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Apoorva E, Jacob R, Rao DN, Kumar S. Helicobacter pylori enhances HLA-C expression in the human gastric adenocarcinoma cells AGS and can protect them from the cytotoxicity of natural killer cells. Helicobacter 2024; 29:e13069. [PMID: 38516860 DOI: 10.1111/hel.13069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2023] [Revised: 03/05/2024] [Accepted: 03/08/2024] [Indexed: 03/23/2024]
Abstract
Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) seems to play causative roles in gastric cancers. H. pylori has also been detected in established gastric cancers. How the presence of H. pylori modulates immune response to the cancer is unclear. The cytotoxicity of natural killer (NK) cells, toward infected or malignant cells, is controlled by the repertoire of activating and inhibitory receptors expressed on their surface. Here, we studied H. pylori-induced changes in the expression of ligands, of activating and inhibitory receptors of NK cells, in the gastric adenocarcinoma AGS cells, and their impacts on NK cell responses. AGS cells lacked or had low surface expression of the class I major histocompatibility complex (MHC-I) molecules HLA-E and HLA-C-ligands of the major NK cell inhibitory receptors NKG2A and killer-cell Ig-like receptor (KIR), respectively. However, AGS cells had high surface expression of ligands of activating receptors DNAM-1 and CD2, and of the adhesion molecules LFA-1. Consistently, AGS cells were sensitive to killing by NK cells despite the expression of inhibitory KIR on NK cells. Furthermore, H. pylori enhanced HLA-C surface expression on AGS cells. H. pylori infection enhanced HLA-C protein synthesis, which could explain H. pylori-induced HLA-C surface expression. H. pylori infection enhanced HLA-C surface expression also in the hepatoma Huh7 and HepG2 cells. Furthermore, H. pylori-induced HLA-C surface expression on AGS cells promoted inhibition of NK cells by KIR, and thereby protected AGS cells from NK cell cytotoxicity. These results suggest that H. pylori enhances HLA-C expression in host cells and protects them from the cytotoxic attack of NK cells expressing HLA-C-specific inhibitory receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Etikala Apoorva
- CSIR-Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology, Hyderabad, Telangana, India
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, India
| | - Rini Jacob
- CSIR-Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology, Hyderabad, Telangana, India
| | - Desirazu N Rao
- Department of Biochemistry, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India
| | - Santosh Kumar
- CSIR-Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology, Hyderabad, Telangana, India
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, India
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2
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Pachathundikandi SK, Tegtmeyer N, Backert S. Masking of typical TLR4 and TLR5 ligands modulates inflammation and resolution by Helicobacter pylori. Trends Microbiol 2023; 31:903-915. [PMID: 37012092 DOI: 10.1016/j.tim.2023.03.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2022] [Revised: 02/28/2023] [Accepted: 03/13/2023] [Indexed: 04/03/2023]
Abstract
Helicobacter pylori is a paradigm of chronic bacterial infection and is associated with peptic ulceration and malignancies. H. pylori uses specific masking mechanisms to avoid canonical ligands from activating Toll-like receptors (TLRs), such as lipopolysaccharide (LPS) modification and specific flagellin sequences that are not detected by TLR4 and TLR5, respectively. Thus, it was believed for a long time that H. pylori evades TLR recognition as a crucial strategy for immune escape and bacterial persistence. However, recent data indicate that multiple TLRs are activated by H. pylori and play a role in the pathology. Remarkably, H. pylori LPS, modified through changes in acylation and phosphorylation, is mainly sensed by other TLRs (TLR2 and TLR10) and induces both pro- and anti-inflammatory responses. In addition, two structural components of the cag pathogenicity island-encoded type IV secretion system (T4SS), CagL and CagY, were shown to contain TLR5-activating domains. These domains stimulate TLR5 and enhance immunity, while LPS-driven TLR10 signaling predominantly activates anti-inflammatory reactions. Here, we discuss the specific roles of these TLRs and masking mechanisms during infection. Masking of typical TLR ligands combined with evolutionary shifting to other TLRs is unique for H. pylori and has not yet been described for any other species in the bacterial kingdom. Finally, we highlight the unmasked T4SS-driven activation of TLR9 by H. pylori, which mainly triggers anti-inflammatory responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suneesh Kumar Pachathundikandi
- Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Dept. of Biology, Chair of Microbiology, Staudtstr. 5, 91058 Erlangen, Germany; Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Dept. of Environmental Microbiology, School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Vidya Vihar, Raebareli Road, Lucknow 226025, India
| | - Nicole Tegtmeyer
- Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Dept. of Biology, Chair of Microbiology, Staudtstr. 5, 91058 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Steffen Backert
- Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Dept. of Biology, Chair of Microbiology, Staudtstr. 5, 91058 Erlangen, Germany.
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3
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Liu M, Hu Z, Wang C, Zhang Y. The TLR/MyD88 signalling cascade in inflammation and gastric cancer: the immune regulatory network of Helicobacter pylori. J Mol Med (Berl) 2023; 101:767-781. [PMID: 37195446 DOI: 10.1007/s00109-023-02332-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2022] [Revised: 05/02/2023] [Accepted: 05/04/2023] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Helicobacter pylori-induced chronic gastritis represents a well-established risk factor for gastric cancer (GC). However, the mechanism by which chronic inflammation caused by H. pylori induces the development of GC is unclear. H. pylori can influence host cell signalling pathways to induce gastric disease development and mediate cancer promotion and progression. Toll-like receptors (TLRs), as pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), play a key role in the gastrointestinal innate immune response, and their signalling has been implicated in the pathogenesis of an increasing number of inflammation-associated cancers. The core adapter myeloid differentiation factor-88 (MyD88) is shared by most TLRs and functions primarily in H. pylori-triggered innate immune signalling. MyD88 is envisioned as a potential target for the regulation of immune responses and is involved in the regulation of tumourigenesis in a variety of cancer models. In recent years, the TLR/MyD88 signalling pathway has received increasing attention for its role in regulating innate and adaptive immune responses, inducing inflammatory activation and promoting tumour formation. In addition, TLR/MyD88 signalling can manipulate the expression of infiltrating immune cells and various cytokines in the tumour microenvironment (TME). In this review, we discuss the pathogenetic regulatory mechanisms of the TLR/MyD88 signalling cascade pathway and its downstream molecules in H. pylori infection-induced-associated GC. The focus is to elucidate the immunomolecular mechanisms of pathogen recognition and innate immune system activation of H. pylori in the TME of inflammation-associated GC. Ultimately, this study will provide insight into the mechanism of H. pylori-induced chronic inflammation-induced GC development and provide thoughts for GC prevention and treatment strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meiqi Liu
- Medical School, Cancer Research Institute, University of South China, Chang Sheng Xi Avenue 28, Hengyang City, Hunan, 421001, China
| | - Zhizhong Hu
- Medical School, Cancer Research Institute, University of South China, Chang Sheng Xi Avenue 28, Hengyang City, Hunan, 421001, China
| | - Chengkun Wang
- Medical School, Cancer Research Institute, University of South China, Chang Sheng Xi Avenue 28, Hengyang City, Hunan, 421001, China.
| | - Yang Zhang
- Medical School, Cancer Research Institute, University of South China, Chang Sheng Xi Avenue 28, Hengyang City, Hunan, 421001, China.
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4
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Jiao Y, Yan Z, Yang A. The Roles of Innate Lymphoid Cells in the Gastric Mucosal Immunology and Oncogenesis of Gastric Cancer. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24076652. [PMID: 37047625 PMCID: PMC10095467 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24076652] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2023] [Revised: 03/25/2023] [Accepted: 03/31/2023] [Indexed: 04/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Innate lymphoid cells (ILCs) are a group of innate immune cells that have garnered considerable attention due to their critical roles in regulating immunity and tissue homeostasis. They are particularly abundant in the gastrointestinal tract, where they have been shown to interact with commensal bacteria, pathogens, and other components of the local microenvironment to influence host immune responses to infection and oncogenesis. Their tissue-residency properties enable gastric ILCs a localized and rapid response to alert and stress, which indicates their key potential in regulating immunosurveillance. In this review, we discuss the current understanding of the role of ILCs in the gastric mucosa, with a focus on their interactions with the gastric microbiota and Helicobacter pylori and their contributions to tissue homeostasis and inflammation. We also highlight recent findings on the involvement of ILCs in the pathogenesis of gastric cancer and the implications of targeting ILCs as a therapeutic approach. Overall, this review provides an overview of the diverse functions of ILCs in gastric mucosa and highlights their potential as targets for future therapies for gastric cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuhao Jiao
- Department of Gastroenterology, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100730, China
| | - Zhiyu Yan
- Department of Gastroenterology, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100730, China
- 4 + 4 M.D. Program, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100730, China
| | - Aiming Yang
- Department of Gastroenterology, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100730, China
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5
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Targeting tumour-reprogrammed myeloid cells: the new battleground in cancer immunotherapy. Semin Immunopathol 2022; 45:163-186. [PMID: 36161514 PMCID: PMC9513014 DOI: 10.1007/s00281-022-00965-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2022] [Accepted: 09/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Tumour microenvironment is a complex ecosystem in which myeloid cells are the most abundant immune elements. This cell compartment is composed by different cell types, including neutrophils, macrophages, dendritic cells, and monocytes but also unexpected cell populations with immunosuppressive and pro-tumour roles. Indeed, the release of tumour-derived factors influences physiological haematopoiesis producing unconventional cells with immunosuppressive and tolerogenic functions such as myeloid-derived suppressor cells. These pro-tumour myeloid cell populations not only support immune escape directly but also assist tumour invasion trough non-immunological activities. It is therefore not surprising that these cell subsets considerably impact in tumour progression and cancer therapy resistance, including immunotherapy, and are being investigated as potential targets for developing a new era of cancer therapy. In this review, we discuss emerging strategies able to modulate the functional activity of these tumour-supporting myeloid cells subverting their accumulation, recruitment, survival, and functions. These innovative approaches will help develop innovative, or improve existing, cancer treatments.
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6
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Cheok YY, Tan GMY, Lee CYQ, Abdullah S, Looi CY, Wong WF. Innate Immunity Crosstalk with Helicobacter pylori: Pattern Recognition Receptors and Cellular Responses. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23147561. [PMID: 35886908 PMCID: PMC9317022 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23147561] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2022] [Revised: 07/02/2022] [Accepted: 07/04/2022] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Helicobacter pylori is one of the most successful gastric pathogens that has co-existed with human for centuries. H. pylori is recognized by the host immune system through human pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), such as toll-like receptors (TLRs), C-type lectin like receptors (CLRs), NOD-like receptors (NLRs), and RIG-I-like receptors (RLRs), which activate downstream signaling pathways. Following bacterial recognition, the first responders of the innate immune system, including neutrophils, macrophages, and dendritic cells, eradicate the bacteria through phagocytic and inflammatory reaction. This review provides current understanding of the interaction between the innate arm of host immunity and H. pylori, by summarizing H. pylori recognition by PRRs, and the subsequent signaling pathway activation in host innate immune cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi Ying Cheok
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia; (Y.Y.C.); (G.M.Y.T.); (C.Y.Q.L.)
| | - Grace Min Yi Tan
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia; (Y.Y.C.); (G.M.Y.T.); (C.Y.Q.L.)
| | - Chalystha Yie Qin Lee
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia; (Y.Y.C.); (G.M.Y.T.); (C.Y.Q.L.)
| | - Suhailah Abdullah
- Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia;
| | - Chung Yeng Looi
- School of Biosciences, Faculty of Health & Medical Sciences, Taylor’s University, Subang Jaya 47500, Malaysia;
| | - Won Fen Wong
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia; (Y.Y.C.); (G.M.Y.T.); (C.Y.Q.L.)
