risk in pre-menopausal women. Moreover, excess adiposity during early life appears to be protective against postmenopausal breast cancer, including both ER+ and ER negative BC subtypes. Overall, estrogen-dependent mechanisms have been implicated as the main driving force in obesity-related breast tumorigenesis. In the present review we discuss the epidemiologic and mechanistic aspects of association between obesity and breast tumors after menopause, mainly in the context of hormone dependency. Molecular and cellular events underlying this association present as potential avenues for both therapeutic intervention as well as the prevention of BC-promoting processes linked to excess adiposity, which is proving to be vital in an increasingly obese global population.

Impact of body mass index and its change on survival outcomes in patients with early breast cancer: A pooled analysis of individual-level data from BCIRG-001 and BCIRG-005 trials

INTRODUCTION

The relationships between body mass index (BMI) and survival rates are complex, and have not been thoroughly investigated in breast cancer patients who received adjuvant chemotherapy.

METHODS

We collected data on 2394 patients from two randomized, phase III clinical trials that investigated adjuvant chemotherapy in breast cancer identified in Project Data Sphere. The objective was to examine the effect of baseline BMI, BMI after adjuvant chemotherapy, and BMI change from baseline to post-adjuvant chemotherapy on disease-free survival (DFS) and overall survival (OS). Restricted cubic splines were used to examine potential non-linear associations between continuous BMI value and survival. Stratified analyses involved chemotherapy regimens.

RESULTS

Severe obesity (BMI≥40.0 kg/m2) at baseline was independently associated with worse DFS (hazard ration [HR] = 1.48, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.02-2.16, P = 0.04) and OS (HR = 1.79, 95%CI 1.17-2.74, P = 0.007) compared with underweight/normal weight (BMI≤24.9 kg/m2). A BMI loss >10% was also an independent prognostic factor for adverse OS (HR = 2.14, 95%CI 1.17-3.93, P = 0.014). Stratified analyses revealed that severe obesity adversely affected DFS (HR = 2.38, 95%CI 1.26-4.34, P = 0.007) and OS (HR = 2.90, 95%CI 1.46-5.76, P = 0.002) in the docetaxel-based group, but not in the non-docetaxel-based group. Restricted cubic splines revealed a "J-shaped" association of baseline BMI with risk of recurrence or all-cause death, and this relationship was more pronounced in the docetaxel-based group.

CONCLUSIONS

In early breast cancer patients treated with adjuvant chemotherapy, baseline severe obesity was significantly linked to worse DFS and OS, and a BMI loss over 10% from baseline to post-adjuvant chemotherapy also negatively affected OS. Moreover, the prognostic role of BMI might differ between docetaxel-based and non-docetaxel-based groups.

Obesity and prostate cancer - microenvironmental roles of adipose tissue

Obesity is known to have important roles in driving prostate cancer aggressiveness and increased mortality. Multiple mechanisms have been postulated for these clinical observations, including effects of diet and lifestyle, systemic changes in energy balance and hormonal regulation and activation of signalling by growth factors and cytokines and other components of the immune system. Over the past decade, research on obesity has shifted towards investigating the role of peri-prostatic white adipose tissue as an important source of locally produced factors that stimulate prostate cancer progression. Cells that comprise white adipose tissue, the adipocytes and their progenitor adipose stromal cells (ASCs), which proliferate to accommodate white adipose tissue expansion in obesity, have been identified as important drivers of obesity-associated cancer progression. Accumulating evidence suggests that adipocytes are a source of lipids that are used by adjacent prostate cancer cells. However, results of preclinical studies indicate that ASCs promote tumour growth by remodelling extracellular matrix and supporting neovascularization, contributing to the recruitment of immunosuppressive cells, and inducing epithelial-mesenchymal transition through paracrine signalling. Because epithelial-mesenchymal transition is associated with cancer chemotherapy resistance and metastasis, ASCs are considered to be potential targets of therapies that could be developed to suppress cancer aggressiveness in patients with obesity.

Vascular Inflammation, Cancer, and Cardiovascular Diseases

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Cancer and cardiovascular disease are among the leading causes of morbidity and mortality in the USA. Cancer and cardiovascular disease have inflammatory underpinnings that have been associated with both the development and progression of these disease states.

RECENT FINDINGS

Inflammatory signaling has been found to be a critical event in both cardiovascular disease and cancer formation and progression. Further, many chemotherapeutic agents potentiate inflammation exacerbating existing cardiovascular disease or leading to its presence. The exact mechanisms of these interactions remain poorly understood. The proinflammatory milieu observed in both cancer and cardiovascular disease likely plays an important role in the development and potentiation of both conditions. Further evaluation of this relationship will be critical in the development of new diagnostic and therapeutic modalities.

