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Vieira C, Nery L, Martins L, Jabour L, Dias R, Simões E Silva AC. Downregulation of Membrane-bound Angiotensin Converting Enzyme 2 (ACE2) Receptor has a Pivotal Role in COVID-19 Immunopathology. Curr Drug Targets 2021; 22:254-281. [PMID: 33081670 DOI: 10.2174/1389450121666201020154033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2020] [Revised: 09/06/2020] [Accepted: 09/22/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) is becoming the major health issue in recent human history with thousands of deaths and millions of cases worldwide. Newer research and old experience with other coronaviruses highlighted a probable underlying mechanism of disturbance of the renin-angiotensin system (RAS) that is associated with the intrinsic effects of SARS-CoV-2 infection. OBJECTIVE In this review, we aimed to describe the intimate connections between the RAS components, the immune system and COVID-19 pathophysiology. METHODS This non-systematic review article summarizes recent evidence on the relationship between COVID-19 and the RAS. RESULTS Several studies have indicated that the downregulation of membrane-bound ACE2 may exert a key role for the impairment of immune functions and for COVID-19 patients' outcomes. The downregulation may occur by distinct mechanisms, particularly: (1) the shedding process induced by the SARS-CoV-2 fusion pathway, which reduces the amount of membrane-bound ACE2, stimulating more shedding by the high levels of Angiotensin II; (2) the endocytosis of ACE2 receptor with the virus itself and (3) by the interferon inhibition caused by SARS-CoV-2 effects on the immune system, which leads to a reduction of ACE2 receptor expression. CONCLUSION Recent research provides evidence of a reduction of the components of the alternative RAS axis, including ACE2 and Angiotensin-(1-7). In contrast, increased levels of Angiotensin II can activate the AT1 receptor in several organs. Consequently, increased inflammation, thrombosis and angiogenesis occur in patients infected with SARS-COV-2. Attention should be paid to the interactions of the RAS and COVID-19, mainly in the context of novel vaccines and proposed medications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristina Vieira
- Interdisciplinary Laboratory of Medical Investigation, Faculty of Medicine, Federal University of Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Lucas Nery
- Interdisciplinary Laboratory of Medical Investigation, Faculty of Medicine, Federal University of Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Ludimila Martins
- Interdisciplinary Laboratory of Medical Investigation, Faculty of Medicine, Federal University of Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Luiz Jabour
- Interdisciplinary Laboratory of Medical Investigation, Faculty of Medicine, Federal University of Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Raphael Dias
- Interdisciplinary Laboratory of Medical Investigation, Faculty of Medicine, Federal University of Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Ana Cristina Simões E Silva
- Interdisciplinary Laboratory of Medical Investigation, Faculty of Medicine, Federal University of Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
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García-Arroyo FE, Muñoz-Jiménez I, Gonzaga G, Tapia E, Osorio-Alonso H, Roncal-Jiménez CA, Iroz A, Vecchio M, Reyes-García JG, Johnson RJ, Sánchez-Lozada LG. A Role for Both V1a and V2 Receptors in Renal Heat Stress Injury Amplified by Rehydration with Fructose. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20225764. [PMID: 31744099 PMCID: PMC6888540 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20225764] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2019] [Revised: 11/10/2019] [Accepted: 11/14/2019] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Chronic vasopressin secretion induced by recurrent mild heat stress exposure is significantly enhanced by limited rehydration with a fructose-containing beverage both in rodents and in humans. Moreover, this effect has been associated with upregulation of the polyol–fructokinase pathway and increased renal oxidative stress. Previously, we have shown that pharmacological inhibition of both V1a and V2 vasopressin receptors with conivaptan improved such renal alterations. The aim of this study was to evaluate the independent contributions of V1a and V2 receptors to the renal damage caused by mild heat stress and limited rehydration with a fructose-containing beverage. Osmotic minipumps were used to deliver either relcovaptan (0.64 mg/day) or tolvaptan (0.25 mg/day) in male Wistar rats for two weeks. Corresponding dilution vehicles were used as controls. To induce dehydration, rats were exposed to mild heat stress (37 °C for 1 h, Monday to Friday). All groups received a 10% fructose solution as a rehydration fluid for 2 h after mild heat stress. For the remainder of the day and on weekends, rats received tap water. The independent blockade of either the V1a or the V2 receptor prevented renal damage, reduced oxidative stress, and decreased plasma cortisol and systemic inflammation. However, the beneficial effects were regulated by different mechanisms. Tolvaptan inhibited polyol–fructokinase pathway overactivation, while relcovaptan prevented upregulation of the renin–angiotensin system and SGK1 expression. These data suggest that both V1a and V2 receptors participate in renal damage caused by heat stress-induced dehydration when fructose-containing beverages are used as rehydration fluids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernando E. García-Arroyo
- Department of Cardio-Renal Physiopathology, INC Ignacio Chávez, Mexico City 14080, Mexico; (F.E.G.-A.); (I.M.-J.); (G.G.); (E.T.); (H.O.-A.)