- Correspondence:
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7
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Li Z, Zhang W, Bai J, Li J, Li H. Emerging Role of Helicobacter pylori in the Immune Evasion Mechanism of Gastric Cancer: An Insight Into Tumor Microenvironment-Pathogen Interaction. Front Oncol 2022; 12:862462. [PMID: 35795038 PMCID: PMC9252590 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2022.862462] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2022] [Accepted: 03/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) infection is the strongest causative factor of gastric cancer. Growing evidence suggests that the complex crosstalk of H. pylori and the tumor microenvironment (TME) exerts a profound influence on gastric cancer progression. Hence, there is emerging interest to in-depth comprehension of the mechanisms of interplay between H. pylori and the TME. This review discusses the regulatory mechanisms underlying the crosstalk between H. pylori infection and immune and stromal cells, including tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs), neutrophils, dendritic cells, myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs), natural killer (NK) cells, B and T cells, cancer associated fibroblasts (CAFs), and mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), within the TME. Such knowledge will deepen the understanding about the roles of H. pylori in the immune evasion mechanism in gastric cancer and contribute to the development of more effective treatment regimens against H. pylori-induced gastric cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhifang Li
- Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, China
- The Second Hospital of Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, China
| | - Wenqing Zhang
- The Second Hospital of Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, China
| | - Jinyang Bai
- Shanxi Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital, Taiyuan, China
| | - Jing Li
- The Second Hospital of Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, China
| | - Hong Li
- The Second Hospital of Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, China
- *Correspondence: Hong Li,
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8
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Akesolo O, Buey B, Beltrán-Visiedo M, Giraldos D, Marzo I, Latorre E. Toll-like receptors: new targets for multiple myeloma treatment? Biochem Pharmacol 2022; 199:114992. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2022.114992] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2022] [Revised: 03/08/2022] [Accepted: 03/08/2022] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
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9
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Gonzalez I, Araya P, Schneider I, Lindner C, Rojas A. Pattern recognition receptors and their roles in the host response to Helicobacter pylori infection. Future Microbiol 2021; 16:1229-1238. [PMID: 34615380 DOI: 10.2217/fmb-2021-0106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) infection is highly prevalent, affecting 4.4 billion people globally. This pathogen is a risk factor in the pathogenesis of more than 75% of worldwide cases of gastric cancer. Pattern recognition receptors are essential in the innate immune response to H. pylori infection. They recognize conserved pathogen structures and myriad alarmins released by host cells in response to microbial components, cytokines or cellular stress, thus triggering a robust proinflammatory response, which is crucial in H. pylori-induced gastric carcinogenesis. In this review, we intend to highlight the main pattern recognition receptors involved in the recognition and host response to H. pylori, as well as the main structures recognized and the subsequent inflammatory response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ileana Gonzalez
- Biomedical Research Labs, Medicine Faculty, Catholic University of Maule, Talca, 3460000, Chile
| | - Paulina Araya
- Biomedical Research Labs, Medicine Faculty, Catholic University of Maule, Talca, 3460000, Chile
| | - Ivan Schneider
- Biomedical Research Labs, Medicine Faculty, Catholic University of Maule, Talca, 3460000, Chile
| | - Cristian Lindner
- Biomedical Research Labs, Medicine Faculty, Catholic University of Maule, Talca, 3460000, Chile
| | - Armando Rojas
- Biomedical Research Labs, Medicine Faculty, Catholic University of Maule, Talca, 3460000, Chile
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10
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Interplay and cooperation of Helicobacter pylori and gut microbiota in gastric carcinogenesis. BMC Microbiol 2021; 21:258. [PMID: 34556055 PMCID: PMC8461988 DOI: 10.1186/s12866-021-02315-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2021] [Accepted: 09/07/2021] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Chronic Helicobacter pylori infection is a critical risk factor for gastric cancer (GC). However, only 1–3 % of people with H. pylori develop GC. In gastric carcinogenesis, non-H. pylori bacteria in the stomach might interact with H. pylori. Bacterial dysbiosis in the stomach can strengthen gastric neoplasia development via generating tumor-promoting metabolites, DNA damaging, suppressing antitumor immunity, and activating oncogenic signaling pathways. Other bacterial species may generate short-chain fatty acids like butyrate that may inhibit carcinogenesis and inflammation in the human stomach. The present article aimed at providing a comprehensive overview of the effects of gut microbiota and H. pylori on the development of GC. Next, the potential mechanisms of intestinal microbiota were discussed in gastric carcinogenesis. We also disserted the complicated interactions between H. pylori, intestinal microbiota, and host in gastric carcinogenesis, thus helping us to design new strategies for preventing, diagnosing, and treating GC.
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11
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Kouzu K, Tsujimoto H, Kishi Y, Ueno H, Shinomiya N. Role of Microbial Infection-Induced Inflammation in the Development of Gastrointestinal Cancers. MEDICINES 2021; 8:medicines8080045. [PMID: 34436224 PMCID: PMC8400127 DOI: 10.3390/medicines8080045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2021] [Revised: 08/05/2021] [Accepted: 08/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
There has been increasing evidence that a local inflammatory response stimulates tumor cells to acquire metastatic potential, and the concept of inflammatory oncotaxis has been spreading in recent years. However, the interaction between microbial inflammation and the development of gastrointestinal cancer is still unclear. This review summarizes the present knowledge on the role of microbial inflammation in the development of gastrointestinal cancers from the perspective of molecular biological findings. Chronic inflammation caused by bacterial infection is known to induce cancers as exemplified by Helicobacter pylori, which is associated with the development of gastric cancer via the activation of the TLR4 pathway by bacterial lipopolysaccharide followed by cancer growth through CagA-MET signaling. In addition, the development of inflammatory bowel diseases has been known to become a risk factor for colorectal cancers, where inflammation caused by certain bacterial infections plays a key role. It is also known that the cancer microenvironment is associated with cancer growth. Moreover, infectious complication after surgery for gastrointestinal cancers may promote tumor progression via the stimulation of pathogen-associated molecular patterns and various inflammatory mediators secreted by immunocytes. Further research on the link between microbial inflammation and cancer progression is needed to drive a paradigm shift in cancer treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keita Kouzu
- Department of Surgery, National Defense Medical College, Saitama 359-0042, Japan; (K.K.); (Y.K.); (H.U.)
| | - Hironori Tsujimoto
- Department of Surgery, National Defense Medical College, Saitama 359-0042, Japan; (K.K.); (Y.K.); (H.U.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +81-4-2995-1637
| | - Yoji Kishi
- Department of Surgery, National Defense Medical College, Saitama 359-0042, Japan; (K.K.); (Y.K.); (H.U.)
| | - Hideki Ueno
- Department of Surgery, National Defense Medical College, Saitama 359-0042, Japan; (K.K.); (Y.K.); (H.U.)
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12
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Gastric Microenvironment-A Partnership between Innate Immunity and Gastric Microbiota Tricks Helicobacter pylori. J Clin Med 2021; 10:jcm10153258. [PMID: 34362042 PMCID: PMC8347153 DOI: 10.3390/jcm10153258] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2021] [Revised: 07/17/2021] [Accepted: 07/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) carcinogenicity depends on three major factors: bacterial virulence constituents, environmental factors and host's genetic susceptibility. The relationship between microenvironmental factors and H. pylori virulence factors are incontestable. H. pylori infection has a major impact on both gastric and colonic microbiota. The presence of non-H. pylori bacteria within the gastric ecosystem is particularly important since they might persistently act as an antigenic stimulus or establish a partnership with H. pylori in order to augment the subsequent inflammatory responses. The gastric ecosystem, i.e., microbiota composition in children with H. pylori infection is dominated by Streptoccocus, Neisseria, Rothia and Staphylococcus. The impairment of this ecosystem enhances growth and invasion of different pathogenic bacteria, further impairing the balance between the immune system and mucosal barrier. Moreover, altered microbiota due to H. pylori infection is involved in increasing the gastric T regulatory cells response in children. Since gastric homeostasis is defined by the partnership between commensal bacteria and host's immune system, this review is focused on how pathogen recognition through toll-like receptors (TLRs-an essential class of pathogen recognition receptors-PRRs) on the surface of macrophages and dendritic cells impact the immune response in the setting of H. pylori infection. Further studies are required for delineate precise role of bacterial community features and of immune system components.
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Quirino MG, Macedo LC, Pagnano KBB, Pagliarini-E-Silva S, Sell AM, Visentainer JEL. Toll-like receptor gene polymorphisms in patients with myeloproliferative neoplasms. Mol Biol Rep 2021; 48:4995-5001. [PMID: 34191235 DOI: 10.1007/s11033-021-06238-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2020] [Accepted: 02/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are a family of transmembrane receptors whose signaling control cellular processes of cell proliferation, survival, apoptosis, angiogenesis, remodeling, and repair of tissues. Polymorphisms in TLR genes can change the balance between pro and anti-inflammatory cytokines, modulating the risk of infection, chronic inflammation, and cancer. Although many studies have demonstrated the direct involvement of TLR signaling in the benefit of tumor cells in certain cancers, little is known about the influence of these gene polymorphisms on myeloproliferative neoplasms (MPNs). In this context, the objective of the study was to investigate a possible association between the TLR polymorphisms and the development of MPNs. 167 patients diagnosed with MPN and 222 healthy controls from the same region were evaluated. Genomic DNA was extracted and the TLR2 (rs5743708), TLR4 (rs4986790, rs4986791), TLR9 (rs5743836, rs187084) and JAK2V617F polymorphisms were genotyped by PCR-RFLP. The statistical analysis was performed by OpenEpi and SNPstat software. The JAK2V617F mutation was found in 68.32% of patients. TLR9-1486C/T CT genotype was less frequent in patients with polycythemia vera (PV) (OR 0.39, 95% CI 0.20-0.78, P = 0.025). When haplotype frequencies were analyzed, -1237T/-1486C (TLR9) was also less frequent in men (OR 0.58, 95% CI 0.36-0.94) and JAK negative men patients (OR 0.43, 95% CI 0.21-0.88). We can infer that the TLR9-1486 CT genotype could be associated with protection for PV and the TLR9-1237T/-1486C haplotype, protection for men, as well as for JAK negative men patients with MPN. There were no associations between TLR2 and TLR4 gene polymorphisms and MPN.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marília Gonçalves Quirino
- Graduate Program in Biosciences and Physiopathology of the State University of Maringá, Av. Colombo 5790, bloco T20, sala 109, Maringá, PR, CEP: 87020-900, Brazil
| | - Luciana Conci Macedo
- Graduate Program in Biosciences and Physiopathology of the State University of Maringá, Av. Colombo 5790, bloco T20, sala 109, Maringá, PR, CEP: 87020-900, Brazil
| | | | | | - Ana Maria Sell
- Graduate Program in Biosciences and Physiopathology of the State University of Maringá, Av. Colombo 5790, bloco T20, sala 109, Maringá, PR, CEP: 87020-900, Brazil
| | - Jeane Eliete Laguila Visentainer
- Graduate Program in Biosciences and Physiopathology of the State University of Maringá, Av. Colombo 5790, bloco T20, sala 109, Maringá, PR, CEP: 87020-900, Brazil.
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14
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Tsujimoto H, Kouzu K, Sugasawa H, Nomura S, Ito N, Harada M, Sugihara T, Ishibashi Y, Kishi Y, Ueno H. Impact of postoperative infectious complications on adjuvant chemotherapy administration after gastrectomy for advanced gastric cancer. Jpn J Clin Oncol 2021; 51:379-386. [PMID: 33236062 DOI: 10.1093/jjco/hyaa223] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2020] [Accepted: 10/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The aim of this study was to investigate the impact of postoperative infectious complications on adjuvant chemotherapy administration in patients with gastric cancer. METHODS A retrospective review of 308 patients who underwent curative resection for gastric cancer was performed. Patients were divided into two groups based on the presence (90 patients, 29.2%) or absence (218 patients, 70.8%) of postoperative infectious complications to analyze clinicopathological characteristics, treatment factors and survival. RESULTS Fewer patients with postoperative infectious complication received adjuvant chemotherapy compared to those without postoperative infectious complication. The proportion of patients who started treatment within 6 weeks after surgery was significantly lower in patients with postoperative infectious complication. The treatment completion rate was significantly lower in patients with postoperative infectious complication. The number of treatment cycles and relative dose intensity was significantly lower in patients with postoperative infectious complication. In univariate analysis, only postoperative infectious complication was significantly associated with continuation of adjuvant chemotherapy. Multivariate analysis demonstrated tumor depth, nodal involvement, postoperative infectious complication and adjuvant chemotherapy were significantly associated with overall survival. CONCLUSION Postoperative infectious complications are significantly associated with the delay of adjuvant chemotherapy and predict adverse clinical outcome in patients with gastric cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hironori Tsujimoto
- Department of Surgery, National Defense Medical College, 3-2 Namiki, Tokorozawa, Japan
| | - Keita Kouzu
- Department of Surgery, National Defense Medical College, 3-2 Namiki, Tokorozawa, Japan
| | - Hidekazu Sugasawa
- Department of Surgery, National Defense Medical College, 3-2 Namiki, Tokorozawa, Japan
| | - Shinsuke Nomura
- Department of Surgery, National Defense Medical College, 3-2 Namiki, Tokorozawa, Japan
| | - Nozomi Ito
- Department of Surgery, National Defense Medical College, 3-2 Namiki, Tokorozawa, Japan
| | - Manabu Harada
- Department of Surgery, National Defense Medical College, 3-2 Namiki, Tokorozawa, Japan
| | - Takao Sugihara
- Department of Surgery, National Defense Medical College, 3-2 Namiki, Tokorozawa, Japan
| | - Yusuke Ishibashi
- Department of Surgery, National Defense Medical College, 3-2 Namiki, Tokorozawa, Japan
| | - Yoji Kishi
- Department of Surgery, National Defense Medical College, 3-2 Namiki, Tokorozawa, Japan
| | - Hideki Ueno
- Department of Surgery, National Defense Medical College, 3-2 Namiki, Tokorozawa, Japan
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15
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Tsujimoto H, Kobayashi M, Sugasawa H, Ono S, Kishi Y, Ueno H. Potential mechanisms of tumor progression associated with postoperative infectious complications. Cancer Metastasis Rev 2021; 40:285-296. [PMID: 33389285 DOI: 10.1007/s10555-020-09945-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2020] [Accepted: 11/24/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
There is increasing evidence that postoperative infectious complications (PICs) are associated with poor prognosis after potentially curative surgery. However, the role that PICs play in tumor development remains unclear. In this article, we reviewed the literature for novel insights on the mechanisms of cancer progression associated with PICs. The Medline and EMBASE databases were searched for publications regarding the role of suppression of antitumor immunity by PIC in tumor progression and selected 916 manuscripts were selected for this review. In addition, a summary of the authors' own experimental data from this field was set in the context of current knowledge regarding cancer progression under septic conditions. Initially, sepsis/microbial infection dramatically activates the systemic immune system with increases in pro-inflammatory mediators, which results in the development of systemic inflammatory response syndrome; however, when sepsis persists in septic patients, a shift toward an anti-inflammatory immunosuppressive state, characterized by macrophage deactivation, reduced antigen presentation, T cell anergy, and a shift in the T helper cell pattern to a predominantly TH2-type response, occurs. Thus, various cytokine reactions and the immune status dynamically change during microbial infection, including PIC. We proposed three possible mechanisms for the tumor progression associated with PIC: first, a mechanism in which microbes and/or microbial PAMPs may be directly involved in cancer growth; second, a mechanism in which factors released from immunocompetent cells during infections may affect tumor progression; and third, a mechanism in which factors suppress host tumor immunity during infections, which may result in tumor progression. A more detailed understanding by surgeons of the immunological features in cancer patients with PIC can subsequently open new avenues for improving unfavorable long-term oncological outcomes associated with PICs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hironori Tsujimoto
- Department of Surgery, National Defense Medical College, 3-2 Namiki, Tokorozawa, 359-8513, Japan.