Leptin: A Heavyweight Player in Obesity-Related Cancers

Obesity, defined as the abnormal or excessive expansion of white adipose tissue, has reached pandemic proportions and is recognized as an important health concern since it is a common root for several comorbidities, including malignancies. Indeed, the current knowledge of the white adipose tissue, which shifts its role from an energy storage tissue to an important endocrine and metabolic organ, has opened up new avenues for the discovery of obesity's effects on tumor biology. In this review, we will report the epidemiological studies concerning the strong impact of obesity in several types of cancer and describe the mechanisms underlying the heterotypic signals between cancer cell lines and adipocytes, with particular emphasis on inflammation, the insulin/IGF-1 axis, and adipokines. Among the adipokines, we will further describe the in vitro, in vivo, and clinical data concerning the role of leptin, recognized as one of the most important mediators of obesity-associated cancers. In fact, leptin physiologically regulates energy metabolism, appetite, and reproduction, and several studies have also described the role of leptin in affecting cancer development and progression. Finally, we will summarize the newest pharmacological strategies aimed at mitigating the protumorigenic effects of leptin, underlining their mechanisms of action.

Three-Dimensional Breast Cancer Model to Investigate CCL5/CCR1 Expression Mediated by Direct Contact between Breast Cancer Cells and Adipose-Derived Stromal Cells or Adipocytes

The tumor microenvironment (TME) in breast cancer is determined by the complex crosstalk of cancer cells with adipose tissue-inherent cells such as adipose-derived stromal cells (ASCs) and adipocytes resulting from the local invasion of tumor cells in the mammary fat pad. This leads to heterotypic cellular contacts between these cell types. To adequately mimic the specific cell-to-cell interaction in an in vivo-like 3D environment, we developed a direct co-culture spheroid model using ASCs or differentiated adipocytes in combination with MDA-MB-231 or MCF-7 breast carcinoma cells. Co-spheroids were generated in a well-defined and reproducible manner in a high-throughput process. We compared the expression of the tumor-promoting chemokine CCL5 and its cognate receptors in these co-spheroids to indirect and direct standard 2D co-cultures. A marked up-regulation of CCL5 and in particular the receptor CCR1 with strict dependence on cell-cell contacts and culture dimensionality was evident. Furthermore, the impact of direct contacts between ASCs and tumor cells and the involvement of CCR1 in promoting tumor cell migration were demonstrated. Overall, these results show the importance of direct 3D co-culture models to better represent the complex tumor-stroma interaction in a tissue-like context. The unveiling of tumor-specific markers that are up-regulated upon direct cell-cell contact with neighboring stromal cells, as demonstrated in the 3D co-culture spheroids, may represent a promising strategy to find new targets for the diagnosis and treatment of invasive breast cancer.

An Update on Adipose-Derived Stem Cells for Regenerative Medicine: Where Challenge Meets Opportunity

Over the last decade, adipose-derived stem cells (ADSCs) have attracted increasing attention in the field of regenerative medicine. ADSCs appear to be the most advantageous cell type for regenerative therapies owing to their easy accessibility, multipotency, and active paracrine activity. This review highlights current challenges in translating ADSC-based therapies into clinical settings and discusses novel strategies to overcome the limitations of ADSCs. To further establish ADSC-based therapies as an emerging platform for regenerative medicine, this review also provides an update on the advancements in this field, including fat grafting, wound healing, bone regeneration, skeletal muscle repair, tendon reconstruction, cartilage regeneration, cardiac repair, and nerve regeneration. ADSC-based therapies are expected to be more tissue-specific and increasingly important in regenerative medicine.

Obesity and cancer stem cells: Roles in cancer initiation, progression and therapy resistance

Obesity, the global pandemic since industrialization, is the number one lifestyle-related risk factor for premature death, which increases the incidence and mortality of various diseases and conditions, including cancer. In recent years, the theory of cancer stem cells (CSCs), which have the capacity for self-renewal, metastasis and treatment resistance, has been bolstered by increasing evidence. However, research on how obesity affects CSCs to facilitate cancer initiation, progression and therapy resistance is still in its infancy, although evidence has already begun to accumulate. Regarding the ever-increasing burden of obesity and obesity-related cancer, it is pertinent to summarize evidence about the effects of obesity on CSCs, as elucidating these effects will contribute to the improvement in the management of obesity-related cancers. In this review, we discuss the association between obesity and CSCs, with a particular focus on how obesity promotes cancer initiation, progression and therapy resistance through CSCs and the mechanisms underlying these effects. In addition, the prospect of preventing cancer and targeting the mechanisms linking obesity and CSCs to reduce cancer risk or to improve the survival of patients with cancer is considered.

Impact of risk factors on early cancer evolution

Recent identification of oncogenic cells within healthy tissues and the prevalence of indolent cancers found incidentally at autopsies reveal a greater complexity in tumor initiation than previously appreciated. The human body contains roughly 40 trillion cells of 200 different types that are organized within a complex three-dimensional matrix, necessitating exquisite mechanisms to restrain aberrant outgrowth of malignant cells that have the capacity to kill the host. Understanding how this defense is overcome to trigger tumorigenesis and why cancer is so extraordinarily rare at the cellular level is vital to future prevention therapies. In this review, we discuss how early initiated cells are protected from further tumorigenesis and the non-mutagenic pathways by which cancer risk factors promote tumor growth. By nature, the absence of permanent genomic alterations potentially renders these tumor-promoting mechanisms clinically targetable. Finally, we consider existing strategies for early cancer interception with perspectives on the next steps for molecular cancer prevention.