- Sección de Estudios de Posgrado e Investigación, Escuela Superior de Medicina, IPN Mexico City 11340, Mexico;
| | - Itzel Muñoz-Jiménez
- Department of Cardio-Renal Physiopathology, INC Ignacio Chávez, Mexico City 14080, Mexico; (F.E.G.-A.); (I.M.-J.); (G.G.); (E.T.); (H.O.-A.)
- Sección de Estudios de Posgrado e Investigación, Escuela Superior de Medicina, IPN Mexico City 11340, Mexico;
| | - Guillermo Gonzaga
- Department of Cardio-Renal Physiopathology, INC Ignacio Chávez, Mexico City 14080, Mexico; (F.E.G.-A.); (I.M.-J.); (G.G.); (E.T.); (H.O.-A.)
| | - Edilia Tapia
- Department of Cardio-Renal Physiopathology, INC Ignacio Chávez, Mexico City 14080, Mexico; (F.E.G.-A.); (I.M.-J.); (G.G.); (E.T.); (H.O.-A.)
| | - Horacio Osorio-Alonso
- Department of Cardio-Renal Physiopathology, INC Ignacio Chávez, Mexico City 14080, Mexico; (F.E.G.-A.); (I.M.-J.); (G.G.); (E.T.); (H.O.-A.)
| | - Carlos A Roncal-Jiménez
- Renal Diseases and Hypertension, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO 80045, USA; (C.A.R.-J.); (R.J.J.)
| | - Alison Iroz
- Danone Research, 91767 Palaiseau, France; (A.I.); (M.V.)
| | | | - Juan G. Reyes-García
- Sección de Estudios de Posgrado e Investigación, Escuela Superior de Medicina, IPN Mexico City 11340, Mexico;
| | - Richard J Johnson
- Renal Diseases and Hypertension, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO 80045, USA; (C.A.R.-J.); (R.J.J.)
| | - L Gabriela Sánchez-Lozada
- Department of Cardio-Renal Physiopathology, INC Ignacio Chávez, Mexico City 14080, Mexico; (F.E.G.-A.); (I.M.-J.); (G.G.); (E.T.); (H.O.-A.)