| | - Minako Kobayashi
- Department of Surgery, National Defense Medical College, 3-2 Namiki, Tokorozawa, 359-8513, Japan
| | - Hidekazu Sugasawa
- Department of Surgery, National Defense Medical College, 3-2 Namiki, Tokorozawa, 359-8513, Japan
| | - Satoshi Ono
- Department of Surgery, National Defense Medical College, 3-2 Namiki, Tokorozawa, 359-8513, Japan
| | - Yoji Kishi
- Department of Surgery, National Defense Medical College, 3-2 Namiki, Tokorozawa, 359-8513, Japan
| | - Hideki Ueno
- Department of Surgery, National Defense Medical College, 3-2 Namiki, Tokorozawa, 359-8513, Japan
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16
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Abstract
Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) represents one of the most widespread bacterial infections globally. Infection causes chronic gastritis and increases the risk of peptic ulcer disease, gastric adenocarcinoma, and mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue lymphoma. The pioneering discovery of H. pylori by Marshall and Warren in the early 1980s has initiated fervent research into H. pylori as a pathogen ever since. This chapter aims to provide an overview of our understanding of H. pylori infection and its management, with a focus on current options for diagnosis, the challenges associated with H. pylori eradication, and the need for alternative therapeutic strategies based on furthering our understanding of host: H. pylori interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Sinéad M Smith
- Department of Clinical Medicine, School of Medicine, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland.
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17
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Baj J, Forma A, Sitarz M, Portincasa P, Garruti G, Krasowska D, Maciejewski R. Helicobacter pylori Virulence Factors-Mechanisms of Bacterial Pathogenicity in the Gastric Microenvironment. Cells 2020; 10:E27. [PMID: 33375694 PMCID: PMC7824444 DOI: 10.3390/cells10010027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 145] [Impact Index Per Article: 36.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2020] [Revised: 12/18/2020] [Accepted: 12/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Gastric cancer constitutes one of the most prevalent malignancies in both sexes; it is currently the fourth major cause of cancer-related deaths worldwide. The pathogenesis of gastric cancer is associated with the interaction between genetic and environmental factors, among which infection by Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) is of major importance. The invasion, survival, colonization, and stimulation of further inflammation within the gastric mucosa are possible due to several evasive mechanisms induced by the virulence factors that are expressed by the bacterium. The knowledge concerning the mechanisms of H. pylori pathogenicity is crucial to ameliorate eradication strategies preventing the possible induction of carcinogenesis. This review highlights the current state of knowledge and the most recent findings regarding H. pylori virulence factors and their relationship with gastric premalignant lesions and further carcinogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacek Baj
- Department of Anatomy, Medical University of Lublin, 20-400 Lublin, Poland;
| | - Alicja Forma
- Chair and Department of Forensic Medicine, Medical University of Lublin, 20-090 Lublin, Poland;
| | - Monika Sitarz
- Department of Conservative Dentistry with Endodontics, Medical University of Lublin, 20-090 Lublin, Poland;
| | - Piero Portincasa
- Clinica Medica “Augusto Murri”, Department of Biomedical Sciences and Human Oncology, University of Bari “Aldo Moro”, 70124 Bari, Italy;
| | - Gabriella Garruti
- Section of Endocrinology, Department of Emergency and Organ Transplantations, University of Bari “Aldo Moro” Medical School, Piazza G. Cesare 11, 70124 Bari, Italy;
| | - Danuta Krasowska
- Department of Dermatology, Venerology and Paediatric Dermatology of Medical University of Lublin, 20-081 Lublin, Poland;
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18
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Ketpueak T, Thiennimitr P, Apaijai N, Chattipakorn SC, Chattipakorn N. Association of Chronic Opisthorchis Infestation and Microbiota Alteration on Tumorigenesis in Cholangiocarcinoma. Clin Transl Gastroenterol 2020; 12:e00292. [PMID: 33464733 PMCID: PMC8345922 DOI: 10.14309/ctg.0000000000000292] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2020] [Accepted: 11/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Cholangiocarcinoma (CCA) is a common hepatobiliary cancer in East and Southeast Asia. The data of microbiota contribution in CCA are still unclear. Current available reports have demonstrated that an Opisthorchis viverrini (OV) infection leads to dysbiosis in the bile duct. An increase in the commensal bacteria Helicobacter spp. in OV-infected CCA patients is associated with bile duct inflammation, severity of bile duct fibrosis, and cholangiocyte proliferation. In addition, secondary bile acids, major microbial metabolites, can mediate cholangiocyte inflammation and proliferation in the liver. A range of samples from CCA patients (stool, bile, and tumor) showed different degrees of dysbiosis. The evidence from these samples suggests that OV infection is associated with alterations in microbiota and could potentially have a role in CCA. In this comprehensive review, reports from in vitro, in vivo, and clinical studies that demonstrate possible links between OV infection, microbiota, and CCA pathogenesis are summarized and discussed. Understanding these associations may pave ways for novel potential adjunct intervention in gut microbiota in CCA patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thanika Ketpueak
- Division of Oncology, Department of Internal Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Parameth Thiennimitr
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Cardiac Electrophysiology Research and Training Center, Faculty of Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Center of Excellence in Cardiac Electrophysiology Research, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Nattayaporn Apaijai
- Cardiac Electrophysiology Research and Training Center, Faculty of Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Center of Excellence in Cardiac Electrophysiology Research, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Siriporn C. Chattipakorn
- Cardiac Electrophysiology Research and Training Center, Faculty of Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Center of Excellence in Cardiac Electrophysiology Research, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Nipon Chattipakorn
- Cardiac Electrophysiology Research and Training Center, Faculty of Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Center of Excellence in Cardiac Electrophysiology Research, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Cardiac Electrophysiology Unit, Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
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19
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Interactions between tumor-derived proteins and Toll-like receptors. Exp Mol Med 2020; 52:1926-1935. [PMID: 33299138 PMCID: PMC8080774 DOI: 10.1038/s12276-020-00540-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2020] [Revised: 10/20/2020] [Accepted: 11/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) are danger signals (or alarmins) alerting immune cells through pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) to begin defense activity. Moreover, DAMPs are host biomolecules that can initiate a noninflammatory response to infection, and pathogen-associated molecular pattern (PAMPs) perpetuate the inflammatory response to infection. Many DAMPs are proteins that have defined intracellular functions and are released from dying cells after tissue injury or chemo-/radiotherapy. In the tumor microenvironment, DAMPs can be ligands for Toll-like receptors (TLRs) expressed on immune cells and induce cytokine production and T-cell activation. Moreover, DAMPs released from tumor cells can directly activate tumor-expressed TLRs that induce chemoresistance, migration, invasion, and metastasis. Furthermore, DAMP-induced chronic inflammation in the tumor microenvironment causes an increase in immunosuppressive populations, such as M2 macrophages, myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs), and regulatory T cells (Tregs). Therefore, regulation of DAMP proteins can reduce excessive inflammation to create an immunogenic tumor microenvironment. Here, we review tumor-derived DAMP proteins as ligands of TLRs and discuss their association with immune cells, tumors, and the composition of the tumor microenvironment. Tumor cells killed by radiotherapy or chemotherapy release signaling molecules that stimulate both immune response and tumor aggressiveness; regulating these molecules could improve treatment efficacy. Tae Heung Kang, Yeong-Min Park, and co-workers at Konkuk University, Seoul, South Korea, have reviewed the role of damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) in immunity and cancer. These signaling molecules act as danger signals, activating immune cells by binding to specific receptors. However, tumor cells have the same receptors, and DAMPs binding triggers chemoresistance and increases invasiveness. The researchers report that although DAMPs can trigger a helpful immune response, they can also cause chronic inflammation, which in turn promotes an immune suppression response, allowing tumors to escape immune detection. Improving our understanding of the functions of different DAMPs could improve our ability to boost the immune response and decrease tumor aggressiveness.
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20
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Helicobacter pylori-Mediated Immunity and Signaling Transduction in Gastric Cancer. J Clin Med 2020; 9:jcm9113699. [PMID: 33217986 PMCID: PMC7698755 DOI: 10.3390/jcm9113699] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2020] [Revised: 11/07/2020] [Accepted: 11/12/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Helicobacter pylori infection is a leading cause of gastric cancer, which is the second-most common cancer-related death in the world. The chronic inflammatory environment in the gastric mucosal epithelia during H. pylori infection stimulates intracellular signaling pathways, namely inflammatory signals, which may lead to the promotion and progression of cancer cells. We herein report two important signal transduction pathways, the LPS-TLR4 and CagA-MET pathways. Upon H. pylori stimulation, lipopolysaccharide (LPS) binds to toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) mainly on macrophages and gastric epithelial cells. This induces an inflammatory response in the gastric epithelia to upregulate transcription factors, such as NF-κB, AP-1, and IRFs, all of which contribute to the initiation and progression of gastric cancer cells. Compared with other bacterial LPSs, H. pylori LPS has a unique function of inhibiting the mononuclear cell (MNC)-based production of IL-12 and IFN-γ. While this mechanism reduces the degree of inflammatory reaction of immune cells, it also promotes the survival of gastric cancer cells. The HGF/SF-MET signaling plays a major role in promoting cellular proliferation, motility, migration, survival, and angiogenesis, all of which are essential factors for cancer progression. H. pylori infection may facilitate MET downstream signaling in gastric cancer cells through its CagA protein via phosphorylation-dependent and/or phosphorylation-independent pathways. Other signaling pathways involved in H. pylori infection include EGFR, FAK, and Wnt/β-Catenin. These pathways function in the inflammatory process of gastric epithelial mucosa, as well as the progression of gastric cancer cells. Thus, H. pylori infection-mediated chronic inflammation plays an important role in the development and progression of gastric cancer.