Triple-negative breast cancer cells invade adipocyte/preadipocyte-encapsulating geometrically inverted mammary organoids

This paper describes the manufacture of geometrically inverted mammary organoids encapsulating primary mammary preadipocytes and adipocytes. Material manipulation in an array of 192 hanging drops induces cells to self-assemble into inside-out organoids where an adipose tissue core is enveloped by a cell-produced basement membrane, indicated by laminin V staining and then a continuous layer of mammary epithelial cells. This inverted tissue structure enables investigation of multiple mammary cancer subtypes, with a significantly higher extent of invasion by triple-negative MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells compared to MCF7 cells. By seeding cancer cells into co-culture around pre-formed organoids with encapsulated preadipocytes/adipocytes, invasion through the epithelium, then into the adipose core is observable through acquisition of confocal image stacks of whole mount specimens. Furthermore, in regions of the connective tissue core where invasion occurs, there is an accumulation of collagen in the microenvironment. Suggesting that this collagen may be conducive to increased invasiveness, the anti-fibrotic drug pirfenidone shows efficacy in this model by slowing invasion. Comparison of adipose tissue derived from three different donors shows method consistency as well as the potential to evaluate donor cell-based biological variability. Insight box Geometrically inverted mammary organoids encapsulating primary preadipocytes/adipocytes (P/As) are bioengineered using a minimal amount of Matrigel scaffolding. Use of this eversion-free method is key to production of adipose mammary organoids (AMOs) where not only the epithelial polarity but also the entire self-organizing arrangement, including adipose position, is inside-out. While an epithelial-only structure can analyze cancer cell invasion, P/As are required for invasion-associated collagen deposition and efficacy of pirfenidone to counteract collagen deposition and associated invasion. The methods described strike a balance between repeatability and preservation of biological variability: AMOs form consistently across multiple adipose cell donors while revealing cancer cell invasion differences.

Breast Cancer: Impact of New Treatments?

BACKGROUND

Breast cancer treatment has seen tremendous progress since the early 1980s, with the first findings of new chemotherapy and hormone therapies. Screening started in the same period.

METHODS

A review of population data (SEER and the literature) shows an increase in recurrence-free survival until 2000 and it stagnates afterwards.

RESULTS

Over the period 1980-2000, the 15% survival gain was presented by pharma as a contribution of new molecules. The contribution of screening during that same period was not implemented by them, although screening has been accepted as a routine procedure in the States since the 1980s and everywhere else since 2000.

CONCLUSIONS

Interpretation of breast cancer outcome has largely focused on drugs, whereas other factors, such as screening, prevention, biologics, and genetics, were largely neglected. More attention should now be paid to examining the strategy based on realistic global data.

Everybody needs good neighbours: the progressive DCIS microenvironment

Ductal carcinoma in situ (DCIS) is a pre-invasive form of breast cancer where neoplastic luminal cells are confined to the ductal tree. While as many as 70% of DCIS cases will remain indolent, most women are treated with surgery, often combined with endocrine and radiotherapies. Overtreatment is therefore a major issue, demanding new methods to stratify patients. Somewhat paradoxically, the neoplastic cells in DCIS are genetically comparable to those in invasive disease, suggesting the tumour microenvironment is the driving force for progression. Clinical and mechanistic studies highlight the complex DCIS microenvironment, with multiple cell types competing to regulate progression. Here, we examine recent studies detailing distinct aspects of the DCIS microenvironment and discuss how these may inform more effective care.

Breast adipose tissue-derived extracellular vesicles from women with obesity stimulate mitochondrial-induced dysregulated tumor cell metabolism

Breast adipose tissue is an important contributor to the obesity-breast cancer link. Dysregulated cell metabolism is now an accepted hallmark of cancer. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are nanosized particles containing selective cargo, such as miRNAs, that act locally or circulate to distant sites to modulate target cell functions. Here, we found that long-term education of breast cancer cells (MCF7, T47D) with EVs from breast adipose tissue of women who are overweight or obese (O-EVs) leads to sustained increased proliferative potential. RNA-Seq of O-EV-educated cells demonstrates increased expression of genes, such as ATP synthase and NADH: ubiquinone oxidoreductase, involved in oxidative phosphorylation. O-EVs increase respiratory complex protein expression, mitochondrial density, and mitochondrial respiration in tumor cells. Mitochondrial complex I inhibitor, metformin, reverses O-EV-induced cell proliferation. Several miRNAs, miR-155-5p, miR-10a-3p, and miR-30a-3p, which promote mitochondrial respiration and proliferation, are enriched in O-EVs relative to EVs from lean women. O-EV-induced proliferation and mitochondrial activity are associated with stimulation of the Akt/mTOR/P70S6K pathway, and are reversed upon silencing of P70S6K. This study reveals a new facet of the obesity-breast cancer link with human breast adipose tissue-derived EVs causing the metabolic reprogramming of ER+ breast cancer cells.

c-MYC mediates the crosstalk between breast cancer cells and tumor microenvironment

The MYC oncogenic family is dysregulated in diverse tumors which is generally linked to the poor prognosis of tumors. The members in MYC family are transcription factors which are responsible for the regulation of various genes expression. Among them, c-MYC is closely related to the progression of tumors. Furthermore, c-MYC aberrations is tightly associated with the prevalence of breast cancer. Tumor microenvironment (TME) is composed of many different types of cellular and non-cellular factors, mainly including cancer-associated fibroblasts, tumor-associated macrophages, vascular endothelial cells, myeloid-derived suppressor cells and immune cells, all of which can affect the diagnosis, prognosis, and therapeutic efficacy of breast cancer. Importantly, the biological processes occurred in TME, such as angiogenesis, immune evasion, invasion, migration, and the recruition of stromal and tumor-infiltrating cells are under the modulation of c-MYC. These findings indicated that c-MYC serves as a critical regulator of TME. Here, we aimed to summarize and review the relevant research, thus to clarify c-MYC is a key mediator between breast cancer cells and TME. Video Abstract.