- Correspondence: or
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Du YN, Tang XF, Xu L, Chen WD, Gao PJ, Han WQ. SGK1-FoxO1 Signaling Pathway Mediates Th17/Treg Imbalance and Target Organ Inflammation in Angiotensin II-Induced Hypertension. Front Physiol 2018; 9:1581. [PMID: 30524295 PMCID: PMC6262360 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2018.01581] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2018] [Accepted: 10/23/2018] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
It has been demonstrated that serum/glucocorticoid regulated kinase 1 (SGK1) and the downstream transcription factor forkhead box O1 (FoxO1) plays a critical role in the differentiation of T helper 17 cells/regulatory T cells (Th17/Treg). In the present study, we hypothesized that this SGK1-FoxO1 signaling pathway is involved in Th17/Treg imbalance and target organ damage in angiotensin II (AngII)-induced hypertensive mice. Results show that SGK1 inhibitor EMD638683 significantly reversed renal dysfunction and cardiac dysfunction in echocardiography as indicated by decreased blood urine nitrogen and serum creatinine in AngII-infused mice. Flow cytometric assay shows that there was significant Th17/Treg imbalance in spleen and in renal/cardiac infiltrating lymphocytes as indicated by the increased Th17 cells (CD4+-IL17A+ cells) and decreased Treg cells (CD4+-Foxp3+). Consistently, real-time PCR shows that Th17-related cytokines including IL-17A, IL-23, and tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α) was increased and Treg-related cytokine IL-10 was decreased in renal and cardiac infiltrating lymphocytes in AngII-infused mice. Meanwhile, SGK1 protein level, as well as its phosphorylation and activity, was significantly increased in spleen in AngII-infused rats. Furthermore, it was found that splenic phosphorylated FoxO1 was significantly increased, whereas total FoxO1 in nuclear preparation was significantly decreased in AngII-infused mice, suggesting that increased FoxO1 phosphorylation initiate its translocation from cytoplasm to nucleus. Notably, all changes were significantly inhibited by the treatment of EMD638683. These results suggest that SGK1 was involved in Th17/Treg imbalance and target organ damage in AngII-induced hypertension.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ya-Nan Du
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Hypertension, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China.,Shanghai Institute of Hypertension, Shanghai, China
| | - Xiao-Feng Tang
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Hypertension, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China.,Shanghai Institute of Hypertension, Shanghai, China
| | - Lian Xu
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Hypertension, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China.,Laboratory of Vascular Biology, Institute of Health Sciences, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Wen-Dong Chen
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Hypertension, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China.,Shanghai Institute of Hypertension, Shanghai, China
| | - Ping-Jin Gao
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Hypertension, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China.,Shanghai Institute of Hypertension, Shanghai, China.,Laboratory of Vascular Biology, Institute of Health Sciences, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Wei-Qing Han
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Hypertension, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China.,Shanghai Institute of Hypertension, Shanghai, China.,Laboratory of Vascular Biology, Institute of Health Sciences, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
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van Beusekom CD, Zimmering TM. Profibrotic effects of angiotensin II and transforming growth factor beta on feline kidney epithelial cells. J Feline Med Surg 2018; 21:780-787. [PMID: 30345862 PMCID: PMC6661713 DOI: 10.1177/1098612x18805862] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Objectives The aim of this study was to evaluate the role of angiotensin II (AT-II) and
its main mediator, transforming growth factor beta 1 (TGF-β1), in the
development of feline renal fibrosis. Methods Expression of marker genes indicating epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition
(EMT), profibrotic mediators and matricellular proteins was measured in
feline kidney epithelial cells (Crandell Rees feline kidney [CRFK] cells)
after incubation with AT-II and/or TGF-β1. Results Cells incubated with TGF-β1 or the combination of TGF-β1 with AT-II showed
clear EMT with more stretched fibroblastic cells, whereas the cells
incubated without TGF-β1 and AT-II (control) showed more epithelial cells.
