Effects of Fat-Modified Dairy Products on Blood Lipids in Humans in Comparison with Other Fats

Content of Health-Promoting Fatty Acids in Commercial Sheep, Cow and Goat Cheeses

The study aimed to examine samples of different market original sheep cow and goat cheeses, in respect of the content and profile of FA with special emphasis on health-promoting FA. The content of fatty acids in the examined cheeses was highly differentiated and depended on the sort and type of cheese. The content of fatty acid groups in milk fat varied within the limits: SFA, 55.2–67.2%; SCSFA, 10.9–23.4%; BCFA, 1.6–2.9%; MUFA, 15.2–23.4%; PUFA, 1.9–4.3%; trans-MUFA, 1.8–6.0%; and CLA, 1.0–3.1%. From among the examined cheeses, the seasonal sheep cheeses (Oscypek) and mountain cow cheeses were characterized by the highest content of health-promoting fatty acids. The content of health-promoting fatty acids in the fat fraction of these cheeses was CLA 2.1–3.1%, trans-MUFA 3.5–6%, BCFA 2.7–2.9%, and SCSFA 12–18%.

The association between dairy products and psychological disorders in a large sample of Iranian adults

BACKGROUND

Dairy products contain certain nutrients that are useful in mental disorders. This study aimed to assess the associations between dairy products and psychological disorders in a large sample of Iran, a Middle Eastern country.

METHODS

This cross-sectional study was undertaken on 7387 adults. Data on dietary intakes were obtained using a validated Food Frequency Questionnaire. Psychological health was assessed by the Iranian validated version of depression, anxiety, and stress scale 21. Multivariable logistic regression analysis was performed to analyze the association between dairy intake and psychological disorders.

RESULTS

After adjustment for potential confounders, total milk consumption (OR for the highest vs. lowest tertile: 0.73, 0.58-0.92) and total yogurt consumption (0.78, 0.62-0.97) were associated with decreased odds of depression. An inverse relationship was found between total dairy (0.73, 95% CI 0.590.91), total milk (0.72; 0.58-0.88), kashk (0.79, 0.65-0.96), and yogurt drink (0.80, 95% CI 0.65-0.98) consumption and anxiety symptoms. Higher intake of cheese was related to greater odds of stress (1.52, 1.02-2.26). No association was found between the consumption of high-fat dairy, low-fat dairy, low-fat milk, low-fat yogurt, high-fat yogurt, cheese, kashk, yogurt drink, and depression. Also, there is no association between dairy products and stress symptoms. This association was significant among men and women and high-fat and low-fat products in the total adjusted stratified analysis models.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings of this study revealed that both high-fat and low-fat dairy products are associated with a reduced prevalence of psychological disorders. Still, more prospective studies are required to confirm these associations.

Multilevel systems biology modeling characterized the atheroprotective efficiencies of modified dairy fats in a hamster model

We assessed the atheroprotective efficiency of modified dairy fats in hyperlipidemic hamsters. A systems biology approach was implemented to reveal and quantify the dietary fat-related components of the disease. Three modified dairy fats (40% energy) were prepared from regular butter by mixing with a plant oil mixture, by removing cholesterol alone, or by removing cholesterol in combination with reducing saturated fatty acids. A plant oil mixture and a regular butter were used as control diets. The atherosclerosis severity (aortic cholesteryl-ester level) was higher in the regular butter-fed hamsters than in the other four groups (P < 0.05). Eighty-seven of the 1,666 variables measured from multiplatform analysis were found to be strongly associated with the disease. When aggregated into 10 biological clusters combined into a multivariate predictive equation, these 87 variables explained 81% of the disease variability. The biological cluster "regulation of lipid transport and metabolism" appeared central to atherogenic development relative to diets. The "vitamin E metabolism" cluster was the main driver of atheroprotection with the best performing transformed dairy fat. Under conditions that promote atherosclerosis, the impact of dairy fats on atherogenesis could be greatly ameliorated by technological modifications. Our modeling approach allowed for identifying and quantifying the contribution of complex factors to atherogenic development in each dietary setup.