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21
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Xue W, Trital A, Shen J, Wang L, Chen S. Zwitterionic Polypeptide-Based Nanodrug Augments pH-Triggered Tumor Targeting via Prolonging Circulation Time and Accelerating Cellular Internalization. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2020; 12:46639-46652. [PMID: 32893614 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.0c11747] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
To augment the antitumor efficacy and minimize the significant side effects of chemotherapeutic drugs on health organs, a novel albumin-mimicking nanodrug, which is based on zwitterionic poly(glutamatyl lysine-co-cysteine) peptides scaffold, is developed to enhance pH-triggered tumor targeting via prolonging circulation time and accelerating cellular internalization. Results showed that the internalization of the nanodrug by MCF-7 cells is much faster than that by Doxil and even comparable to that by free doxorubicin (Dox) at tumor microenvironmental pH 6.7, whereas the internalization of the nanodrug is only 27.4 ± 7.6% of the Doxil by RAW-264.7 cells. Moreover, the significantly prolonged circulation time of the "stealthy" nanodrug was also comparable to that of the long circulating Doxil. As a result, the accumulation of the nanodrug in the tumor is much higher than that in the liver and kidney before the circulation half-life, which is significantly different from most other nanodrugs accumulated in the liver and kidney in this time scale. The tumor inhibition rate of the nanodrug was much higher than that of Doxil (93.2 ± 3.0% vs 54.2 ± 6.5%) after 18 day treatment, while the average bodyweight of the mice treated by the nanodrug was 26.9 ± 6.7% higher than that by Doxil. This indicated that the synergetic effect of long circulation time and fast cellular internalization of the nanodrug can significantly augment tumor targeting. This method might rejuvenate the traditional chemotherapeutic treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weili Xue
- Key Laboratory of Biomass Chemical Engineering of Ministry of Education, College of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310027, China
| | - Ashish Trital
- Key Laboratory of Biomass Chemical Engineering of Ministry of Education, College of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310027, China
| | - Jian Shen
- Jiangsu Collaborative Innovation Center of Biomedical Functional Materials, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Biomedical Materials, College of Chemistry and Materials Science, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing 210046, China
| | - Longgang Wang
- Key Laboratory of Applied Chemistry, College of Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Yanshan University, Qinhuangdao, Hebei 066004, China
| | - Shengfu Chen
- Key Laboratory of Biomass Chemical Engineering of Ministry of Education, College of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310027, China
- Jiangsu Collaborative Innovation Center of Biomedical Functional Materials, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Biomedical Materials, College of Chemistry and Materials Science, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing 210046, China
- Key Laboratory of Applied Chemistry, College of Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Yanshan University, Qinhuangdao, Hebei 066004, China
- Institute of Zhejiang University-Quzhou, 78 Jiuhua Boulevard North, Quzhou, Zhejiang 324000, China
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22
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Chen Z, Chen H, Yu L, Xin H, Kong J, Bai Y, Zeng W, Zhang J, Wu Q, Fan H. Bioinformatic identification of key pathways, hub genes, and microbiota for therapeutic intervention in Helicobacter pylori infection. J Cell Physiol 2020; 236:1158-1183. [PMID: 32710499 DOI: 10.1002/jcp.29925] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2020] [Revised: 06/08/2020] [Accepted: 07/01/2020] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
The pathogenic mechanisms of Helicobacter pylori infection remain to be defined, and potential interventional microbiota are just beginning to be identified. In this study, gene-set enrichment analysis (GSEA) was used to integrate three H. pylori infection microarray data sets from the gene expression omnibus database and identified ten hallmark gene sets and 35 Kyoto encyclopedia of genes and genomes (KEGG) pathways that differed between healthy and Helicobacter pylori-infected individuals. Weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA) performed on two of the data sets identified three key gene coexpression modules. These modules contained 54 enriched KEGG pathways, 25 of which overlapped with the GSEA analysis, suggesting potentially important roles in H. pylori-infection. We selected 116 hub genes from the three key modules for in vitro validation at the transcriptional level using H. pylori Sydney Strain 1 and verified the upregulation of 80. WGCNA of the microbiomes based on 20 mucosal samples and a sequence read archive data set revealed four microbiota modules correlated with H. pylori infection. The negatively correlated modules contained 11 microbiome families. These findings provide new insight into the pathogenesis of H. pylori infection and systematically identify 25 key pathways, 80 upregulated hub genes, and 11 families of candidate interventional microbiota for further research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhenhui Chen
- Department of Microbiology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Tropical Disease Research, School of Public Health, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Huijuan Chen
- Department of Microbiology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Tropical Disease Research, School of Public Health, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Lu Yu
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Hongjie Xin
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Gastroenterology, Department of Gastroenterology, Institute of Gastroenterology of Guangdong Province, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jingjing Kong
- Department of Microbiology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Tropical Disease Research, School of Public Health, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yang Bai
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Gastroenterology, Department of Gastroenterology, Institute of Gastroenterology of Guangdong Province, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Weisen Zeng
- Department of Cell Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jumei Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Applied Microbiology Southern China, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Microbiology Culture Collection and Application, Guangdong Open Laboratory of Applied Microbiology, Guangdong Institute of Microbiology, Guangdong Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, China
| | - Qingping Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Applied Microbiology Southern China, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Microbiology Culture Collection and Application, Guangdong Open Laboratory of Applied Microbiology, Guangdong Institute of Microbiology, Guangdong Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, China
| | - Hongying Fan
- Department of Microbiology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Tropical Disease Research, School of Public Health, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
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23
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Tsujimoto H, Horiguchi H, Matsumoto Y, Takahata R, Shinomiya N, Yamori T, Miyazaki H, Ono S, Saitoh D, Kishi Y, Ueno H. A Potential Mechanism of Tumor Progression during Systemic Infections Via the Hepatocyte Growth Factor (HGF)/c-Met Signaling Pathway. J Clin Med 2020; 9:jcm9072074. [PMID: 32630328 PMCID: PMC7408644 DOI: 10.3390/jcm9072074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2020] [Revised: 06/22/2020] [Accepted: 06/29/2020] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Background: Increasing evidence has demonstrated that postoperative infectious complications (PICs) after digestive surgery are significantly associated with negative long-term outcomes; however, precise mechanisms of how PICs affect the poor long-term survival remain unclear. Here, we focused on the hepatocyte growth factor (HGF)/c-Met signaling pathway as one of those mechanisms. Methods: In the clinical setting, serum HGF levels were measured in the patients with sepsis and those with PICs after undergoing esophagectomy. Using a liver metastasis mouse model with cecal ligation and puncture (CLP), expressions of HGF and the roles of the HGF/c-Met pathway in the progression of tumor cells were examined. Results: Serum HGF levels were very high in the patients with intra-abdominal infection on postoperative days (PODs) 1, 3, and 5; similarly, compared to the patients without PICs, those with PICs had significantly higher serum HGF levels on 1, 3, and 5 days after esophagectomy. The patients with PICs showed poorer overall survival than those without PICs, and the patients with high serum HGF levels on POD 3 showed poorer prognosis than those with low HGF levels. Similarly, at 24 and 72 h after operation, serum levels of HGF in CLP mice were significantly higher than those in sham-operated mice. Intraperitoneal injection of mouse recombinant HGF significantly promoted liver metastases in sham-operated mice on 14 days after surgery. Knocking down c-Met expression on NL17 tumor cells by RNAi technology significantly inhibited the promotion of CLP-induced liver metastases. Conclusions: Infections after surgery increased serum HGF levels in the clinical as well as experimental settings. Induction of high serum HGF levels by CLP promoted liver metastases in a murine liver metastasis model, suggesting the involvement of the HGF/c-Met signaling pathway in tumor promotion mechanisms. Thus, targeting the HGF/c-Met signaling pathway may be a promising approach for malignant tumors, particularly in the patients with PICs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hironori Tsujimoto
- Department of Surgery, National Defense Medical College, 3-2 Namiki, Tokorozawa 359-8513, Japan; (H.H.); (Y.M.); (R.T.); (S.O.); (Y.K.); (H.U.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +81-4-2995-1637
| | - Hiroyuki Horiguchi
- Department of Surgery, National Defense Medical College, 3-2 Namiki, Tokorozawa 359-8513, Japan; (H.H.); (Y.M.); (R.T.); (S.O.); (Y.K.); (H.U.)
| | - Yusuke Matsumoto
- Department of Surgery, National Defense Medical College, 3-2 Namiki, Tokorozawa 359-8513, Japan; (H.H.); (Y.M.); (R.T.); (S.O.); (Y.K.); (H.U.)
| | - Risa Takahata
- Department of Surgery, National Defense Medical College, 3-2 Namiki, Tokorozawa 359-8513, Japan; (H.H.); (Y.M.); (R.T.); (S.O.); (Y.K.); (H.U.)
| | - Nariyoshi Shinomiya
- Department of Integrative Physiology and Bio-Nano Medicine, National Defense Medical College, 3-2 Namiki, Tokorozawa 359-8513, Japan;
| | - Takao Yamori
- Pharmaceuticals and Medical Devices Agency, 3-3-2 Kasumigaseki, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 100-0013, Japan;
| | - Hiromi Miyazaki
- Division of Traumatology, National Defense Medical College Research Institute, 3-2 Namiki, Tokorozawa 359-8513, Japan; (H.M.); (D.S.)
| | - Satoshi Ono
- Department of Surgery, National Defense Medical College, 3-2 Namiki, Tokorozawa 359-8513, Japan; (H.H.); (Y.M.); (R.T.); (S.O.); (Y.K.); (H.U.)
| | - Daizoh Saitoh
- Division of Traumatology, National Defense Medical College Research Institute, 3-2 Namiki, Tokorozawa 359-8513, Japan; (H.M.); (D.S.)
| | - Yoji Kishi
- Department of Surgery, National Defense Medical College, 3-2 Namiki, Tokorozawa 359-8513, Japan; (H.H.); (Y.M.); (R.T.); (S.O.); (Y.K.); (H.U.)
| | - Hideki Ueno
- Department of Surgery, National Defense Medical College, 3-2 Namiki, Tokorozawa 359-8513, Japan; (H.H.); (Y.M.); (R.T.); (S.O.); (Y.K.); (H.U.)
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24
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Urban-Wojciuk Z, Khan MM, Oyler BL, Fåhraeus R, Marek-Trzonkowska N, Nita-Lazar A, Hupp TR, Goodlett DR. The Role of TLRs in Anti-cancer Immunity and Tumor Rejection. Front Immunol 2019; 10:2388. [PMID: 31695691 PMCID: PMC6817561 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.02388] [Citation(s) in RCA: 191] [Impact Index Per Article: 38.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2019] [Accepted: 09/23/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
In recent years, a lot of scientific interest has focused on cancer immunotherapy. Although chronic inflammation has been described as one of the hallmarks of cancer, acute inflammation can actually trigger the immune system to fight diseases, including cancer. Toll-like receptor (TLR) ligands have long been used as adjuvants for traditional vaccines and it seems they may also play a role enhancing efficiency of tumor immunotherapy. The aim of this perspective is to discuss the effects of TLR stimulation in cancer, expression of various TLRs in different types of tumors, and finally the role of TLRs in anti-cancer immunity and tumor rejection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zuzanna Urban-Wojciuk
- International Centre for Cancer Vaccine Science (ICCVS), University of Gdaǹsk, Gdaǹsk, Poland
| | - Mohd M Khan
- Laboratory of Immune System Biology (LISB), National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID), National Institutes of Health (NIH), Bethesda, MD, United States.,University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Benjamin L Oyler
- University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Robin Fåhraeus
- International Centre for Cancer Vaccine Science (ICCVS), University of Gdaǹsk, Gdaǹsk, Poland.,Department of Medical Biosciences, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden.,Université Paris 7, INSERM, UMR 1162, Paris, France.,Regional Centre for Applied Molecular Oncology, Masaryk Memorial Cancer Institute, Brno, Czechia
| | - Natalia Marek-Trzonkowska
- International Centre for Cancer Vaccine Science (ICCVS), University of Gdaǹsk, Gdaǹsk, Poland.,Laboratory of Immunoregulation and Cellular Therapies, Department of Family Medicine, Medical University of Gdaǹsk, Gdaǹsk, Poland
| | - Aleksandra Nita-Lazar
- Laboratory of Immune System Biology (LISB), National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID), National Institutes of Health (NIH), Bethesda, MD, United States
| | - Ted R Hupp
- International Centre for Cancer Vaccine Science (ICCVS), University of Gdaǹsk, Gdaǹsk, Poland.,Regional Centre for Applied Molecular Oncology, Masaryk Memorial Cancer Institute, Brno, Czechia.,Cell Signaling Unit, Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - David R Goodlett
- International Centre for Cancer Vaccine Science (ICCVS), University of Gdaǹsk, Gdaǹsk, Poland.,Department of Microbial Pathogenesis, University of Maryland School of Dentistry, Baltimore, MD, United States
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25
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Li H, Xu CX, Gong RJ, Chi JS, Liu P, Liu XM. How does Helicobacter pylori cause gastric cancer through connexins: An opinion review. World J Gastroenterol 2019; 25:5220-5232. [PMID: 31558869 PMCID: PMC6761244 DOI: 10.3748/wjg.v25.i35.5220] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2019] [Revised: 08/12/2019] [Accepted: 08/19/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) is a Gram-negative bacterium with a number of virulence factors, such as cytotoxin-associated gene A, vacuolating cytotoxin A, its pathogenicity island, and lipopolysaccharide, which cause gastrointestinal diseases. Connexins function in gap junctional homeostasis, and their downregulation is closely related to gastric carcinogenesis. Investigations into H. pylori infection and the fine-tuning of connexins in cells or tissues have been reported in previous studies. Therefore, in this review, the potential mechanisms of H. pylori-induced gastric cancer through connexins are summarized in detail.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huan Li
- Department of Gastroenterology, the Third Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha 410013, Hunan Province, China
| | - Can-Xia Xu
- Department of Gastroenterology, the Third Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha 410013, Hunan Province, China
| | - Ren-Jie Gong
- Department of Gastroenterology, the Third Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha 410013, Hunan Province, China
| | - Jing-Shu Chi
- Department of Gastroenterology, the Third Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha 410013, Hunan Province, China
| | - Peng Liu
- Department of Gastroenterology, the Third Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha 410013, Hunan Province, China
| | - Xiao-Ming Liu
- Department of Gastroenterology, the Third Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha 410013, Hunan Province, China
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Li H, Xu CX, Gong RJ, Chi JS, Liu P, Liu XM. How does Helicobacter pyloricause gastric cancer through connexins: An opinion review. World J Gastroenterol 2019. [DOI: 10.3748/wjg.v25.i355220] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
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Toll-Like Receptors and Relevant Emerging Therapeutics with Reference to Delivery Methods. Pharmaceutics 2019; 11:pharmaceutics11090441. [PMID: 31480568 PMCID: PMC6781272 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics11090441] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2019] [Revised: 08/24/2019] [Accepted: 08/28/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The built-in innate immunity in the human body combats various diseases and their causative agents. One of the components of this system is Toll-like receptors (TLRs), which recognize structurally conserved molecules derived from microbes and/or endogenous molecules. Nonetheless, under certain conditions, these TLRs become hypofunctional or hyperfunctional, thus leading to a disease-like condition because their normal activity is compromised. In this regard, various small-molecule drugs and recombinant therapeutic proteins have been developed to treat the relevant diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis, psoriatic arthritis, Crohn’s disease, systemic lupus erythematosus, and allergy. Some drugs for these diseases have been clinically approved; however, their efficacy can be enhanced by conventional or targeted drug delivery systems. Certain delivery vehicles such as liposomes, hydrogels, nanoparticles, dendrimers, or cyclodextrins can be employed to enhance the targeted drug delivery. This review summarizes the TLR signaling pathway, associated diseases and their treatments, and the ways to efficiently deliver the drugs to a target site.