Gene expression of collagen type I (COL1), tenascin-C
(TNC), trombospondin-1 (TSP-1),
connective tissue growth factor (CTGF) and alpha-smooth
muscle actin (α-SMA) increased significantly after
incubation of the CRFK cells with TGF-β1 or TGF-β1 in combination with AT-II
for 12 h. As incubation of the CRFK cells with only AT-II did not show any
significant rise in gene expression of the above-mentioned genes, this was
further investigated. In contrast to healthy feline kidney tissue, CRFK
cells showed almost no expression of the AT-II type 1 (AT1)
receptor. Conclusions and relevance TGF-β1 significantly induced expression of the EMT marker gene α-SMA,
profibrotic mediator CTGF, and fibrogenic proteins
COL1, TNC and TSP-1
in CRFK cells. The effect of TGF-β1 on myofibroblast formation was also
observed by the stretched appearance of the CRFK cells. As CRFK cells
expressed almost no AT1 receptors, this cell line proved not
suitable for testing the efficacy of drugs that interact with the
AT1 receptor. As AT-II stimulates the effects of TGF-β1 in
mammals, the results of this study suggest an indirect profibrotic effect of
AT-II besides the demonstrated profibrotic effect of TGF-β1 and thus the
development of feline renal fibrosis. Modulation of EMT or proliferation of
myofibroblasts could serve as a diagnostic tool and a novel therapeutic
target to inhibit renal fibrogenesis, and could possibly serve in the
therapy of feline renal fibrosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cyrina D van Beusekom
- Veterinary Pharmacology, Pharmacotherapy
and Toxicology, Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary
Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
- Cyrina D van Beusekom DVM, PhD, DipECVPT,
Veterinary Pharmacology, Pharmacotherapy and Toxicology, Institute for Risk
Assessment Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University,
Yalelaan 104, 3584 CM, Utrecht, The Netherlands
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Vasileiadis IE, Goudis CA, Giannakopoulou PT, Liu T. Angiotensin Converting Enzyme Inhibitors and Angiotensin Receptor Blockers: A Promising Medication for Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease? COPD 2018. [PMID: 29521545 DOI: 10.1080/15412555.2018.1432034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a complex disorder that primarily affects the lungs and is characterized not only by local pulmonary, but also by systemic inflammation which promotes the development of extrapulmonary and cardiovascular co-morbidities. Angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors and ARBs (angiotensin receptor blockers) are widely used drugs in the treatment of cardiovascular diseases, with growing evidence suggesting potential benefits in COPD patients. The purpose of this review is to describe the correlation of renin-angiotensin system (RAS) with COPD pathophysiology and to present the latest data regarding the potential role of RAS blockers in COPD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ioannis E Vasileiadis
- a Department of Cardiology , General Hospital of Thessaloniki G. Papanikolaou , Thessaloniki , Greece
| | - Christos A Goudis
- b Department of Cardiology , General Hospital of Serres , Serres , Greece
| | - Pinelopi T Giannakopoulou
- a Department of Cardiology , General Hospital of Thessaloniki G. Papanikolaou , Thessaloniki , Greece
| | - Tong Liu
- c Tianjin Key Laboratory of Ionic-Molecular Function of Cardiovascular Disease, Department of Cardiology, Tianjin Institute of Cardiology , Second Hospital of Tianjin Medical University , Tianjin , People's Republic of China
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Yoo G, Kim T, Chung C, Hwang DS, Lim DS. The novel YAP target gene, SGK1, upregulates TAZ activity by blocking GSK3β-mediated TAZ destabilization. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2017.06.092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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Savas Ü, Wei S, Hsu MH, Falck JR, Guengerich FP, Capdevila JH, Johnson EF. 20-Hydroxyeicosatetraenoic Acid (HETE)-dependent Hypertension in Human Cytochrome P450 (CYP) 4A11 Transgenic Mice: NORMALIZATION OF BLOOD PRESSURE BY SODIUM RESTRICTION, HYDROCHLOROTHIAZIDE, OR BLOCKADE OF THE TYPE 1 ANGIOTENSIN II RECEPTOR. J Biol Chem 2016; 291:16904-19. [PMID: 27298316 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m116.732297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2016] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Male and female homozygous 129/Sv mice carrying four copies of the human cytochrome P450 4A11 gene (CYP4A11) under control of its native promoter (B-129/Sv-4A11(+/+)) develop hypertension (142 ± 8 versus 113 ± 7 mm Hg systolic blood