Pasture v. standard dairy cream in high-fat diet-fed mice: improved metabolic outcomes and stronger intestinal barrier

Dairy products derived from the milk of cows fed in pastures are characterised by higher amounts of conjugated linoleic acid and α-linolenic acid (ALA), and several studies have shown their ability to reduce cardiovascular risk. However, their specific metabolic effects compared with standard dairy in a high-fat diet (HFD) context remain largely unknown; this is what we determined in the present study with a focus on the metabolic and intestinal parameters. The experimental animals were fed for 12 weeks a HFD containing 20 % fat in the form of a pasture dairy cream (PDC) or a standard dairy cream (SDC). Samples of plasma, liver, white adipose tissue, duodenum, jejunum and colon were analysed. The PDC mice, despite a higher food intake, exhibited lower fat mass, plasma and hepatic TAG concentrations, and inflammation in the adipose tissue than the SDC mice. Furthermore, they exhibited a higher expression of hepatic PPARα mRNA and adipose tissue uncoupling protein 2 mRNA, suggesting an enhanced oxidative activity of the tissues. These results might be explained, in part, by the higher amounts of ALA in the PDC diet and in the liver and adipose tissue of the PDC mice. Moreover, the PDC diet was found to increase the proportions of two strategic cell populations involved in the protective function of the intestinal epithelium, namely Paneth and goblet cells in the small intestine and colon, compared with the SDC diet. In conclusion, a PDC HFD leads to improved metabolic outcomes and to a stronger gut barrier compared with a SDC HFD. This may be due, at least in part, to the protective mechanisms induced by specific lipids.

The impact of substituting SFA in dairy products with MUFA or PUFA on CVD risk: evidence from human intervention studies

With the substantial economic and social burden of CVD, the need to modify diet and lifestyle factors to reduce risk has become increasingly important. Milk and dairy products, being one of the main contributors to SFA intake in the UK, are a potential target for dietary SFA reduction. Supplementation of the dairy cow's diet with a source of MUFA or PUFA may have beneficial effects on consumers' CVD risk by partially replacing milk SFA, thus reducing entry of SFA into the food chain. A total of nine chronic human intervention studies have used dairy products, modified through bovine feeding, to establish their effect on CVD risk markers. Of these studies, the majority utilised modified butter as their primary test product and used changes in blood cholesterol concentrations as their main risk marker. Of the eight studies that measured blood cholesterol, four reported a significant reduction in total and LDL-cholesterol (LDL-C) following chronic consumption of modified milk and dairy products. Data from one study suggested that a significant reduction in LDL-C could be achieved in both the healthy and hypercholesterolaemic population. Thus, evidence from these studies suggests that consumption of milk and dairy products with modified fatty acid composition, compared with milk and dairy products of typical milk fat composition, may be beneficial to CVD risk in healthy and hypercholesterolaemic individuals. However, current evidence is insufficient and further work is needed to investigate the complex role of milk and cheese in CVD risk and explore the use of novel markers of CVD risk.

Comparison of meat and carcass quality in organically reared and conventionally reared pasture-fed lambs

The 'Organic' product label guarantees a production process that avoids the use of synthetic fertilisers, pesticides and hormones and minimises recourse to pharmaceuticals or veterinary drugs; however, the product's quality remains an issue that needs to be addressed in response to consumer demand. Consequently, this study was conducted to compare the sensory and nutritional qualities of meat and carcasses from pasture-fed lambs reared organically (O) or conventionally (C). Mean lamb growth profile was kept similar between the two treatments to avoid confounding effects with lamb age or weight at slaughter. The experiment was conducted over 3 years (2005 to 2007) with 12 O and 12 C lambs each year. The O and C treatments differed in the level of on-pasture mineral N fertilisation inducing a higher proportion of white clover in the organic pasture than the conventional pasture. Lambs were slaughtered when they attained a fat class of 2 to 3, and carcass and meat quality were evaluated. Lambs were slaughtered at an average weight and age of 35.3 kg and 156 days in the O treatment, respectively, and 35.2 kg and 155 days in the C treatment, respectively. Sensory evaluation indicated that loin chops from the O treatment had a higher level of abnormal fat odour compared with the C treatment. Carcasses from the O treatment had a softer subcutaneous fat one among 3 years (2007) compared to the C treatment. These results are probably due to a higher proportion of white clover in the diet. Organically reared lambs did offer the slight advantage of muscle fatty acid containing a higher level of stearic acid, which may have positive effects in the prevention of cardiovascular disease in humans. This may be the result of a higher rumen bio-hydrogenation of C18:3n-3 due to differences in the botanical composition between the O and the C pasture. Production system had no effect on the colour characteristics of the meat and subcutaneous fat, except lightness of subcutaneous dorsal fat, which was slightly higher in the O lambs. There were no differences between O and C lambs in terms of colour stability and lipid oxidation of the meat during the 6-day refrigerated storage under gas-permeable film.