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Inflammatory response and recurrence after minimally invasive esophagectomy. Langenbecks Arch Surg 2019; 404:761-769. [DOI: 10.1007/s00423-019-01818-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2019] [Accepted: 08/19/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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The Relationship between Toll-like Receptors and Helicobacter pylori-Related Gastropathies: Still a Controversial Topic. J Immunol Res 2019; 2019:8197048. [PMID: 30863783 PMCID: PMC6378784 DOI: 10.1155/2019/8197048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2018] [Accepted: 01/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Innate immunity represents the first barrier against bacterial invasion. Toll-like receptors (TLRs) belong to the large family of pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), and their activation leads to the induction of inflammatory cytokines, chemokines, antigen-presenting molecules, and costimulatory molecules. Recent studies have focused on identifying the association between TLRs and Helicobacter pylori- (H. pylori-) related diseases. Therefore, this minireview focuses on assessing the role of these TLRs in the development of H. pylori-related gastropathies. Both TLR2 and TLR were found to be involved in H. pylori LPS recognition, with contradictory results most likely due to both the inability to obtain pure LPS in experimental studies and the heterogeneity of the bacterial LPS. In addition, TLR2 was found to be the most extensively expressed gene among all the TLRs in gastric tumors. High levels of TLR4 were also associated with a higher risk of gastric cancer. TLR5 was initially associated with the recognition of H. pylori flagellin, but it seems that this bacterium has developed mechanisms to escape this recognition representing an important factor involved in the persistence of this infection and subsequent carcinogenesis. TLR9, the only TLR with both anti- and proinflammatory roles, was involved in the recognition of H. pylori DNA. The dichotomous role of TLR9, promoting or suppressing the infection, depends on the gastric environment. Recently, TLR7 and TLR8 were shown to recognize purified H. pylori RNA, thereby inducing proinflammatory cytokines. TLR1 and TLR10 gene polymorphisms were associated with a higher risk for gastric cancer in H. pylori-infected individuals. Different gene polymorphisms of these TLRs were found to be associated with gastric cancer depending mostly on ethnicity. Further studies are required in order to develop preventive and therapeutic strategies against H. pylori infections based on the functions of TLRs.
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Wang YW, Zhang CH, He X. Minor allele of rs1057317 polymorphism in TLR4 is associated with increased risk of Helicobacter pylori -induced gastric cancer. J Cell Biochem 2019; 120:1969-1978. [PMID: 30242897 DOI: 10.1002/jcb.27493] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2018] [Accepted: 07/25/2018] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Helicobacter pylori (HP) plays a significant role in the carcinogenesis of gastric cancer (GC), the second leading cause of cancer-related death worldwide. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of rs1057317 polymorphism on the interaction between microRNA-034a (miR-034a) and toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), and their involvement in the HP-associated GC. METHODS Computation analyses, real-time polymerase chain reaction, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide, and luciferase assays were performed to identify potential miRNAs involved in the carcinogenesis of HP-induced GC. Subsequently, the effect of miR-34a and recombinant TNFα-interacting protein α (rTip-α) on the expression of TLR4, interleukin (IL)-6, and tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α) was measured. RESULTS Three hundred and twelve HP-positive GC patients (HP+ GC) and 380 HP-negative GC patients (HP- GC) were enrolled into this study. It was found that, in HP-positive patient, the AA genotype of the rs1057317 polymorphism was closely associated with the risk of GC (95% confidence interval, 1.12 to 2.70; odds ratio, 1.74; P = 0.0129). Furthermore, between the HP+ GC and HP- GC groups, miR-34a was the only miRNA showing a significantly different expression. Subsequently, TLR4 was identified as a target gene of miR-34a. Interestingly, miR-34a evidently reduced the expression of TLR4 3'-untranslated region (3'-UTR) containing the C allele of the rs1057317 polymorphism, but the TLR4 3'-UTR containing the A allele in the rs1057317 was not affected by miR-34a. In addition, the expression of IL-6 and TNF-α was significantly downregulated by miR-34a, but increased by rTip-α. Both miR-34a and rTip-α could enhance the viability of cells, although the effect of rTip-α was stronger. CONCLUSION The data of this study suggested that the rs1057317 polymorphism in the miR-34a binding site of TLR4 may predict the risk of HP-induced GC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi-Wei Wang
- General Surgery Department, First Center Clinical College of Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin, China
| | - Cai-Hong Zhang
- Proctology Department, Fourth Xing Yuan Hospital of Yulin, Yulin, China
| | - Xiang He
- Gastroenterology Department, Xi'an XD Group Hospital, Xi'an, China
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Nagashima H, Yamaoka Y. Importance of Toll-like Receptors in Pro-inflammatory and Anti-inflammatory Responses by Helicobacter pylori Infection. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 2019; 421:139-158. [PMID: 31123888 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-15138-6_6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Infectious diseases have been paramount among the threats to human health and survival throughout evolutionary history. Bacterial cell-surface molecules are key factors in the microorganism-host crosstalk, as they can interact with host pattern-recognition receptors (PRRs) of the gastrointestinal mucosa. The best-studied PRRs are toll-like receptors (TLRs). Because TLRs play an important key role in host defense, they have received increasing interest in the evolutionary and population genetics literature, and their variation represents a potential target of adaptive evolution. Helicobacter pylori is one of the commensal bacteria in our body and can have pathogenic properties in a subset of infected people. The history of H. pylori research indicated that humans and bacteria co-evolved during evolution. A genome-wide association study (GWAS) has opened the way for investigating the genomic evolution of bacterial pathogens during the colonization and infection of humans. Recent GWAS research emphasized the importance of TLRs, especially TLR10 during pathogenesis in H. pylori infection. We demonstrated that TLR10, whose ligand was unknown for a long time, can recognize H. pylori LPS. Our results of H. pylori research suggest that TLR10 might play an important role to also recognize other commensal bacteria. In this review, we discuss the importance of TLRs in pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory responses by H. pylori infection. Especially, we highlight the TLR10 interaction with H. pylori infection, providing new insights about TLR10 signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroyuki Nagashima
- Department of Gastroenterology, Hokkaido Cancer Center, Sapporo, Hokkaido, Japan.,Department of Environmental and Preventive Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Oita University, 1-1 Idaigaoka, Hasama-machi, Yufu-City, Oita, 879-5593, Japan
| | - Yoshio Yamaoka
- Department of Environmental and Preventive Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Oita University, 1-1 Idaigaoka, Hasama-machi, Yufu-City, Oita, 879-5593, Japan. .,Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA.
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32
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Terawaki K, Kashiwase Y, Uzu M, Nonaka M, Sawada Y, Miyano K, Higami Y, Yanagihara K, Yamamoto M, Uezono Y. Leukemia inhibitory factor via the Toll-like receptor 5 signaling pathway involves aggravation of cachexia induced by human gastric cancer-derived 85As2 cells in rats. Oncotarget 2018; 9:34748-34764. [PMID: 30410674 PMCID: PMC6205166 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.26190] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2018] [Accepted: 09/01/2018] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Cancer cachexia is highly prevalent in gastric cancer patients and characterized by decreased food consumption and body weight. We previously created a rat model of cancer cachexia using MKN45cl85 and 85As2 cells derived from human gastric cancer. The 85As2 cells induced cachexia more potently compared to MKN45cl85 cells. To clarify the mechanism underlying the difference in the cachexia-inducing ability of these cells, we conducted DNA microarray analysis, focusing on cell proliferation and the production of leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF), a cachexia-inducing factor. The plasma human LIF levels of 85As2-induced cachexic rats increased as symptoms worsened, whereas the plasma levels of MKNcl85 were low. 85As2 cells displayed more genetic changes compared to MKN45cl85 cells, which were related to Toll-like receptor (TLR) 4/5 signaling. Stimulation of both cells with TLR4 (lipopolysaccharide) or TLR5 (flagellin) agonists did not affect proliferation. However, in 82As2 cells, LIF production was significantly increased by stimulation with TLR5, which was suppressed by an inhibitor of interleukin-1 receptor-associated kinase-1/4, which are important factors in the TLR5 signaling pathway. The increase in LIF production resulting from activation of the TLR5 signaling pathway may contribute to the cachexia-inducing ability of 85As2 cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kiyoshi Terawaki
- Division of Cancer Pathophysiology, National Cancer Center Research Institute, Chuo-Ku, Tokyo 104-0045, Japan.,Tsumura Kampo Research Laboratories, Kampo Research & Development Division, Tsumura & Co., Inashiki-Gun, Ibaraki 300-1192, Japan
| | - Yohei Kashiwase
- Division of Cancer Pathophysiology, National Cancer Center Research Institute, Chuo-Ku, Tokyo 104-0045, Japan.,Laboratory of Molecular Pathology and Metabolic Disease, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tokyo University of Science, Noda, Chiba 278-8510, Japan
| | - Miaki Uzu
- Division of Cancer Pathophysiology, National Cancer Center Research Institute, Chuo-Ku, Tokyo 104-0045, Japan
| | - Miki Nonaka
- Division of Cancer Pathophysiology, National Cancer Center Research Institute, Chuo-Ku, Tokyo 104-0045, Japan
| | - Yumi Sawada
- Division of Cancer Pathophysiology, National Cancer Center Research Institute, Chuo-Ku, Tokyo 104-0045, Japan
| | - Kanako Miyano
- Division of Cancer Pathophysiology, National Cancer Center Research Institute, Chuo-Ku, Tokyo 104-0045, Japan
| | - Yoshikazu Higami
- Laboratory of Molecular Pathology and Metabolic Disease, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tokyo University of Science, Noda, Chiba 278-8510, Japan
| | - Kazuyoshi Yanagihara
- Division of Biomarker Discovery, Exploratory Oncology Research & Clinical Trial Center, National Cancer Center, Chiba 277-8577, Japan
| | - Masahiro Yamamoto
- Tsumura Kampo Research Laboratories, Kampo Research & Development Division, Tsumura & Co., Inashiki-Gun, Ibaraki 300-1192, Japan
| | - Yasuhito Uezono
- Division of Cancer Pathophysiology, National Cancer Center Research Institute, Chuo-Ku, Tokyo 104-0045, Japan.,Division of Supportive Care Research, Exploratory Oncology Research & Clinica l Trial Center, National Cancer Center, Chuo-Ku, Tokyo 104-0045, Japan.,Innovation Center for Supportive, Palliative and Phychosocial Care, National Cancer Center Hospital, Chuo-Ku, Tokyo 104-0045, Japan
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Xu L, Gong C, Li G, Wei J, Wang T, Meng W, Shi M, Wang Y. Ebselen suppresses inflammation induced by Helicobacter pylori lipopolysaccharide via the p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling pathway. Mol Med Rep 2018; 17:6847-6851. [PMID: 29488609 DOI: 10.3892/mmr.2018.8641] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2016] [Accepted: 02/23/2017] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Ebselen is a seleno-organic compound that has been demonstrated to have antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. A previous study determined that ebselen inhibits airway inflammation induced by inhalational lipopolysaccharide (LPS), however, the underlying molecular mechanism remains to be elucidated. The present study investigated the effect of ebselen on the glutathione peroxidase (GPX)‑reactive oxygen species (ROS) pathway and interleukin‑8 (IL‑8) expression induced by Helicobacter pylori LPS in gastric cancer (GC) cells. Cells were treated with 200 ng/ml H. pylori‑LPS in the presence or absence of ebselen for various durations and concentrations (µmol/l). The expression of toll‑like receptor 4 (TLR4), GPX2, GPX4, p38 mitogen‑activated protein kinase (p38 MAPK), phosphorylated‑p38 MAPK, ROS production and IL‑8 expression were detected with western blotting or ELISA. The present study revealed that TLR4 expression was upregulated; however, GPX2 and GPX4 expression was reduced following treatment with H. pylori LPS, which led to increased ROS production, subsequently altering the IL‑8 expression level in GC cells. Additionally, it was determined that ebselen prevented the reduction in GPX2/4 levels induced by H. pylori LPS, however, TLR4 expression was not affected. Ebselen may also block the expression of IL‑8 by inhibiting phosphorylation of p38 MAPK. These data suggest ebselen may inhibit ROS production triggered by H. pylori LPS treatment via GPX2/4 instead of TLR4 signaling and reduce phosphorylation of p38 MAPK, resulting in altered production of IL‑8. Ebselen may, therefore, be a potential therapeutic agent to mediate H. pylori LPS-induced cell damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ling Xu
- Department of Gastroenterology, Shanghai Tongren Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200336, P.R. China
| | - Changguo Gong
- Department of Gastroenterology, Shanghai Tongren Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200336, P.R. China
| | - Guangming Li
- Department of Gastroenterology, Xinhua Hospital, Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200092, P.R. China
| | - Jue Wei
- Department of Gastroenterology, Shanghai Tongren Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200336, P.R. China