pressure (BP)), and exhibit increased 20-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid (20-HETE) in kidney and urine. The hypertension is reversible by a low-sodium diet and by the CYP4A inhibitor HET0016. B-129/Sv-4A11(+/+) mice display an 18% increase of plasma potassium (p < 0.02), but plasma aldosterone, angiotensin II (ANGII), and renin activities are unchanged. This phenotype resembles human genetic disorders with elevated activity of the sodium chloride co-transporter (NCC) and, accordingly, NCC abundance is increased by 50% in transgenic mice, and NCC levels are normalized by HET0016. ANGII is known to increase NCC abundance, and renal mRNA levels of its precursor angiotensinogen are increased 2-fold in B-129/Sv-4A11(+/+), and blockade of the ANGII receptor type 1 with losartan normalizes BP. A pro-hypertensive role for 20-HETE was implicated by normalization of BP and reversal of renal angiotensin mRNA increases by administration of the 20-HETE antagonists 2-((6Z,15Z)-20-hydroxyicosa-6,15-dienamido)acetate or (S)-2-((6Z,15Z)-20-hydroxyicosa-6,15-dienamido)succinate. SGK1 expression is also increased in B-129/Sv-4A11(+/+) mice and paralleled increases seen for NCC. Losartan, HET0016, and 20-HETE antagonists each normalized SGK1 mRNA expression. These results point to a potential 20-HETE dependence of intrarenal angiotensinogen production and ANGII receptor type 1 activation that are associated with increases in NCC and SGK1 and identify elevated P450 4A11 activity and 20-HETE as potential risk factors for salt-sensitive human hypertension by perturbation of the renal renin-angiotensin axis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Üzen Savas
- From the Department of Molecular and Experimental Medicine, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California 92037
| | | | - Mei-Hui Hsu
- From the Department of Molecular and Experimental Medicine, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California 92037
| | - John R Falck
- the Department of Biochemistry, The University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas, Dallas, Texas 75390
| | - F Peter Guengerich
- Biochemistry, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, and
| | | | - Eric F Johnson
- From the Department of Molecular and Experimental Medicine, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California 92037,
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Chilukoti RK, Mostertz J, Bukowska A, Aderkast C, Felix SB, Busch M, Völker U, Goette A, Wolke C, Homuth G, Lendeckel U. Effects of irbesartan on gene expression revealed by transcriptome analysis of left atrial tissue in a porcine model of acute rapid pacing in vivo. Int J Cardiol 2013; 168:2100-8. [PMID: 23414741 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijcard.2013.01.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2012] [Revised: 12/18/2012] [Accepted: 01/13/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Atrial fibrillation (AF) is characterized by electrical and structural remodeling of the atria with atrial fibrosis being one hallmark. Angiotensin II (AngII) is a major contributing factor and blockage of its type I receptor (AT1R) prevents remodeling to some extent. Here we explored the effects of the AT1R antagonist irbesartan on global gene expression and profibrotic signaling pathways after induction of rapid atrial pacing (RAP) in vivo in pigs. METHODS AND RESULTS Microarray-based RNA profiling was used to screen left atrial (LA) tissue specimens for differences in atrial gene expression in a model of acute RAP. RAP caused an overall expression profile that reflected AngII-induced ROS production, tissue remodeling, and energy depletion. Of special note, the mRNA levels of EDN1, SGK1, and CTGF encoding pro-endothelin, stress- and glucocorticoid activated kinase-1, and of connective tissue growth factor were identified to be significantly increased after 7h of rapid pacing. These specific expression changes were additionally validated by RT-qPCR or immunoblot analyses in LA, RA, and partly in LV samples. All RAP-induced differential gene expression patterns were partially attenuated in the presence of irbesartan. Similar results were obtained after RAP of HL-1 cardiomyocytes in vitro. Furthermore, exogenously added endothelin-1 (ET1) induced CTGF expression concomitant to the transcriptional activation of SGK1 in HL-1 cells. CONCLUSIONS RAP provokes substantial changes in atrial and ventricular myocardial gene expression that could be partly reversed by irbesartan. ET1 contributes to AF-dependent atrial fibrosis by synergistic activity with AngII to stimulate SGK1 expression and enhance phosphorylation of the SGK1 protein which, in turn, induces CTGF. The latter has been consistently associated with tissue fibrosis. These findings suggest ETR antagonists as being beneficial in AF treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ravi Kumar Chilukoti