The Oslo health study: cheese intake was negatively associated with the metabolic syndrome

OBJECTIVE

We previously reported that the frequency of cheese intake (FCI) was negatively associated with serum triglycerides and positively associated with high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL), both components of the metabolic syndrome (MetS). We therefore wanted to study whether FCI is associated with MetS.

METHODS

The Oslo Health Study (18,770 subjects), obtained data from 7815 men and 9685 women on cheese intake and risk factors for MetS, except for fasting glucose. MetS requires central obesity and at least 2 of the following: increased triglycerides, low HDL cholesterol, increased systolic or diastolic blood pressure, and elevated fasting blood glucose. We calculated the index SumRisk, providing the number of MetS factors present, and MetSRisk to reflect the combined levels of many MetS factors. The association between FCI and MetSRisk (SumRisk) was studied using regression analyses.

RESULTS

In young (30 years), middle-aged (40 and 45 years), seniors (59-60), and old (75-76 years) subjects, there was an inverse association between FCI and MetSRisk (p ≤ 0.005, except in old men). Using regression, we found a consistent negative association (p < 0.001) between FCI and MetSRisk, SumRisk, single MetS components, and the complete MetS, prevailing after controlling for sex, age, time since last meal, intake of fruit/berries, fruit juice, fatty fish, coffee, alcohol, smoking, leisure time physical activity, years at school, and birthplace. FCI was also negatively associated with body mass index (p < 0.02), except in old women.

CONCLUSION

Cheese intake can be negatively and independently associated with (1) an index including the level of many risk factors for MetS, (2) the number of MetS requirements present, (3) single MetS components, and (4) the complete MetS.

Cheese can reduce indexes that estimate fatty acid desaturation. Results from the Oslo Health Study and from experiments with human hepatoma cells

Previously, cheese intake was shown to be inversely related to serum triglycerides, raising the possibility that cheese might inhibit triglyceride synthesis, which is governed by fatty acid desaturases. Therefore, analyses were done to study whether cheese intake was associated with indexes that reflect fatty acid desaturation in 121 healthy ethnic Norwegians aged 40-45 years, a subsample from the Oslo Health Study (N = 18 777). Experiments with human hepatoma cells (HepG2) were done to clarify whether cheese might have a causal effect on desaturases. Fatty acid distribution in lipids of human sera and HepG2 cells was determined by gas chromatography. Δ9-Desaturase was estimated by the (16:1,n-7)/(16:0) and (18:1,n-9)/(18:0) ratios, abbreviated ds9_1 and ds9_2, and Δ5-desaturase (ds5) by the (20:4,n-6)/(18:2,n-6) ratio. Correlation, ANOVA, and multiple linear regression models were used to study associations. Oslo Health Study: Subjects with cheese intake >4-6 times per week had 33% lower ds9_1 and 16% lower ds5 than subjects with intake ≤ 4-6 times per week. The cheese intake vs. ds5 association prevailed when adjusting for sex, time since last meal, fatty fish, vegetables, fruit-berries, fruit juice, cod liver oil, coffee, alcohol, body mass index, physical activity, length of education, and smoking. HepG2 cells: An ethanol extract of Jarlsberg cheese lowered the desaturase indexes. Inhibition of ds9_1 increased with increasing amount cheese extract added. Thus, cheese may contain inhibitors of desaturases, thereby providing an explanation for the previously reported negative association between cheese intake and triglycerides.

Studies on scavenger receptors under experimental hypercholesterolemia: modulation on selenium supplementation

