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Zhu H, Auten RL, Whorton AR, Mason SN, Bock CB, Kucera GT, Kelleher ZT, Vose AT, McMahon TJ. Endothelial LAT1 (SLC7A5) Mediates S-Nitrosothiol Import and Modulates Respiratory Sequelae of Red Blood Cell Transfusion In Vivo. Thromb Haemost 2024; 124:656-668. [PMID: 38519039 PMCID: PMC11199053 DOI: 10.1055/s-0044-1782182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2023] [Accepted: 01/03/2024] [Indexed: 03/24/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Increased adhesivity of red blood cells (RBCs) to endothelial cells (ECs) may contribute to organ dysfunction in malaria, sickle cell disease, and diabetes. RBCs normally export nitric oxide (NO)-derived vascular signals, facilitating blood flow. S-nitrosothiols (SNOs) are thiol adducts formed in RBCs from precursor NO upon the oxygenation-linked allosteric transition in hemoglobin. RBCs export these vasoregulatory SNOs on demand, thereby regulating regional blood flow and preventing RBC-EC adhesion, and the large (system L) neutral amino acid transporter 1 (LAT1; SLC7A5) appears to mediate SNO export by RBCs. METHODS To determine the role of LAT1-mediated SNO import by ECs generally and of LAT1-mediated SNO import by ECs in RBC SNO-dependent modulation of RBC sequestration and blood oxygenation in vivo, we engineered LAT1fl/fl; Cdh5-Cre+ mice, in which the putative SNO transporter LAT1 can be inducibly depleted (knocked down, KD) specifically in ECs ("LAT1ECKD"). RESULTS We show that LAT1 in mouse lung ECs mediates cellular SNO uptake. ECs from LAT1ECKD mice (tamoxifen-induced LAT1fl/fl; Cdh5-Cre+) import SNOs poorly ex vivo compared with ECs from wild-type (tamoxifen-treated LAT1fl/fl; Cdh5-Cre-) mice. In vivo, endothelial depletion of LAT1 increased RBC sequestration in the lung and decreased blood oxygenation after RBC transfusion. CONCLUSION This is the first study showing a role for SNO transport by LAT1 in ECs in a genetic mouse model. We provide the first direct evidence for the coordination of RBC SNO export with EC SNO import via LAT1. SNO flux via LAT1 modulates RBC-EC sequestration in lungs after transfusion, and its disruption impairs blood oxygenation by the lung.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongmei Zhu
- Department of Medicine, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina, United States
- Durham VA Health Care System, Durham North Carolina, United States
| | - Richard L. Auten
- Department of Pediatrics, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina, United States
| | - Augustus Richard Whorton
- Department of Pharmacology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina, United States
| | - Stanley Nicholas Mason
- Department of Pediatrics, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina, United States
| | - Cheryl B. Bock
- Rodent Cancer Models Shared Resource, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina, United States
| | - Gary T. Kucera
- Rodent Cancer Models Shared Resource, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina, United States
| | - Zachary T. Kelleher
- Department of Medicine, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina, United States
| | - Aaron T. Vose
- Department of Medicine, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina, United States
- Durham VA Health Care System, Durham North Carolina, United States
| | - Tim J. McMahon
- Department of Medicine, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina, United States
- Durham VA Health Care System, Durham North Carolina, United States
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2
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Wise TJ, Ott ME, Joseph MS, Welsby IJ, Darrow CC, McMahon TJ. Modulation of the allosteric and vasoregulatory arms of erythrocytic oxygen transport. Front Physiol 2024; 15:1394650. [PMID: 38915775 PMCID: PMC11194670 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2024.1394650] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2024] [Accepted: 04/24/2024] [Indexed: 06/26/2024] Open
Abstract
Efficient distribution of oxygen (O2) to the tissues in mammals depends on the evolved ability of red blood cell (RBC) hemoglobin (Hb) to sense not only O2 levels, but metabolic cues such as pH, PCO2, and organic phosphates, and then dispense or take up oxygen accordingly. O2 delivery is the product of not only oxygen release from RBCs, but also blood flow, which itself is also governed by vasoactive molecular mediators exported by RBCs. These vascular signals, including ATP and S-nitrosothiols (SNOs) are produced and exported as a function of the oxygen and metabolic milieu, and then fine-tune peripheral metabolism through context-sensitive vasoregulation. Emerging and repurposed RBC-oriented therapeutics can modulate either or both of these allosteric and vasoregulatory activities, with a single