- University Medicine, Ernst-Moritz-Arndt-University Greifswald, Interfaculty Institute for Genetics and Functional Genomics, Greifswald, Germany
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Morales MG, Vazquez Y, Acuña MJ, Rivera JC, Simon F, Salas JD, Alvarez Ruf J, Brandan E, Cabello-Verrugio C. Angiotensin II-induced pro-fibrotic effects require p38MAPK activity and transforming growth factor beta 1 expression in skeletal muscle cells. Int J Biochem Cell Biol 2012; 44:1993-2002. [PMID: 22964022 DOI: 10.1016/j.biocel.2012.07.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2012] [Revised: 07/26/2012] [Accepted: 07/30/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
Fibrotic disorders are typically characterised by excessive connective tissue and extracellular matrix (ECM) deposition that preclude the normal healing of different tissues. Several skeletal muscle dystrophies are characterised by extensive fibrosis. Among the factors involved in skeletal muscle fibrosis is angiotensin II (Ang-II), a key protein of the renin-angiotensin system (RAS). We previously demonstrated that myoblasts responded to Ang-II by increasing the ECM protein levels mediated by AT-1 receptors, implicating an Ang-II-induced reactive oxygen species (ROS) by a NAD(P)H oxidase-dependent mechanism. In this paper, we show that in myoblasts, Ang-II induced the increase of transforming growth factor beta 1 (TGF-β1) and connective tissue growth factor (CTGF) expression through its AT-1 receptor. This effect is dependent of the NAD(P)H oxidase (NOX)-induced ROS, as indicated by a decrease of the expression of both pro-fibrotic factors when the ROS production was inhibited via the NOX inhibitor apocynin. The increase in pro-fibrotic factors levels was paralleled by enhanced p38MAPK and ERK1/2 phosphorylation in response to Ang-II. However, only the p38MAPK activity was critical for the Ang-II-induced fibrotic effects, as indicated by the decrease in the Ang-II-induced TGF-β1 and CTGF expression and fibronectin levels by SB-203580, an inhibitor of the p38MAPK, but not by U0126, an inhibitor of ERK1/2 phosphorylation. Furthermore, we showed that the Ang-II-dependent p38MAPK activation, but not the ERK1/2 phosphorylation, was necessary for the NOX-derived ROS. In addition, we demonstrated that TGF-β1 expression was required for the Ang-II-induced pro-fibrotic effects evaluated by using SB-431542, an inhibitor of TGF-βRI kinase activity, and by knocking down TGF-β1 levels by shRNA technique. These results strongly suggest that the fibrotic response to Ang-II is mediated by the AT-1 receptor and requires the p38MAPK phosphorylation, NOX-induced ROS, and TGF-β1 expression increase mediated by Ang-II in skeletal muscle cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- María Gabriela Morales
- Centro de Regulación Celular y Patología, Centro de Regeneración y Envejecimiento, Departamento de Biología Celular y Molecular, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
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Uhal BD, Li X, Piasecki CC, Molina-Molina M. Angiotensin signalling in pulmonary fibrosis. Int J Biochem Cell Biol 2012; 44:465-8. [PMID: 22155301 PMCID: PMC3288339 DOI: 10.1016/j.biocel.2011.11.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2011] [Revised: 11/14/2011] [Accepted: 11/22/2011] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
A large body of evidence demonstrates that angiotensin II and angiotensin receptors are required for the pathogenesis of experimental lung fibrosis. Angiotensin has a number of profibrotic effects on lung parenchymal cells that include the induction of growth factors for mesenchymal cells, extracellular matrix molecules, cytokines and increased motility of lung fibroblasts. Angiotensin is also proapoptotic for lung epithelial cells, and is synthesized by a local system (i.e., entirely within the lung tissue) after lung injury by a variety of agents of both xenobiotic and endogenous origins. Recent evidence shows that the counterregulatory molecule angiotensin 1-7, the product of the enzyme ACE-2, inhibits epithelial cell apoptosis and thus acts as an antifibrotic epithelial survival factor. This manuscript reviews the evidence supporting a role for angiotensin in lung fibrogenesis and discusses the signalling mechanisms underlying its action on lung parenchymal cells important in the pathogenesis of pulmonary fibrosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bruce D Uhal
- Department of Physiology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, United States.