Scavenger receptors (SR) are the cell surface proteins that can bind and internalize modified lipoproteins. Because ox-LDL seems to play a key role in foam cell formation during atherogenesis, SR may be critical for pathogenesis of atherosclerosis. The present study was aimed to study the effect of selenium (Se) supplementation on SR, i.e., SRB1 and CD36 under experimental hypercholesterolemia. Male Sprague Dawley rats were divided into three groups and fed on the control diet, high cholesterol diet (HCD), and HCD + Se, respectively, for a period of 4 months. Selenium and reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels were estimated in serum and liver respectively. mRNA expression using RT-PCR and protein expression using ELISA were analyzed for SRB1 and CD36 receptors. Selenium levels decreased whereas ROS levels increased under experimental hypercholesterolemic state. Selenium supplementation (1 ppm), however, diminished the HCD-induced ROS levels. Furthermore, the protein expression of SRB1 was significantly reduced in HCD group in comparison to the control group. On the other hand, HCD-induced increase in CD36 mRNA and protein expression decreased significantly on Se supplementation. In conclusion, CD36 receptors seem to play a pro-atherogenic role under hypercholesterolemic state. Selenium supplementation, in addition, might prove to be a therapeutically valuable approach in near future to limit the adverse effect of hypercholesterolemia.

Dairy products and plasma cholesterol levels

Cholesterol synthesized in the body or ingested is an essential lipid component for human survival from our earliest life. Newborns ingest about 3-4 times the amount per body weight through mother's milk compared to the dietary intake of adults. A birth level of 1.7 mmol/L plasma total cholesterol will increase to 4-4.5 mmol/L during the nursing period and continue to increase from adulthood around 40% throughout life. Coronary artery disease and other metabolic disorders are strongly associated with low-density lipoprotein (LDL) and high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol as well as triacylglycerol concentration. Milk fat contains a broad range of fatty acids and some have a negative impact on the cholesterol rich lipoproteins. The saturated fatty acids (SFAs), such as palmitic acid (C16:0), myristic acid (C14:0), and lauric acid (C12:0), increase total plasma cholesterol, especially LDL, and constitute 11.3 g/L of bovine milk, which is 44.8% of total fatty acid in milk fat. Replacement of dairy SFA and trans-fatty acids with polyunsaturated fatty acids decreases plasma cholesterol, especially LDL cholesterol, and is associated with a reduced risk of cardiovascular disease. Available data shows different effects on lipoproteins for different dairy products and there is uncertainty as to the impact a reasonable intake amount of dairy items has on cardiovascular risk. The aim of this review is to elucidate the effect of milk components and dairy products on total cholesterol, LDL, HDL, and the LDL/HDL quotients. Based on eight recent randomized control trials of parallel or cross-over design and recent reviews it can be concluded that replacement of saturated fat mainly (but not exclusively) derived from high-fat dairy products with low-fat dairy products lowers LDL/HDL cholesterol and total/HDL cholesterol ratios. Whey, dairy fractions enriched in polar lipids, and techniques such as fermentation, or fortification of cows feeding can be used to produce dairy products with more beneficial effects on plasma lipid profile.

Differential impact of milk fatty acid profiles on cardiovascular risk biomarkers in healthy men and women

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES

The objective of this study was to evaluate the impact of three specific ruminant (R) milk fats resulting from modification of the cow's diet on cardiovascular risk factors in healthy volunteers. R-milk fats were characterized by increased content in total trans fatty acids (R-TFAs) and parallel decrease in saturated fatty acids (SFAs).

SUBJECTS/METHODS

A total of 111 healthy, normolipemic men and women have been recruited for a monocentric, randomized, double-blind and parallel intervention, 4-week controlled study. Volunteers consumed three experimental products (butter, dessert cream and cookies) made with one of the three specific milk fats (55 g fat per day). During the first week (run-in period), the subjects consumed on a daily basis dairy products containing 72% SFA/2.85% R-TFA (called 'L0'). For the next 3 weeks of the study (intervention period), the first group continued to consume L0 products. The second group received dairy products containing 63.3% SFA/4.06% R-TFA (called 'L4'), and the third group received dairy products containing 56.6% SFA/12.16% R-TFA (called 'L9').

RESULTS

Plasma concentrations of high-density lipoprotein (HDL)-cholesterol were not significantly altered by either diet (P=0.38). Compared to L0 diet, L4 diet contributed to reduce low-density lipoprotein (LDL)-cholesterol (-0.14+/-0.38 mmol/l, P=0.04), total cholesterol (-0.13+/-0.50 mmol/l, P=0.04), LDL-cholesterol/HDL-cholesterol (-0.14+/-0.36, P=0.03) and total cholesterol/HDL-cholesterol (-0.18+/-0.44, P=0.02).

CONCLUSIONS

Different milk fat profiles can change cardiovascular plasma parameters in human healthy volunteers. A limited increase of the R-TFA/SFA ratio in dairy products is associated with an improvement in some cardiovascular risk factors. However, a further increase in R-TFA/SFA ratio has no additional benefit.