Estradiol and Estrone Have Different Biological Functions to Induce NF-κB-Driven Inflammation, EMT and Stemness in ER+ Cancer Cells

In general, the risk of being diagnosed with cancer increases with age; however, the development of estrogen-receptor-positive (ER+) cancer types in women are more closely related to menopausal status than age. In fact, the general risk factors for cancer development, such as obesity-induced inflammation, show differences in their association with ER+ cancer risk in pre- and postmenopausal women. Here, we tested the role of the principal estrogens in the bloodstream before and after menopause, estradiol (E2) and estrone (E1), respectively, on inflammation, epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and cancer stem cell enrichment in the human ER+ cervical cancer cell line HeLa. Our results demonstrate that E1, contrary to E2, is pro-inflammatory, increases embryonic stem-transcription factors (ES-TFs) expression and induces EMT in ER+ HeLa cells. Moreover, we observed that high intratumoural expression levels of 17β-Hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (HSD17B) isoforms involved in E1 synthesis is a poor prognosis factor, while overexpression of E2-synthetizing HSD17B isoforms is associated with a better outcome, for patients diagnosed with ER+ ovarian and uterine corpus carcinomas. This work demonstrates that E1 and E2 have different biological functions in ER+ gynaecologic cancers. These results open a new line of research in the study of ER+ cancer subtypes, highlighting the potential key oncogenic role of E1 and HSD17B E1-synthesizing enzymes in the development and progression of these diseases.

The Adipocyte-Macrophage Relationship in Cancer: A Potential Target for Antioxidant Therapy

Obesity has emerged as a major public health concern with a staggering 39% worldwide prevalence as of 2021. Given the magnitude of the problem and considering its association with chronic low-grade systemic inflammation, it does not come as a surprise that obesity is now considered one of the major risk factors for the development of several chronic diseases, such as diabetes, cardiovascular problems, and cancer. Adipose tissue dysfunction in obesity has taken center stage in understanding how changes in its components, particularly adipocytes and macrophages, participate in such processes. In this review, we will initially focus on how changes in adipose tissue upon excess fat accumulation generate endocrine signals that promote cancer development. Moreover, the tumor microenvironment or stroma, which is also critical in cancer development, contains macrophages and adipocytes, which, in reciprocal paracrine communication with cancer cells, generate relevant signals. We will discuss how paracrine signaling in the tumor microenvironment between cancer cells, macrophages, and adipocytes favors cancer development and progression. Finally, as reactive oxygen species participate in many of these signaling pathways, we will summarize the information available on how antioxidants can limit the effects of endocrine and paracrine signaling due to dysfunctional adipose tissue components in obesity.

Adipocytes secretome from normal and tumor breast favor breast cancer invasion by metabolic reprogramming

BACKGROUND

Adipose tissue is a major component of breast stroma. This study focused on delineating the effects of adipose stem cells (ASCs) derived from breast of healthy women and cancer patients with normal or tumor breast cells.

METHODS

The ASCs were induced to differentiate into adipocytes, and the subsequent adipocyte conditioned media (ACM) were evaluated for their fatty acid profile, adipokine secretion and influence on proliferation, migration and invasion on tumoral (MCF-7 and SUM159) and normal (HMEC) human breast cell lines.

RESULTS

An enrichment of arachidonic acid was observed in ACM from tumor tissues. Adipose tissues from tumor free secrete twice as much leptin than those from proximal or distal to the tumor. All ACMs display proliferative activity and favor invasiveness of SUM159 cells compared to MCF-7 and HMEC. All ACMs induced lipid droplets accumulation in MCF-7 cells and increased CD36 expression in tumor cells.

CONCLUSION

We conclude that among secreted factors analyzed, only arachidonic acid and leptin levels did discriminate ASCs from tumor-bearing and tumor-free breasts emphasizing the importance that other cell types could contribute to the adipose tissue secretome in a tumor context.

Obesity and breast cancer

The paper presents an analysis of the latest literature data on the problem of obesity and breast cancer (BC). This review presents modern approaches to the diagnosis of BC in obese patients, new molecular methods of breast imaging,  analyzes the features of the course of BC with obesity depending on menstrual status, molecular biological subtypes of the tumor, the mechanisms of the development of BC against the background of obesity.