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Baskin R, Sayeski PP. Angiotensin II mediates cell survival through upregulation and activation of the serum and glucocorticoid inducible kinase 1. Cell Signal 2011; 24:435-442. [PMID: 21963429 DOI: 10.1016/j.cellsig.2011.09.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2011] [Accepted: 09/11/2011] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The serum- and glucocorticoid-inducible kinase 1 (SGK1) is known to regulate a wide variety of cellular processes, including renal sodium retention and cell survival. Angiotensin II (Ang II) is one of the many signaling molecules capable of regulating SGK1 expression, and is also known to impact cell survival. Here, we examined the role of SGK1 in Ang II-mediated cell survival. We hypothesized that Ang II protects cells from apoptosis by upregulating and activating SGK1. To test this, we examined the effects of Ang II stimulation on SGK1 expression and downstream signaling. We also examined the effects of Ang II treatment and siRNA-mediated SGK1 knockdown on apoptosis after serum starvation. We found that after 2h of Ang II treatment, SGK1 mRNA expression was increased approximately 2-fold. This induction was sensitive to reductions in intracellular calcium levels after pretreatment with BAPTA-AM, but insensitive to the L-type calcium channel blocker verapamil. SGK1 induction was also sensitive to the tyrosine kinase inhibitor genistein. Ang II treatment also caused a rapid increase in the level of phosphorylation of SGK1 at Ser422 and Thr256, and Ser422 phosphorylation was rapamycin-sensitive. We found that Ang II treatment was protective against serum starvation-induced apoptosis, and this protective effect was significantly blunted when SGK1 was silenced via siRNA. Lastly, Ang II induced FOXO3A phosphorylation in an SGK1-dependent manner, thereby reducing the pro-apoptotic actions of FOXO3A. Overall, these results indicate that Ang II upregulates and activates SGK1, leading to increased cell survival via multiple, non-redundant mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebekah Baskin
- Department of Physiology and Functional Genomics, University of Florida College of Medicine, Gainesville, FL 32610, United States
| | - Peter P Sayeski
- Department of Physiology and Functional Genomics, University of Florida College of Medicine, Gainesville, FL 32610, United States.