| | - Ting Wang
- Department of Gastroenterology, Shanghai Tongren Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200336, P.R. China
| | - Wenying Meng
- Department of Gastroenterology, Shanghai Tongren Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200336, P.R. China
| | - Min Shi
- Department of Gastroenterology, Shanghai Tongren Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200336, P.R. China
| | - Yugang Wang
- Department of Gastroenterology, Shanghai Tongren Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200336, P.R. China
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34
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MiR-22 sustains NLRP3 expression and attenuates H. pylori-induced gastric carcinogenesis. Oncogene 2017; 37:884-896. [PMID: 29059152 DOI: 10.1038/onc.2017.381] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2017] [Revised: 08/18/2017] [Accepted: 09/04/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Chronic inflammation is the primary cause of gastric cancer (GC). NLRP3, as an important inflammasome component, has crucial roles in initiating inflammation. However, the potential roles of NLRP3 in GC is unknown. Here, we show that NLRP3 expression is markedly upregulated in GC, which promotes NLRP3 inflammasome activation and interleukin-1β (IL-1β) secretion in macrophages. In addition, NLRP3 binds to cyclin-D1 (CCND1) promoter and promotes its transcription in gastric epithelial cells. Consequently, NLRP3 enhances epithelial cells proliferation and GC tumorigenesis. Furthermore, we identify miR-22, which is constitutively expressed in gastric mucosa, as a suppressor of NLRP3. MiR-22 directly targets NLRP3 and attenuates its oncogenic effects in vitro and in vivo. However, Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) infection suppresses miR-22 expression, while enhances NLRP3 expression, and that triggers uncontrolled proliferation of epithelial cells and the emergence of GC. Thus, our research describes a mechanism by which miR-22 suppresses NLRP3 and maintains homeostasis of gastric microenvironments and suggests miR-22 as a potential target for the intervention of GC.
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35
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Sakamoto N, Tsujimoto H, Takahata R, Cao B, Zhao P, Ito N, Shimazaki H, Ichikura T, Hase K, Vande Woude GF, Shinomiya N. MET4 expression predicts poor prognosis of gastric cancers with Helicobacter pylori infection. Cancer Sci 2017; 108:322-330. [PMID: 28012218 PMCID: PMC5378289 DOI: 10.1111/cas.13146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2016] [Revised: 12/08/2016] [Accepted: 12/17/2016] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The role of HGF/SF‐MET signaling is important in cancer progression, but its relation with Helicobacter pylori‐positive gastric cancers remains to be elucidated. In total, 201 patients with primary gastric carcinoma who underwent curative or debulking resection without preoperative chemotherapy were studied. MET4 and anti‐HGF/SF mAbs were used for immunohistochemical analysis. Survival of gastric cancer patients was estimated by Kaplan–Meier method and compared with log‐rank. Cox proportional hazards models were fit to determine the independent association of MET‐staining status with outcome. The effect of live H. pylori bacteria on cell signaling and biological behaviors was evaluated using gastric cancer cell lines. MET4‐positive gastric cancers showed poorer prognosis than MET4‐negative cases (overall survival, P = 0.02; relapse‐free survival, P = 0.06). Positive staining for MET4 was also a statistically significant factor to predict poor prognosis in H. pylori‐positive cases (overall survival, P < 0.01; relapse‐free survival, P = 0.01) but not in H. pylori‐negative cases. Gastric cancers positively stained with both HGF/SF and MET4 showed a tendency of the worst prognosis. Stimulation of MET‐positive gastric cancer cells with live H. pylori bacteria directly upregulated MET phosphorylation and activated MET downstream signals such as p44/42MAPK and Akt, conferring cell proliferation and anti‐apoptotic activity. In conclusion, positive staining for MET4 was useful for predicting poor prognosis of gastric cancers with H. pylori infection. Helicobacter pylori stimulated MET‐positive gastric cancers and activated downstream signaling, thereby promoting cancer proliferation and anti‐apoptotic activity. These results support the importance of H. pylori elimination from gastric epithelial surface in clinical therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naoko Sakamoto
- Department of Surgery, National Defense Medical College, Tokorozawa, Japan
| | - Hironori Tsujimoto
- Department of Surgery, National Defense Medical College, Tokorozawa, Japan
| | - Risa Takahata
- Department of Surgery, National Defense Medical College, Tokorozawa, Japan
| | - Brian Cao
- Laboratory of Antibody Technology, Van Andel Research Institute, Grand Rapids, MI, USA
| | - Ping Zhao
- Laboratory of Antibody Technology, Van Andel Research Institute, Grand Rapids, MI, USA
| | - Nozomi Ito
- Department of Surgery, National Defense Medical College, Tokorozawa, Japan
| | - Hideyuki Shimazaki
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, National Defense Medical College, Tokorozawa, Japan
| | - Takashi Ichikura
- Court Physician in Chief, The Imperial Household Agency, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Kazuo Hase
- Department of Surgery, National Defense Medical College, Tokorozawa, Japan
| | - George F Vande Woude
- Laboratory of Molecular Oncology, Van Andel Research Institute, Grand Rapids, MI, USA
| | - Nariyoshi Shinomiya
- Department of Integrative Physiology and Bio-Nano Medicine, National Defense Medical College, Tokorozawa, Japan
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36
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Grąt M, Wronka KM, Krasnodębski M, Masior Ł, Lewandowski Z, Kosińska I, Grąt K, Stypułkowski J, Rejowski S, Wasilewicz M, Gałęcka M, Szachta P, Krawczyk M. Profile of Gut Microbiota Associated With the Presence of Hepatocellular Cancer in Patients With Liver Cirrhosis. Transplant Proc 2017; 48:1687-91. [PMID: 27496472 DOI: 10.1016/j.transproceed.2016.01.077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 125] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2015] [Accepted: 01/21/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Changes within the gut microbiota contribute to the progression of chronic liver diseases. According to the results of several studies performed in animal models, gut dysbiosis plays an important role in hepatocarcinogenesis. The aim of this study was to explore the characteristics of gut microbiota associated with the presence of hepatocellular cancer (HCC) in patients with cirrhosis of the liver undergoing liver transplantation. METHODS A total of 15 patients with HCC and 15 non-HCC patients matched according to etiology of cirrhosis and Model for End-Stage Liver Disease (MELD) scores who underwent liver transplantations between 2012 and 2014 were included. Analysis of their gut microbial profile was based on prospectively collected stool samples from the pretransplant period. RESULTS Patients with and without HCC were similar with respect to age (P = .506), sex (P = .700), hepatitis C virus (P > .999) and hepatitis B virus (P = .715) infection status, alcoholic liver disease (P > .999), and MELD score (P = .337). Notably, the presence of HCC was associated with significantly increased fecal counts of Escherichia coli (P = .025). Prediction of HCC presence based on E coli counts was associated with the area under the receiver-operating curve of 0.742 (95% confidence interval, 0.564-0.920), with the optimal cutoff on the level of 17.728 (natural logarithm of colony-forming units per 1 g of feces). Sensitivity and specificity rates for the established cutoff were 66.7% and 73.3%, respectively. CONCLUSIONS The profile of gut microbiota associated with the presence of HCC in cirrhotic patients is characterized by increased fecal counts of E coli. Therefore, intestinal overgrowth of E coli may contribute to the process of hepatocarcinogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Grąt
- Department of General, Transplant and Liver Surgery, Medical University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland.
| | - K M Wronka
- Department of General, Transplant and Liver Surgery, Medical University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
| | - M Krasnodębski
- Department of General, Transplant and Liver Surgery, Medical University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Ł Masior
- Department of General, Transplant and Liver Surgery, Medical University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Z Lewandowski
- Department of Epidemiology, Medical University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
| | - I Kosińska
- Department of Preventive Medicine and Hygiene, Medical University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
| | - K Grąt
- Second Department of Clinical Radiology, Medical University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
| | - J Stypułkowski
- Department of General, Transplant and Liver Surgery, Medical University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
| | - S Rejowski
- Department of General, Transplant and Liver Surgery, Medical University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
| | - M Wasilewicz
- Department of General, Transplant and Liver Surgery, Medical University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
| | - M Gałęcka
- Institute of Microecology, Poznań, Poland
| | - P Szachta
- Institute of Microecology, Poznań, Poland
| | - M Krawczyk
- Department of General, Transplant and Liver Surgery, Medical University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
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Park GB, Chung YH, Kim D. Induction of galectin-1 by TLR-dependent PI3K activation enhances epithelial-mesenchymal transition of metastatic ovarian cancer cells. Oncol Rep 2017; 37:3137-3145. [PMID: 28350104 DOI: 10.3892/or.2017.5533] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2016] [Accepted: 03/20/2017] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The expression of different toll-like receptors (TLRs) on tumor cells has been associated with disease aggressiveness, treatment resistance, and poor prognosis. The phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/AKT pathway is considered critical for cancer cell survival and proliferation. Thus, we investigated the effect of TLR-stimulated PI3K activation on the epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) of primary (Caov-3) and metastatic (SK‑OV‑3) epithelial ovarian cancer cell lines in this study. TLR engagement with various ligands promoted the expression of class IA PI3K (p110α, p110β, and p110δ) and increased the expression of mesenchymal markers (N-cadherin, Slug, Vimentin, Snail, α-SMA, and TCF) in SK‑OV‑3 cells. The migratory activity and secretion of EMT-related cytokines of SK‑OV‑3 were significantly higher compared to those of Caov-3 after activation with TLR agonist. Although the invasive capacity and production of EMT-related cytokines of LPS-stimulated SK‑OV‑3 cells were significantly suppressed by all pharmacological inhibitors of the p110 isoform, the Syk/Src-dependent p110β isoform prominently attenuated migration activity. In contrast, the production of IL-10 and galectin-1 was mainly affected by the p110δ isoform. Gene silencing of TLR4 and galectin-1 with siRNA decreased the expression of matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP2) and MMP9 and reduced mesenchymal markers in LPS-treated SK‑OV‑3 cells. This study demonstrated that TLR-mediated PI3K activation modulated the invasion and metastasis of ovarian cancer through the production of galectin-1, suggesting that inhibition of the p110 isoform is a promising therapeutic approach against metastatic ovarian cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ga Bin Park
- Department of Biochemistry, Kosin University College of Medicine, Busan 49267, Republic of Korea
| | - Yoon Hee Chung
- Department of Anatomy, Chung-Ang University College of Medicine, Seoul 06974, Republic of Korea
| | - Daejin Kim
- Department of Anatomy, Inje University College of Medicine, Busan 47392, Republic of Korea
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Chmiela M, Karwowska Z, Gonciarz W, Allushi B, Stączek P. Host pathogen interactions in Helicobacter pylori related gastric cancer. World J Gastroenterol 2017; 23:1521-1540. [PMID: 28321154 PMCID: PMC5340805 DOI: 10.3748/wjg.v23.i9.1521] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2016] [Revised: 10/26/2016] [Accepted: 02/16/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori), discovered in 1982, is a microaerophilic, spiral-shaped gram-negative bacterium that is able to colonize the human stomach. Nearly half of the world's population is infected by this pathogen. Its ability to induce gastritis, peptic ulcers, gastric cancer and mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue lymphoma has been confirmed. The susceptibility of an individual to these clinical outcomes is multifactorial and depends on H. pylori virulence, environmental factors, the genetic susceptibility of the host and the reactivity of the host immune system. Despite the host immune response, H. pylori infection can be difficult to eradicate. H. pylori is categorized as a group I carcinogen since this bacterium is responsible for the highest rate of cancer-related deaths worldwide. Early detection of cancer can be lifesaving. The 5-year survival rate for gastric cancer patients diagnosed in the early stages is nearly 90%. Gastric cancer is asymptomatic in the early stages but always progresses over time and begins to cause symptoms when untreated. In 97% of stomach cancer cases, cancer cells metastasize to other organs. H. pylori infection is responsible for nearly 60% of the intestinal-type gastric cancer cases but also influences the development of diffuse gastric cancer. The host genetic susceptibility depends on polymorphisms of genes involved in H. pylori-related inflammation and the cytokine response of gastric epithelial and immune cells. H. pylori strains differ in their ability to induce a deleterious inflammatory response. H. pylori-driven cytokines accelerate the inflammatory response and promote malignancy. Chronic H. pylori infection induces genetic instability in gastric epithelial cells and affects the DNA damage repair systems. Therefore, H. pylori infection should always be considered a pro-cancerous factor.