Studies on HDL associated enzymes under experimental hypercholesterolemia: possible modulation on selenium supplementation

BACKGROUND

Atherosclerosis is a chronic disorder of the arterial wall that starts by formation of fatty streaks and gradually evolves into atherosclerotic plaques. High-density lipoproteins (HDL) blood levels are inversely correlated with atherosclerosis. This beneficial effect of HDL has been partly attributed to its antioxidant properties mediated by paraoxonase1 (PON1) or platelet-activating factor acetylhydrolase (PAF-AH). The present study was aimed to study HDL associated enzymes i.e. PON1 and PAF-AH under experimental hypercholesterolemia and their possible modulation on selenium (Se; an antioxidant) supplementation. Male Sprague Dawley rats were divided into three groups and fed on the control diet, high fat diet (HFD) and HFD + Se respectively for the period of 4 months.

RESULTS

Cholesterol, triglycerides, HDL and LDL levels were significantly increased by HFD feeding. Selenium supplementation lowered the triglyceride level, whereas the other lipid values remained unchanged. Serum selenium levels were reduced by 31% and ROS levels in the liver were 2-fold increased by HFD. Se supplementation, however, diminished the HFD-induced ROS levels by 29%. Furthermore, Se also improved the HFD-mediated reduction of serum PON1 enzyme activity by 34% and PON1 protein levels by 21%. However, no significant effect of Se was detected on the reduced PAF-AH proteins levels in HFD fed rats. mRNA expression of PON1 and PAF-AH in the liver was not affected in the Se treated groups.

CONCLUSION

Se supplementation appears to be protective in hypercholesterolemia by restoring the antioxidant properties of the HDL associated enzyme i.e. PON1 whereas biological system aims towards maintaining the same PAF-AH levels even on selenium supplementation indicating its probable role in both anti and pro-atherogenic activities. Therefore, Se supplementation might be a valuable approach to limit the adverse effects of hypercholesterolemia and may need further investigations.

1H NMR metabonomics can differentiate the early atherogenic effect of dairy products in hyperlipidemic hamsters

Diet is an important environmental factor modulating the onset of atherosclerosis. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of different dairy-based food products on early atherogenesis using both conventional and metabonomic approaches in hyperlipidemic hamsters. The hamsters received up to 200 g/kg of fat as anhydrous butter or cheese made from various milk fats or canola-based oil (CV), in addition to a non-atherogenic low-fat diet. Aortic cholesteryl ester loading was considered to be an early atherogenic point, and metabolic changes linked to atherogenesis were measured using plasma (1)H NMR-based metabonomics. The lowest atherogenicity was obtained with the plant-oil cheese diet, followed by the dairy fat cheese diet, while the greatest atherogenicity was observed with the butter diet (P<0.05). Disease outcome was correlated with conventional plasma biomarkers (total cholesterol, triglycerides, LDL cholesterol, R(2)=0.42-0.60). NMR plasma metabonomics selectively captured part of the diet-induced metabotypes correlated with aortic cholesteryl esters (R(2)=0.63). In these metabotypes, VLDL lipids, cholesterol, and N-acetylglycoproteins (R(2) range: 0.45-0.51) were the most positively correlated metabolites, whereas a multimetabolite response at 3.75 ppm, albumin lysyl residues, and trimethylamine-N-oxide were the most negatively correlated metabolites (R(2) range: 0.43-0.63) of the aortic cholesteryl esters. Collectively, these metabolites predicted 89% of atherogenic variability compared to the 60% predicted by total plasma cholesterol alone. In conclusion, we show that the food environment can modulate the atherogenic effect of dairy fat. This proof-of-principle study demonstrates the first use of plasma metabonomics for improving the prognosis of diet-induced atherogenesis, revealing novel potential disease biomarkers.

Session 4: Challenges facing the food industry in innovating for health. Impact on CVD risk of modifying milk fat to decrease intake of SFA and increase intake of cis-MUFA

Despite the acknowledged benefits of reducing SFA intake few countries within the EU meet recognised targets. Milk and dairy products represent the single largest source of dietary SFA in most countries, yet epidemiological evidence indicates that milk has cardioprotective properties such that simply reducing consumption of dairy foods to meet SFA targets may not be a sound public health approach. The present paper explores the options for replacing some of the SFA in milk fat with cis-MUFA through alteration of the diet of the dairy cow, and the evidence that such changes can improve the indicators for CHD and CVD in general for the consumer. In addition, the outcome of such changes on risk factors for CHD and CVD at the population level is examined in the light of a modelling exercise involving data for eleven EU member states. Given the current and projected costs of health care, the results indicate that urgent consideration should be given to such a strategy.