Estrone, the major postmenopausal estrogen, binds ERa to induce SNAI2, epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition, and ER+ breast cancer metastasis

Recent work showed that the dominant post-menopausal estrogen, estrone, cooperates with nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) to stimulate inflammation, while pre-menopausal 17β-estradiol opposes NF-κB. Here, we show that post-menopausal estrone, but not 17β-estradiol, activates epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) genes to stimulate breast cancer metastasis. HSD17B14, which converts 17β-estradiol to estrone, is higher in cancer than normal breast tissue and in metastatic than primary cancers and associates with earlier metastasis. Treatment with estrone, but not 17β-estradiol, and HSD17B14 overexpression both stimulate an EMT, matrigel invasion, and lung, bone, and liver metastasis in estrogen-receptor-positive (ER+) breast cancer models, while HSD17B14 knockdown reverses the EMT. Estrone:ERα recruits CBP/p300 to the SNAI2 promoter to induce SNAI2 and stimulate an EMT, while 17β-estradiol:ERα recruits co-repressors HDAC1 and NCOR1 to this site. Present work reveals novel differences in gene regulation by these estrogens and the importance of estrone to ER+ breast cancer progression. Upon loss of 17β-estradiol at menopause, estrone-liganded ERα would promote ER+ breast cancer invasion and metastasis.

Rat Mammary carcinoma susceptibility 3 (Mcs3) pleiotropy, socioenvironmental interaction, and comparative genomics with orthologous human 15q25.1-25.2

Genome-wide association studies of breast cancer susceptibility have revealed risk-associated genetic variants and nominated candidate genes; however, the identification of causal variants and genes is often undetermined by genome-wide association studies. Comparative genomics, utilizing Rattus norvegicus strains differing in susceptibility to mammary tumor development, is a complimentary approach to identify breast cancer susceptibility genes. Mammary carcinoma susceptibility 3 (Mcs3) is a Copenhagen (COP/NHsd) allele that confers resistance to mammary carcinomas when introgressed into a mammary carcinoma susceptible Wistar Furth (WF/NHsd) genome. Here, Mcs3 was positionally mapped to a 7.2-Mb region of RNO1 spanning rs8149408 to rs107402736 (chr1:143700228-150929594, build 6.0/rn6) using WF.COP congenic strains and 7,12-dimethylbenz(a)anthracene-induced mammary carcinogenesis. Male and female WF.COP-Mcs3 rats had significantly lower body mass compared to the Wistar Furth strain. The effect on female body mass was observed only when females were raised in the absence of males indicating a socioenvironmental interaction. Furthermore, female WF.COP-Mcs3 rats, raised in the absence of males, did not develop enhanced lobuloalveolar morphologies compared to those observed in the Wistar Furth strain. Human 15q25.1-25.2 was determined to be orthologous to rat Mcs3 (chr15:80005820-82285404 and chr15:83134545-84130720, build GRCh38/hg38). A public database search of 15q25.1-25.2 revealed genome-wide significant and nominally significant associations for body mass traits and breast cancer risk. These results support the existence of a breast cancer risk-associated allele at human 15q25.1-25.2 and warrant ultrafine mapping of rat Mcs3 and human 15q25.1-25.2 to discover novel causal genes and variants.

White adipose tissue-derived factors and prostate cancer progression: mechanisms and targets for interventions

Obesity represents an important risk factor for prostate cancer, driving more aggressive disease, chemoresistance, and increased mortality. White adipose tissue (WAT) overgrowth in obesity is central to the mechanisms that lead to these clinical observations. Adipose stromal cells (ASCs), the progenitors to mature adipocytes and other cell types in WAT, play a vital role in driving PCa aggressiveness. ASCs produce numerous factors, especially chemokines, including the chemokine CXCL12, which is involved in driving EMT and chemoresistance in PCa. A greater understanding of the impact of WAT in obesity-induced progression of PCa and the underlying mechanisms has begun to provide opportunities for developing interventional strategies for preventing or offsetting these critical events. These include weight loss regimens, therapeutic targeting of ASCs, use of calorie restriction mimetic compounds, and combinations of compounds as well as specific receptor targeting strategies.

Breast cancer microenvironment and obesity: challenges for therapy

Women with obesity who develop breast cancer have a worsened prognosis with diminished survival rates and increased rates of metastasis. Obesity is also associated with decreased breast cancer response to endocrine and chemotherapeutic treatments. Studies utilizing multiple in vivo models of obesity as well as human breast tumors have enhanced our understanding of how obesity alters the breast tumor microenvironment. Changes in the complement and function of adipocytes, adipose-derived stromal cells, immune cells, and endothelial cells and remodeling of the extracellular matrix all contribute to the rapid growth of breast tumors in the context of obesity. Interactions of these cells enhance secretion of cytokines and adipokines as well as local levels of estrogen within the breast tumor microenvironment that promote resistance to multiple therapies. In this review, we will discuss our current understanding of the impact of obesity on the breast tumor microenvironment, how obesity-induced changes in cellular interactions promote resistance to breast cancer treatments, and areas for development of treatment interventions for breast cancer patients with obesity.