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Smith SM, Freeley M, Moynagh PN, Kelleher DP. Differential modulation of Helicobacter pylori lipopolysaccharide-mediated TLR2 signaling by individual Pellino proteins. Helicobacter 2017; 22. [PMID: 27302665 DOI: 10.1111/hel.12325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Eradication rates for current H. pylori therapies have fallen in recent years, in line with the emergence of antibiotic resistant infections. The development of therapeutic alternatives to antibiotics, such as immunomodulatory therapy and vaccines, requires a more lucid understanding of host-pathogen interactions, including the relationships between the organism and the innate immune response. Pellino proteins are emerging as key regulators of immune signaling, including the Toll-like receptor pathways known to be regulated by H. pylori. The aim of this study was to characterize the role of Pellino proteins in the innate immune response to H. pylori lipopolysaccharide. MATERIALS AND METHODS Gain-of-function and loss-of-function approaches were utilized to elucidate the role of individual Pellino proteins in the Toll-like receptor 2-mediated response to H. pylori LPS by monitoring NF-ĸB activation and the induction of proinflammatory chemokines. Expression of Pellino family members was investigated in gastric epithelial cells and gastric tissue biopsy material. RESULTS Pellino1 and Pellino2 positively regulated Toll-like receptor 2-driven responses to H. pylori LPS, whereas Pellino3 exerted a negative modulatory role. Expression of Pellino1 was significantly higher than Pellino3 in gastric epithelial cells and gastric tissue. Furthermore, Pellino1 expression was further augmented in gastric epithelial cells in response to infection with H. pylori or stimulation with H. pylori LPS. CONCLUSIONS The combination of low Pellino3 levels together with high and inducible Pellino1 expression may be an important determinant of the degree of inflammation triggered upon Toll-like receptor 2 engagement by H. pylori and/or its components, contributing to H. pylori-associated pathogenesis by directing the incoming signal toward an NF-kB-mediated proinflammatory response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sinéad M Smith
- Department of Clinical Medicine, School of Medicine, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland.,School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Michael Freeley
- Department of Clinical Medicine, School of Medicine, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Paul N Moynagh
- Institute of Immunology, National University of Ireland, Maynooth, Co. Kildare, Ireland
| | - Dermot P Kelleher
- Department of Clinical Medicine, School of Medicine, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
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Li H, Liao T, Debowski AW, Tang H, Nilsson HO, Stubbs KA, Marshall BJ, Benghezal M. Lipopolysaccharide Structure and Biosynthesis in Helicobacter pylori. Helicobacter 2016; 21:445-461. [PMID: 26934862 DOI: 10.1111/hel.12301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
This review covers the current knowledge and gaps in Helicobacter pylori lipopolysaccharide (LPS) structure and biosynthesis. H. pylori is a Gram-negative bacterium which colonizes the luminal surface of the human gastric epithelium. Both a constitutive alteration of the lipid A preventing TLR4 elicitation and host mimicry of the Lewis antigen decorated O-antigen of H. pylori LPS promote immune escape and chronic infection. To date, the complete structure of H. pylori LPS is not available, and the proposed model is a linear arrangement composed of the inner core defined as the hexa-saccharide (Kdo-LD-Hep-LD-Hep-DD-Hep-Gal-Glc), the outer core composed of a conserved trisaccharide (-GlcNAc-Fuc-DD-Hep-) linked to the third heptose of the inner core, the glucan, the heptan and a variable O-antigen, generally consisting of a poly-LacNAc decorated with Lewis antigens. Although the glycosyltransferases (GTs) responsible for the biosynthesis of the H. pylori O-antigen chains have been identified and characterized, there are many gaps in regard to the biosynthesis of the core LPS. These limitations warrant additional mutagenesis and structural studies to obtain the complete LPS structure and corresponding biosynthetic pathway of this important gastric bacterium.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong Li
- West China Marshall Research Centre for Infectious Diseases, Centre of Infectious Diseases, West China Hospital of Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China.,Helicobacter pylori Research Laboratory, School of Pathology & Laboratory Medicine, Marshall Centre for Infectious Disease Research and Training, The University of Western Australia, M504, L Block, QEII Medical Centre, Nedlands, WA 6009, Australia
| | - Tingting Liao
- Helicobacter pylori Research Laboratory, School of Pathology & Laboratory Medicine, Marshall Centre for Infectious Disease Research and Training, The University of Western Australia, M504, L Block, QEII Medical Centre, Nedlands, WA 6009, Australia
| | - Aleksandra W Debowski
- Helicobacter pylori Research Laboratory, School of Pathology & Laboratory Medicine, Marshall Centre for Infectious Disease Research and Training, The University of Western Australia, M504, L Block, QEII Medical Centre, Nedlands, WA 6009, Australia.,School of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The University of Western Australia, 35 Stirling Highway, Crawley, WA 6009, Australia
| | - Hong Tang
- West China Marshall Research Centre for Infectious Diseases, Centre of Infectious Diseases, West China Hospital of Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Hans-Olof Nilsson
- Ondek Pty Ltd., School of Pathology & Laboratory Medicine, Marshall Centre for Infectious Disease Research and Training, The University of Western Australia, M504, L Block, QEII Medical Centre, Nedlands, WA 6009, Australia
| | - Keith A Stubbs
- School of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The University of Western Australia, 35 Stirling Highway, Crawley, WA 6009, Australia
| | - Barry J Marshall
- Helicobacter pylori Research Laboratory, School of Pathology & Laboratory Medicine, Marshall Centre for Infectious Disease Research and Training, The University of Western Australia, M504, L Block, QEII Medical Centre, Nedlands, WA 6009, Australia
| | - Mohammed Benghezal
- Helicobacter pylori Research Laboratory, School of Pathology & Laboratory Medicine, Marshall Centre for Infectious Disease Research and Training, The University of Western Australia, M504, L Block, QEII Medical Centre, Nedlands, WA 6009, Australia.,Swiss Vitamin Institute, Route de la Corniche 1, CH-1066, Epalinges, Switzerland
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Khan A, Khan Z, Warnakulasuriya S. Cancer-associated toll-like receptor modulation and insinuation in infection susceptibility: association or coincidence? Ann Oncol 2016; 27:984-997. [DOI: 10.1093/annonc/mdw053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/29/2023] Open
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Interplay of the Gastric Pathogen Helicobacter pylori with Toll-Like Receptors. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2015; 2015:192420. [PMID: 25945326 PMCID: PMC4402485 DOI: 10.1155/2015/192420] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2014] [Accepted: 12/29/2014] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are crucial for pathogen recognition and downstream signaling to induce effective immunity. The gastric pathogen Helicobacter pylori is a paradigm of persistent bacterial infections and chronic inflammation in humans. The chronicity of inflammation during H. pylori infection is related to the manipulation of regulatory cytokines. In general, the early detection of H. pylori by TLRs and other pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) is believed to induce a regulatory cytokine or chemokine profile that eventually blocks the resolution of inflammation. H. pylori factors such as LPS, HSP-60, NapA, DNA, and RNA are reported in various studies to be recognized by specific TLRs. However, H. pylori flagellin evades the recognition of TLR5 by possessing a conserved N-terminal motif. Activation of TLRs and resulting signal transduction events lead to the production of pro- and anti-inflammatory mediators through activation of NF-κB, MAP kinases, and IRF signaling pathways. The genetic polymorphisms of these important PRRs are also implicated in the varied outcome and disease progression. Hence, the interplay of TLRs and bacterial factors highlight the complexity of innate immune recognition and immune evasion as well as regulated processes in the progression of associated pathologies. Here we will review this important aspect of H. pylori infection.
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Su YL, Yang JC, Lee H, Sheu F, Hsu CH, Lin SL, Chow LP. The C-terminal disulfide bonds of Helicobacter pylori GroES are critical for IL-8 secretion via the TLR4-dependent pathway in gastric epithelial cells. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2015; 194:3997-4007. [PMID: 25769921 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1401852] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2014] [Accepted: 02/09/2015] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Helicobacter pylori GroES (HpGroES), a potent immunogen, is a secreted virulence factor that stimulates production of proinflammatory cytokines and may contribute to gastric carcinogenesis. HpGroES is larger than other bacterial orthologs because of an additional C-terminal region, known as domain B. We found that the HpGroES-induced IL-8 release by human gastric epithelial cells was dependent on activation of the MAPK and NF-κB pathways. HpGroES lacking domain B was unable to induce IL-8 release. Additionally, a TLR4 inhibitor significantly inhibited IL-8 secretion and reduced HpGroES-induced activation of MAPKs. Furthermore, HpGroES-induced IL-8 release by primary gastric epithelial cells from TLR4(-/-) mice was significantly lower than from wild-type mice. We also found that HpGroES bound to TLR4 in cell lysates and colocalized with TLR4 on the cell membrane only when domain B was present. We then constructed two deletion mutants lacking C-terminal regions and mutants with point mutations of two of the four cysteine residues, C111 and C112, in domain B and found that the deletion mutants and a double mutant lacking the C94-C111 and C95-C112 disulfide bonds were unable to interact with TLR4 or induce IL-8 release. We conclude that HpGroES, in which a unique conformational structure, domain B, is generated by these two disulfide bonds, induces IL-8 secretion via a TLR4-dependent mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Lin Su
- Graduate Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei 100, Taiwan
| | - Jyh-Chin Yang
- Department of Internal Medicine, Hospital and College of Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei 100, Taiwan
| | - Haur Lee
- Graduate Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei 100, Taiwan
| | - Fuu Sheu
- Department of Horticulture, National Taiwan University, Taipei 106, Taiwan
| | - Chun-Hua Hsu
- Department of Agricultural Chemistry, National Taiwan University, Taipei 106, Taiwan; and
| | - Shuei-Liong Lin
- Graduate Institute of Physiology, College of Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei 100, Taiwan
| | - Lu-Ping Chow
- Graduate Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei 100, Taiwan;
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Ye F, Tang C, Shi W, Qian J, Xiao S, Gu M, Dang Y, Liu J, Chen Y, Shi R, Zhang G. A MDM2-dependent positive-feedback loop is involved in inhibition of miR-375 and miR-106b induced by Helicobacter pylori lipopolysaccharide. Int J Cancer 2014; 136:2120-31. [PMID: 25307786 DOI: 10.1002/ijc.29268] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2014] [Accepted: 09/17/2014] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Dysregulation of microRNAs (miRNAs) has been linked to virulence factors of Helicobacter pylori and shown to contribute to the progression of gastric cancer. However, the mechanisms of these processes remain poorly understood. The aim of this study was to investigate the mechanisms by which lipopolysaccharide (LPS), a virulence factor of H. pylori, regulates miR-375 and miR-106b expression in gastric epithelial cells. The results show that LPS from H. pylori 26695 downregulated the expression of miR-375 and miR-106b in gastric epithelial cells, and low levels of Dicer were also observed. Downregulation of miR-375 was found to increase expression of MDM2 with SP1 activation. Overexpression of MDM2 inhibited Dicer by repressing p63 to create a positive-feedback loop involving SP1/MDM2/p63/Dicer that leads to inhibition of miR-375 and miR-106b expression. In addition, we demonstrated that JAK1 and STAT3 were downstream target genes of miR-106b. H. pylori LPS also enhanced the tyrosine phosphorylation of JAK1, JAK2 and STAT3. Together, these results provide insight into the regulatory mechanisms of MDM2 on H. pylori LPS-induced specific miRNAs, and furthermore, suggest that gastric epithelial cells treated with H. pylori LPS may be susceptible to JAK/STAT3 signal pathway activation via inhibition of miR-375 and miR-106b.