Effects of butter naturally enriched with conjugated linoleic acid and vaccenic acid on blood lipids and LDL particle size in growing pigs

Background

Cow milk is a natural source of the cis 9, trans 11 isomer of conjugated linoleic acid (c9,t11-CLA) and trans vaccenic acid (VA). These fatty acids may be considered as functional foods, and the concentration in milk can be increased by e.g. sunflower oil supplementation to the dairy cow feed.

The objective of this study was to compare the effects of regular butter with a special butter naturally enriched in c9,t11-CLA and VA on plasma lipids in female growing pigs. The experimental period lasted for three weeks and the two diets provided daily either 5.0 g c9,t11-CLA plus 15.1 g VA or 1.3 g c9,t11-CLA plus 3.6 g VA.

Results

The serum concentrations of c9,t11-CLA, VA and alpha-linolenic acid were increased and myristic (14:0) and palmitic acid (16:0) were reduced in the pigs fed the CLA+VA-rich butter-diet compared to regular butter, but no differences in plasma concentrations of triacylglycerol, cholesterol, HDL-cholesterol, LDL-cholesterol, LDL particle size distribution or total cholesterol/HDL cholesterol were observed among the two dietary treatment groups.

Conclusion

Growing pigs fed diets containing butter naturally enriched in about 20 g c9,t11-CLA plus VA daily for three weeks, had increased serum concentrations of alpha-linolenic acid and decreased myristic and palmitic acid compared to pigs fed regular butter, implying a potential benefit of the CLA+VA butter on serum fatty acid composition. Butter enriched in CLA+VA does not appear to have significant effect on the plasma lipoprotein profile in pigs.

Bovine milk in human nutrition--a review

Milk and milk products are nutritious food items containing numerous essential nutrients, but in the western societies the consumption of milk has decreased partly due to claimed negative health effects. The content of oleic acid, conjugated linoleic acid, omega-3 fatty acids, short- and medium chain fatty acids, vitamins, minerals and bioactive compounds may promote positive health effects. Full-fat milk has been shown to increase the mean gastric emptying time compared to half-skimmed milk, thereby increasing the gastrointestinal transit time. Also the low pH in fermented milk may delay the gastric emptying. Hence, it may be suggested that ingesting full-fat milk or fermented milk might be favourable for glycaemic (and appetite?) regulation. For some persons milk proteins, fat and milk sugar may be of health concern. The interaction between carbohydrates (both natural milk sugar and added sugar) and protein in milk exposed to heat may give products, whose effects on health should be further studied, and the increasing use of sweetened milk products should be questioned. The concentration in milk of several nutrients can be manipulated through feeding regimes. There is no evidence that moderate intake of milk fat gives increased risk of diseases.

Milk and the metabolic syndrome

The metabolic syndrome is a cluster of metabolic disorders, namely dyslipidaemia, hypertension, obesity and glucose intolerance. Insulin resistance is the core phenomenon. Co-occurrence is associated with increased cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk. Observational studies found no increased CVD risk with increasing consumption of milk and other dairy products. In several studies dairy consumption was inversely associated with the occurrence of one or several facets of the metabolic syndrome. Many dairy components may contribute to the beneficial effects. Milk and particularly whey appeared insulinotropic when given in a single meal, but not in longer-term intervention. Medium chain fatty acids improve insulin sensitivity. Whey proteins, amino acids, medium chain fatty acids and in particular calcium and other minerals may contribute to the beneficial effect of dairy products on body weight and body fat. Peptides, calcium and other minerals reduce blood pressure. Fermented products and probiotic bacteria decrease absorption of cholesterol, sphingomyelin of cholesterol and fat, calcium of cholesterol, bile acids and fat. Proteins, peptides and bacteria may also reduce plasma cholesterol. Lactose, citrate, proteins and peptides improve weight control, blood pressure and plasma lipids indirectly, by improving calcium bioavailability. Furthermore, dairy consumption improves the bioavailability of folate and other secondary plant components.