A miR-9-5p/FOXO1/CPEB3 Feed-Forward Loop Drives the Progression of Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the third leading cause of cancer-related death worldwide, but its regulatory mechanism remains unclear and potential clinical biomarkers are still lacking. Co-regulation of TFs and miRNAs in HCC and FFL module studies may help to identify more precise and critical driver modules in HCC development. Here, we performed a comprehensive gene expression and regulation analysis for HCC in vitro and in vivo. Transcription factor and miRNA co-regulatory networks for differentially expressed genes between tumors and adjacent tissues revealed the critical feed-forward loop (FFL) regulatory module miR-9-5p/FOXO1/CPEB3 in HCC. Gain- and loss-of-function studies demonstrated that miR-9-5p promotes HCC tumor proliferation, while FOXO1 and CPEB3 inhibit hepatocarcinoma growth. Furthermore, by luciferase reporter assay and ChIP-Seq data, CPEB3 was for the first time identified as a direct downstream target of FOXO1, negatively regulated by miR-9-5p. The miR-9-5p/FOXO1/CPEB3 FFL was associated with poor prognosis, and promoted cell growth and tumor progression of HCC in vitro and in vivo. Our study identified for the first time the existence of miR-9-5p/FOXO1/CPEB3 FFL and revealed its regulatory role in HCC progression, which may represent a new potential target for cancer therapy.

Breast Cancer Metastasis: Mechanisms and Therapeutic Implications

Breast cancer is the most common malignancy in women worldwide. Metastasis is the leading cause of high mortality in most cancers. Although predicting the early stage of breast cancer before metastasis can increase the survival rate, breast cancer is often discovered or diagnosed after metastasis has occurred. In general, breast cancer has a poor prognosis because it starts as a local disease and can spread to lymph nodes or distant organs, contributing to a significant impediment in breast cancer treatment. Metastatic breast cancer cells acquire aggressive characteristics from the tumor microenvironment (TME) through several mechanisms including epithelial–mesenchymal transition (EMT) and epigenetic regulation. Therefore, understanding the nature and mechanism of breast cancer metastasis can facilitate the development of targeted therapeutics focused on metastasis. This review discusses the mechanisms leading to metastasis and the current therapies to improve the early diagnosis and prognosis in patients with metastatic breast cancer.

EGCG Prevents the Onset of an Inflammatory and Cancer-Associated Adipocyte-like Phenotype in Adipose-Derived Mesenchymal Stem/Stromal Cells in Response to the Triple-Negative Breast Cancer Secretome

Background: Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) cells secretome induces a pro-inflammatory microenvironment within the adipose tissue, which hosts both mature adipocytes and adipose-derived mesenchymal stem/stromal cells (ADMSC). The subsequent acquisition of a cancer-associated adipocyte (CAA)-like phenotype is, however, unknown in ADMSC. While epidemiological studies suggest that consuming a polyphenol-rich diet reduces the incidence of some obesity-related cancers, the chemopreventive impact of green tea-derived epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG) against the cues that trigger the CAA phenotype remain undocumented in ADMSC. Methods: Human ADMSC were exposed to human TNBC-derived MDA-MB-231 conditioned media (TNBC cells secretome) supplemented or not with EGCG. Differential gene expression was assessed through RNA-Seq analysis and confirmed by RT-qPCR. Protein expression levels and the activation status of signal transduction pathways mediators were determined by Western blotting. ADMSC chemotaxis was assessed by a real-time cell migration assay. Results: The TNBC cells secretome induced in ADMSC the expression of the CAA cytokines CCL2, CCL5, IL-1β, and IL-6, and of immunomodulators COX2, HIF-1α, VEGFα, and PD-L1. The epithelial-to-mesenchymal biomarker Snail was found to control the CAA phenotype. EGCG inhibited the induction of CAA genes and the activation status of Smad2 and NF-κB. The induced chemotactic response was also inhibited by EGCG. Conclusion: The induction of an inflammatory and CAA-like phenotype in ADMSC can be triggered by the TNBC cells secretome, while still efficiently prevented by diet-derived polyphenols.

Inflammation in Focus: The Beginning and the End

The inflammation is an important biological response induced by various harmful stimuli, like viruses, bacterial infections, toxins, toxic compounds, tissue injury. During inflammation inflammatory cytokines and reactive oxygen species are produced. Inflammatory cytokines act on various receptors present on the plasma membrane of target cells. To initiate signaling cascade, and activate transcription factors, receptors should be internalized and enter the early endosomes, where the members of the signaling cascade can meet. The further cytoplasmic fate of the receptor plays crucial role in the progression and the course of inflammation. Usually acute inflammation removes injurious stimuli and helps to regain the normal healthy status of the organism. In contrast to this the uncontrolled chronic inflammation—stimulating other than immune cells, inducing transdifferentiation—can provide base of various serious diseases. This paper draws the attention of the long-lasting consequence of chronic inflammation, pointing out that one of the most important step in medication is to identify in time the factors initiating and maintaining inflammation.

The Complex Biology of the Obesity-Induced, Metastasis-Promoting Tumor Microenvironment in Breast Cancer

Breast cancer is one of the most prevalent cancers in women contributing to cancer-related death in the advanced world. Apart from the menopausal status, the trigger for developing breast cancer may vary widely from race to lifestyle factors. Epidemiological studies refer to obesity-associated metabolic changes as a critical risk factor behind the progression of breast cancer. The plethora of signals arising due to obesity-induced changes in adipocytes present in breast tumor microenvironment, significantly affect the behavior of adjacent breast cells. Adipocytes from white adipose tissue are currently recognized as an active endocrine organ secreting different bioactive compounds. However, due to excess energy intake and increased fat accumulation, there are morphological followed by secretory changes in adipocytes, which make the breast microenvironment proinflammatory. This proinflammatory milieu not only increases the risk of breast cancer development through hormone conversion, but it also plays a role in breast cancer progression through the activation of effector proteins responsible for the biological phenomenon of metastasis. The aim of this review is to present a comprehensive picture of the complex biology of obesity-induced changes in white adipocytes and demonstrate the relationship between obesity and breast cancer progression to metastasis.