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Affiliation(s)
- Feng Ye
- Department of Gastroenterology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, 210029, China
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Smith SM. Role of Toll-like receptors in Helicobacter pylori infection and immunity. World J Gastrointest Pathophysiol 2014; 5:133-146. [PMID: 25133016 PMCID: PMC4133513 DOI: 10.4291/wjgp.v5.i3.133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2014] [Revised: 02/25/2014] [Accepted: 05/19/2014] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The gram-negative bacterium Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) infects the stomachs of approximately half of the world’s population. Although infection induces an immune response that contributes to chronic gastric inflammation, the response is not sufficient to eliminate the bacterium. H. pylori infection causes peptic ulcers, gastric cancer and mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue lymphoma. Disease outcome is linked to the severity of the host inflammatory response. Gastric epithelial cells represent the first line of innate immune defence against H. pylori, and respond to infection by initiating numerous cell signalling cascades, resulting in cytokine induction and the subsequent recruitment of inflammatory cells to the gastric mucosa. Pathogen recognition receptors of the Toll-like receptor (TLR) family mediate many of these cell signalling events. This review discusses recent findings on the role of various TLRs in the recognition of H. pylori in distinct cell types, describes the TLRs responsible for the recognition of individual H. pylori components and outlines the influence of innate immune activation on the subsequent development of the adaptive immune response. The mechanistic identification of host mediators of H. pylori-induced pathogenesis has the potential to reveal drug targets and opportunities for therapeutic intervention or prevention of H. pylori-associated disease by means of vaccines or immunomodulatory therapy.
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Li P, He CY, Xu Q, Sun LP, Ha MW, Yuan Y. Effect of the -2081G/A polymorphism of the TLR4 gene and its interaction with Helicobacter pylori infection on the risk of gastric cancer in Chinese individuals. Genet Test Mol Biomarkers 2014; 18:610-5. [PMID: 25084512 DOI: 10.1089/gtmb.2014.0047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
AIMS Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) plays an important role in gastric carcinoma. Using a case-control study, we analyzed the genotypic distribution of TLR4 rs10983755 (-2081G/A) and rs11536878 in a Chinese population and investigated the effect of their interactions with Helicobacter pylori infection on susceptibility to gastric cancer (GC) and atrophic gastritis (AG). METHODS In this study, 409 and 581 cases of GC and AG, respectively, were selected for analyses along with an equal number of matched controls. The TLR4 polymorphisms were genotyped using Sequenom MassARRAY. Serum levels of anti-H. pylori IgG were determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. RESULTS The TLR4-2081G/A polymorphism was negatively associated with GC (AG+AA vs. GG: odds ratio [OR]=0.70, 95% confidence interval [CI]=0.53-0.93, p=0.012). A decreased risk of GC was observed in H. pylori negative and TLR4-2081(AG+AA) genotype subjects [H. pylori(-)/AG+AA vs. H. pylori(+)/GG: OR=0.16, 95% CI=0.09-0.27, p<0.001]. The rs11536878 polymorphism was not associated with GC or AG. CONCLUSIONS The TLR4-2081G/A polymorphism seems to affect the risk of gastric carcinogenesis and may to some degree play a protective role against H. pylori infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ping Li
- 1 Tumor Etiology and Screening Department of Cancer Institute and General Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of China Medical University , Shenyang, People's Republic of China
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Castaño-Rodríguez N, Kaakoush NO, Mitchell HM. Pattern-recognition receptors and gastric cancer. Front Immunol 2014; 5:336. [PMID: 25101079 PMCID: PMC4105827 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2014.00336] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2014] [Accepted: 07/03/2014] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Chronic inflammation has been associated with an increased risk of several human malignancies, a classic example being gastric adenocarcinoma (GC). Development of GC is known to result from infection of the gastric mucosa by Helicobacter pylori, which initially induces acute inflammation and, in a subset of patients, progresses over time to chronic inflammation, gastric atrophy, intestinal metaplasia, dysplasia, and finally intestinal-type GC. Germ-line encoded receptors known as pattern-recognition receptors (PRRs) are critical for generating mature pro-inflammatory cytokines that are crucial for both Th1 and Th2 responses. Given that H. pylori is initially targeted by PRRs, it is conceivable that dysfunction within genes of this arm of the immune system could modulate the host response against H. pylori infection, and subsequently influence the emergence of GC. Current evidence suggests that Toll-like receptors (TLRs) (TLR2, TLR3, TLR4, TLR5, and TLR9), nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain (NOD)-like receptors (NLRs) (NOD1, NOD2, and NLRP3), a C-type lectin receptor (DC-SIGN), and retinoic acid-inducible gene (RIG)-I-like receptors (RIG-I and MDA-5), are involved in both the recognition of H. pylori and gastric carcinogenesis. In addition, polymorphisms in genes involved in the TLR (TLR1, TLR2, TLR4, TLR5, TLR9, and CD14) and NLR (NOD1, NOD2, NLRP3, NLRP12, NLRX1, CASP1, ASC, and CARD8) signaling pathways have been shown to modulate the risk of H. pylori infection, gastric precancerous lesions, and/or GC. Further, the modulation of PRRs has been suggested to suppress H. pylori-induced inflammation and enhance GC cell apoptosis, highlighting their potential relevance in GC therapeutics. In this review, we present current advances in our understanding of the role of the TLR and NLR signaling pathways in the pathogenesis of GC, address the involvement of other recently identified PRRs in GC, and discuss the potential implications of PRRs in GC immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalia Castaño-Rodríguez
- School of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, The University of New South Wales , Sydney, NSW , Australia
| | - Nadeem O Kaakoush
- School of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, The University of New South Wales , Sydney, NSW , Australia
| | - Hazel M Mitchell
- School of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, The University of New South Wales , Sydney, NSW , Australia
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Castaño-Rodríguez N, Kaakoush NO, Pardo AL, Goh KL, Fock KM, Mitchell HM. Genetic polymorphisms in the Toll-like receptor signalling pathway in Helicobacter pylori infection and related gastric cancer. Hum Immunol 2014; 75:808-15. [PMID: 24929142 DOI: 10.1016/j.humimm.2014.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2014] [Revised: 06/03/2014] [Accepted: 06/03/2014] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Gastric cancer (GC) is a progressive process initiated by Helicobacter pylori-induced inflammation. Initial recognition of H. pylori involves Toll-like receptors (TLRs), central molecules in the host inflammatory response. Here, we investigated the association between novel polymorphisms in genes involved in the TLR signalling pathway, including TLR2, TLR4, LBP, MD-2, CD14 and TIRAP, and risk of H. pylori infection and related GC. METHODS A case-control study comprising 310 ethnic Chinese individuals (87 non-cardia GC cases and 223 controls with functional dyspepsia) was conducted. Twenty-five polymorphisms were detected by MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry, PCR, PCR-RFLP and real-time PCR. RESULTS Seven polymorphisms showed significant associations with GC (TLR4 rs11536889, TLR4 rs10759931, TLR4 rs1927911, TLR4 rs10116253, TLR4 rs10759932, TLR4 rs2149356 and CD14 -260 C/T). In multivariate analyses, TLR4 rs11536889 remained a risk factor for GC (OR: 3.58, 95% CI: 1.20-10.65). TLR4 rs10759932 decreased the risk of H. pylori infection (OR: 0.59, 95% CI: 0.41-0.86). Statistical analyses assessing the joint effect of H. pylori infection and the selected polymorphisms revealed strong associations with GC (TLR2, TLR4, MD-2, LBP and TIRAP polymorphisms). CONCLUSIONS Novel polymorphisms in TLR2, TLR4, MD-2, LBP, CD14 and TIRAP, genes encoding important molecules of the TLR signalling pathway, showed clear associations with H. pylori-related GC in Chinese.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalia Castaño-Rodríguez
- School of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
| | - Nadeem O Kaakoush
- School of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
| | - Aryce L Pardo
- School of Statistics, National University of Colombia, Medellin, Colombia
| | - Khean-Lee Goh
- Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Kwong Ming Fock
- Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Medicine, Changi General Hospital, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Hazel M Mitchell
- School of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia.
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Raisch J, Buc E, Bonnet M, Sauvanet P, Vazeille E, de Vallée A, Déchelotte P, Darcha C, Pezet D, Bonnet R, Bringer MA, Darfeuille-Michaud A. Colon cancer-associated B2 Escherichia coli colonize gut mucosa and promote cell proliferation. World J Gastroenterol 2014; 20:6560-6572. [PMID: 24914378 PMCID: PMC4047342 DOI: 10.3748/wjg.v20.i21.6560] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2013] [Revised: 02/10/2014] [Accepted: 03/10/2014] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
AIM: To provide further insight into the characterization of mucosa-associated Escherichia coli (E. coli) isolated from the colonic mucosa of cancer patients.
METHODS: Phylogroups and the presence of cyclomodulin-encoding genes of mucosa-associated E. coli from colon cancer and diverticulosis specimens were determined by PCR. Adhesion and invasion experiments were performed with I-407 intestinal epithelial cells using gentamicin protection assay. Carcinoembryonic antigen-related cell adhesion molecule 6 (CEACAM6) expression in T84 intestinal epithelial cells was measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and by Western Blot. Gut colonization, inflammation and pro-carcinogenic potential were assessed in a chronic infection model using CEABAC10 transgenic mice. Cell proliferation was analyzed by real-time mRNA quantification of PCNA and immunohistochemistry staining of Ki67.
RESULTS: Analysis of mucosa-associated E. coli from colon cancer and diverticulosis specimens showed that whatever the origin of the E. coli strains, 86% of cyclomodulin-positive E. coli belonged to B2 phylogroup and most harbored polyketide synthase (pks) island, which encodes colibactin, and/or cytotoxic necrotizing factor (cnf) genes. In vitro assays using I-407 intestinal epithelial cells revealed that mucosa-associated B2 E. coli strains were poorly adherent and invasive. However, mucosa-associated B2 E. coli similarly to Crohn’s disease-associated E. coli are able to induce CEACAM6 expression in T84 intestinal epithelial cells. In addition, in vivo experiments using a chronic infection model of CEACAM6 expressing mice showed that B2 E. coli strain 11G5 isolated from colon cancer is able to highly persist in the gut, and to induce colon inflammation, epithelial damages and cell proliferation.
CONCLUSION: In conclusion, these data bring new insights into the ability of E. coli isolated from patients with colon cancer to establish persistent colonization, exacerbate inflammation and trigger carcinogenesis.
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Uno K, Kato K, Shimosegawa T. Novel role of toll-like receptors in Helicobacter pylori - induced gastric malignancy. World J Gastroenterol 2014; 20:5244-51. [PMID: 24833854 PMCID: PMC4017039 DOI: 10.3748/wjg.v20.i18.5244] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2013] [Revised: 12/13/2013] [Accepted: 01/06/2014] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) infects the human stomach during infancy and develops into chronic active inflammation. The majority of H. pylori tend to colonize within the mucous gel layer of the stomach. The stomach lacks its own immune function, thus innate immunity as the first line of defense is vital for specific immunity against H. pylori. We review recent discoveries in the pathophysiologic roles of toll-like receptors (TLRs), mainly TLR2 and TLR4, in H. pylori-induced inflammation. In addition, the TLR pathways activated by H. pylori-induced inflammation have been shown to be closely associated not only with gastric carcinogenesis, but also with formation of the tumor microenvironment through the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, chemokines, and reactive oxygen species. Although the correlation between single nucleotide polymorphisms of TLRs and gastric cancer risk remains unclear, a recent study demonstrated that STAT3-driven up-regulation of TLR2 might promote gastric tumorigenesis independent of inflammation. Further research on the regulation of TLRs in H. pylori-associated gastric carcinogenesis will uncover diagnostic/predictive biomarkers and therapeutic targets for gastric cancer.
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