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Rüster C, Wolf G. Angiotensin II as a morphogenic cytokine stimulating renal fibrogenesis. J Am Soc Nephrol 2011; 22:1189-99. [PMID: 21719784 DOI: 10.1681/asn.2010040384] [Citation(s) in RCA: 144] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Inhibitors of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system attenuate glomerulosclerosis and interstitial fibrosis. Although the mechanisms underlying their antifibrotic effects are complex, angiotensin II (Ang II) emerges as a major profibrogenic cytokine. Ang II modulates renal cell growth, extracellular matrix synthesis, and degradation by multiple fibrotic pathways. One of the main targets of Ang II in renal fibrosis is TGFβ. Many, but not all, of the stimulatory effects of Ang II on fibrogenesis depend on the induction of TGFβ and its downstream mediators of matrix accumulation, inflammation, and apoptosis. However because of the difficulty in targeting TGFβ, connective tissue growth factor β (CTGF), a downstream mediator of TGFβ, has become a more promising antifibrotic target. Ang II can directly induce expression of renal CTGF and mediate epithelial-mesenchymal transition. Other profibrotic factors stimulated by Ang II include endothelin-1, plasminogen activator inhibitor-1, matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-2, and a tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-2. Finally, connections among Ang II, hypoxia, and the induction of hypoxia-inducible factor-1α contribute to fibrogenesis. A better understanding of the multiple morphogenic effects of Ang II may be necessary to develop better strategies to halt the progression of renal disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christiane Rüster
- Department of Internal Medicine III, Friedrich Schiller University, Erlanger-Allee 101, D-07740 Jena, Germany
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The physiological impact of the serum and glucocorticoid-inducible kinase SGK1. Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens 2009; 18:439-48. [PMID: 19584721 DOI: 10.1097/mnh.0b013e32832f125e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 113] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW The role of serum and glucocorticoid-inducible kinase 1 (SGK1) in renal physiology and pathophysiology is reviewed with particular emphasis on recent advances. RECENT FINDINGS The mammalian target of rapamycin complex 2 has been shown to phosphorylate SGK1 at Ser422 (the so-called hydrophobic motif). Ser397 and Ser401 are two additional SGK1-phosphorylation sites required for maximal SGK1 activity. A 5' variant alternate transcript of human Sgk1 has been identified that is widely expressed and shows improved stability, enhanced membrane association, and greater stimulation of epithelial Na+ transport. SGK1 is essential for optimal processing of the epithelial sodium channel and also regulates the expression of the Na+-Cl- cotransporter. With regard to pathophysiology, SGK1 participates in the stimulation of renal tubular glucose transport in diabetes, the renal profibrotic effect of both angiotensin II and aldosterone, and in fetal programing of arterial hypertension. SUMMARY The outlined recent findings advanced our understanding of the molecular regulation of SGK1 as well as the role of the kinase in renal physiology and the pathophysiology of renal disease and hypertension. Future studies using pharmacological inhibitors of SGK1 will reveal the utility of the kinase as a new therapeutic target.
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Rozansky DJ, Cornwall T, Subramanya AR, Rogers S, Yang YF, David LL, Zhu X, Yang CL, Ellison DH. Aldosterone mediates activation of the thiazide-sensitive Na-Cl cotransporter through an SGK1 and WNK4 signaling pathway. J Clin Invest 2009; 119:2601-12. [PMID: 19690383 DOI: 10.1172/jci38323] [Citation(s) in RCA: 116] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2008] [Accepted: 06/24/2009] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Aldosterone regulates volume homeostasis and blood pressure by enhancing sodium reabsorption in the kidney's distal nephron (DN). On the apical surface of these renal epithelia, aldosterone increases expression and activity of the thiazide-sensitive Na-Cl cotransporter (NCC) and the epithelial sodium channel (ENaC). While the cellular mechanisms by which aldosterone regulates ENaC have been well characterized, the molecular mechanisms that link aldosterone to NCC-mediated Na+/Cl- reabsorption remain elusive. The serine/threonine kinase with-no-lysine 4 (WNK4) has previously been shown to reduce cell surface expression of NCC. Here we measured sodium uptake in a Xenopus oocyte expression system and found that serum and glucocorticoid-induced kinase 1 (SGK1), an aldosterone-responsive gene expressed in the DN, attenuated the inhibitory effect of WNK4 on NCC activity. In addition, we showed--both in vitro and in a human kidney cell line--that SGK1 bound and phosphorylated WNK4. We found one serine located within an established SGK1 consensus target sequence, and the other within a motif that was, to our knowledge, previously uncharacterized. Mutation of these target serines to aspartate, in order to mimic phosphorylation, attenuated the effect of WNK4 on NCC activity in the Xenopus oocyte system. These data thus delineate what we believe to be a novel mechanism for aldosterone activation of NCC through SGK1 signaling of WNK4 kinase.
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Affiliation(s)
- David J Rozansky
- Department of Pediatrics, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, Oregon, USA
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