Understanding the function and regulation of Sox2 for its therapeutic potential in breast cancer

Sox family of transcriptional factors play essential functions in development and are implicated in multiple clinical disorders, including cancer. Sox2 being their most prominent member and performing a critical role in reprogramming differentiated adult cells to an embryonic phenotype is frequently upregulated in multiple cancers. High Sox2 levels are detected in breast tumor tissues and correlate with a worse prognosis. In addition, Sox2 expression is connected with resistance to conventional anticancer therapy. Together, it can be said that inhibiting Sox2 expression can reduce the malignant features associated with breast cancer, including invasion, migration, proliferation, stemness, and chemoresistance. This review highlights the critical roles played by the Sox gene family members in initiating or suppressing breast tumor development, while primarily focusing on Sox2 and its role in breast tumor initiation, maintenance, and progression, elucidates the probable mechanisms that control its activity, and puts forward potential therapeutic strategies to inhibit its expression.

(Im)maturity in Tumor Ecosystem

Tumors have special features that make them distinct from their normal counterparts. Immature cells in a tumor mass and their critical contributions to the tumorigenesis will open new windows toward cancer therapy. Incomplete cellular development brings versatile and unique functionality in the cellular tumor ecosystem, such as what is seen for highly potential embryonic cells. There is evidence that maturation of certain types of cells in this ecosystem can recover the sensitivity of the tumor. Therefore, understanding more about the mechanisms that contributed to this immaturity will render new therapeutic approaches in cancer therapy. Targeting such mechanisms can be exploited as a supplementary to the current immunotherapeutic treatment schedules, such as immune checkpoint inhibitor (ICI) therapy. The key focus of this review is to discuss the impact of (im)maturity in cellular tumor ecosystems on cancer progression, focusing mainly on immaturity in the immune cell compartment of the tumor, as well as on the stemness of tumor cells.

Pathophysiological Integration of Metabolic Reprogramming in Breast Cancer

Simple Summary

Tumors exhibit metabolic changes that differentiate them from the normal tissues from which they derive. These metabolic changes favor tumor growth, are primarily induced by cancer cells, and produce metabolic and functional changes in the surrounding stromal cells. There is a close functional connection between the metabolic changes in tumor cells and those that appear in the surrounding stroma. A better understanding of intratumoral metabolic interactions may help identify new vulnerabilities that will facilitate new, more individualized treatment strategies against cancer. We review the metabolic changes described in tumor and stromal cells and their functional changes and then consider, in depth, the metabolic interactions between the cells of the two compartments. Although these changes are generic, we illustrate them mainly with reference to examples in breast cancer.

Abstract

Metabolic changes that facilitate tumor growth are one of the hallmarks of cancer. The triggers of these metabolic changes are located in the tumor parenchymal cells, where oncogenic mutations induce an imperative need to proliferate and cause tumor initiation and progression. Cancer cells undergo significant metabolic reorganization during disease progression that is tailored to their energy demands and fluctuating environmental conditions. Oxidative stress plays an essential role as a trigger under such conditions. These metabolic changes are the consequence of the interaction between tumor cells and stromal myofibroblasts. The metabolic changes in tumor cells include protein anabolism and the synthesis of cell membranes and nucleic acids, which all facilitate cell proliferation. They are linked to catabolism and autophagy in stromal myofibroblasts, causing the release of nutrients for the cells of the tumor parenchyma. Metabolic changes lead to an interstitium deficient in nutrients, such as glucose and amino acids, and acidification by lactic acid. Together with hypoxia, they produce functional changes in other cells of the tumor stroma, such as many immune subpopulations and endothelial cells, which lead to tumor growth. Thus, immune cells favor tissue growth through changes in immunosuppression. This review considers some of the metabolic changes described in breast cancer.

Effect of miR-302b MicroRNA Inhibition on Chicken Primordial Germ Cell Proliferation and Apoptosis Rate

The primordial germ cells (PGCs) are the precursors for both the oocytes and spermatogonia. Recently, a novel culture system was established for chicken PGCs, isolated from embryonic blood. The possibility of PGC long-term cultivation issues a new advance in germ cell preservation, biotechnology, and cell biology. We investigated the consequence of gga-miR-302b-5P (5P), gga-miR-302b-3P (3P) and dual inhibition (5P/3P) in two male and two female chicken PGC lines. In treated and control cell cultures, the cell number was calculated every four hours for three days by the XLS Imaging system. Comparing the cell number of control and treated lines on the first day, we found that male lines had a higher proliferation rate independently from the treatments. Compared to the untreated ones, the proliferation rate and the number of apoptotic cells were considerably reduced at gga-miR-302b-5P inhibition in all PGC lines on the third day of the cultivation. The control PGC lines showed a significantly higher proliferation rate than 3P inhibited lines on Day 3 in all PGC lines. Dual inhibition of gga-miR-302b mature miRNAs caused a slight reduction in proliferation rate, but the number of apoptotic cells increased dramatically. The information gathered by examining the factors affecting cell proliferation of PGCs can lead to new data in stem cell biology.

A Role for Adipocytes and Adipose Stem Cells in the Breast Tumor Microenvironment and Regenerative Medicine

Obesity rates are climbing, representing a confounding and contributing factor to many disease states, including cancer. With respect to breast cancer, obesity plays a prominent role in the etiology of this disease, with certain subtypes such as triple-negative breast cancer having a strong correlation between obesity and poor outcomes. Therefore, it is critical to examine the obesity-related alterations to the normal stroma and the tumor microenvironment (TME). Adipocytes and adipose stem cells (ASCs) are major components of breast tissue stroma that have essential functions in both physiological and pathological states, including energy storage and metabolic homeostasis, physical support of breast epithelial cells, and directing inflammatory and wound healing responses through secreted factors. However, these processes can become dysregulated in both metabolic disorders, such as obesity and also in the context of breast cancer. Given the well-established obesity-neoplasia axis, it is critical to understand how interactions between different cell types in the tumor microenvironment, including adipocytes and ASCs, govern carcinogenesis, tumorigenesis, and ultimately metastasis. ASCs and adipocytes have multifactorial roles in cancer progression; however, due to the plastic nature of these cells, they also have a role in regenerative medicine, making them promising tools for tissue engineering. At the physiological level, the interactions between obesity and breast cancer have been examined; here, we will delineate the mechanisms that regulate ASCs and adipocytes in these different contexts through interactions between cancer cells, immune cells, and other cell types present in the tumor microenvironment. We will define the current state of understanding of how adipocytes and ASCs contribute to tumor progression through their role in the tumor microenvironment and how this is altered in the context of obesity. We will also introduce recent developments in utilizing adipocytes and ASCs in novel approaches to breast reconstruction and regenerative medicine.

MCF-7 Drug Resistant Cell Lines Switch Their Lipid Metabolism to Triple Negative Breast Cancer Signature

Obesity and adipose tissue have been closely related to a poor cancer prognosis, especially in prostate and breast cancer patients. The ability of transferring lipids from the adipose tissue to the tumor cells is actively linked to tumor progression. However, different types of breast tumor seem to use these lipids in different ways and metabolize them in different pathways. In this study we have tracked by mass spectrometry how palmitic acid from the adipocytes is released to media being later incorporated in different breast cancer cell lines (MDA-MB-231, SKBR3, BT474, MCF-7 and its resistant MCF-7 EPI^R and MCF-7 TAX^R). We have observed that different lines metabolize the palmitic acid in a different way and use their carbons in the synthesis of different new lipid families. Furthermore, we have observed that the lipid synthesis pattern varied according to the cell line. Surprisingly, the metabolic pattern of the resistant cells was more related to the TNBC cell line compared to their sensitive cell line MCF-7. These results allow us to determine a specific lipid pattern in different cell lines that later might be used in breast cancer diagnosis and to find a better treatment according to the cancer molecular type.

Sympathetic nerve-adipocyte interactions in response to acute stress

Psychological stress predisposes our body to several disorders. Understanding the cellular and molecular mechanisms involved in the physiological responses to psychological stress is essential for the success of therapeutic applications. New studies show, by using in vivo inducible Cre/loxP-mediated approaches in combination with pharmacological blockage, that sympathetic nerves, activated by psychological stress, induce brown adipocytes to produce IL-6. Strikingly, this cytokine promotes gluconeogenesis in hepatocytes, that results in the decline of tolerance to inflammatory organ damage. The comprehension arising from this research will be crucial for the handling of many inflammatory diseases. Here, we review recent advances in our comprehension of the sympathetic nerve-adipocyte axis in the tissue microenvironment.

MicroRNAs regulating SOX2 in cancer progression and therapy response

The proliferation, metastasis and therapy response of tumour cells are tightly regulated by interaction among various signalling networks. The microRNAs (miRNAs) can bind to 3'-UTR of mRNA and down-regulate expression of target gene. The miRNAs target various molecular pathways in regulating biological events such as apoptosis, differentiation, angiogenesis and migration. The aberrant expression of miRNAs occurs in cancers and they have both tumour-suppressor and tumour-promoting functions. On the contrary, SOX proteins are capable of binding to DNA and regulating gene expression. SOX2 is a well-known member of SOX family that its overexpression in different cancers to ensure progression and stemness. The present review focuses on modulatory impact of miRNAs on SOX2 in affecting growth, migration and therapy response of cancers. The lncRNAs and circRNAs can function as upstream mediators of miRNA/SOX2 axis in cancers. In addition, NF-κB, TNF-α and SOX17 are among other molecular pathways regulating miRNA/SOX2 axis in cancer. Noteworthy, anti-cancer compounds including bufalin and ovatodiolide are suggested to regulate miRNA/SOX2 axis in cancers. The translation of current findings to clinical course can pave the way to effective treatment of cancer patients and improve their prognosis.