molecule or other intervention influencing both arms of O2 transport in some cases. For example, organic phosphate repletion of stored RBCs boosts the negative allosteric effector 2,3 biphosphoglycerate (BPG) as well as the anti-adhesive molecule ATP. In sickle cell disease, aromatic aldehydes such as voxelotor can disfavor sickling by increasing O2 affinity, and in newer generations, these molecules have been coupled to vasoactive nitric oxide (NO)-releasing adducts. Activation of RBC pyruvate kinase also promotes a left shift in oxygen binding by consuming and lowering BPG, while increasing the ATP available for cell health and export on demand. Further translational and clinical investigation of these novel allosteric and/or vasoregulatory approaches to modulating O2 transport are expected to yield new insights and improve the ability to correct or compensate for anemia and other O2 delivery deficits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas J. Wise
- Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC, United States
| | - Maura E. Ott
- Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC, United States
| | - Mahalah S. Joseph
- Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC, United States
- Florida International University School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States
| | - Ian J. Welsby
- Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC, United States
| | - Cole C. Darrow
- Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC, United States
| | - Tim J. McMahon
- Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC, United States
- Durham VA Health Care System, Durham, NC, United States
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3
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Dent MR, DeMartino AW. Nitric oxide and thiols: Chemical biology, signalling paradigms and vascular therapeutic potential. Br J Pharmacol 2023:10.1111/bph.16274. [PMID: 37908126 PMCID: PMC11058123 DOI: 10.1111/bph.16274] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2023] [Revised: 09/18/2023] [Accepted: 10/09/2023] [Indexed: 11/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Nitric oxide (• NO) interactions with biological thiols play crucial, but incompletely determined, roles in vascular signalling and other biological processes. Here, we highlight two recently proposed signalling paradigms: (1) the formation of a vasodilating labile nitrosyl ferrous haem (NO-ferrohaem) facilitated by thiols via thiyl radical generation and (2) polysulfides/persulfides and their interaction with • NO. We also describe the specific (bio)chemical routes in which • NO and thiols react to form S-nitrosothiols, a broad class of small molecules, and protein post-translational modifications that can influence protein function through catalytic site or allosteric structural changes. S-Nitrosothiol formation depends upon cellular conditions, but critically, an appropriate oxidant for either the thiol (yielding a thiyl radical) or • NO (yielding a nitrosonium [NO+ ]-donating species) is required. We examine the roles of these collective • NO/thiol species in vascular signalling and their cardiovascular therapeutic potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew R. Dent
- Heart, Lung, Blood, and Vascular Medicine Institute, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Anthony W. DeMartino
- Department of Medicine, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
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4
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Gajecki D, Gawryś J, Szahidewicz-Krupska E, Doroszko A. Role of Erythrocytes in Nitric Oxide Metabolism and Paracrine Regulation of Endothelial Function. Antioxidants (Basel) 2022; 11:antiox11050943. [PMID: 35624807 PMCID: PMC9137828 DOI: 10.3390/antiox11050943] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2022] [Revised: 05/05/2022] [Accepted: 05/08/2022] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Emerging studies provide new data shedding some light on the complex and pivotal role of red blood cells (RBCs) in nitric oxide (NO) metabolism and paracrine regulation of endothelial function. NO is involved in the regulation of vasodilatation, platelet aggregation, inflammation, hypoxic adaptation, and oxidative stress. Even though tremendous knowledge about NO metabolism has been collected, the exact RBCs’ status still requires evaluation. This paper summarizes the actual knowledge regarding the role of erythrocytes as a mobile depot of amino acids necessary for NO biotransformation. Moreover, the complex regulation of RBCs’ translocases is presented with a particular focus on cationic amino acid transporters (CATs) responsible for the NO substrates and derivatives transport. The main part demonstrates the intraerythrocytic metabolism of L-arginine with its regulation by reactive oxygen species and arginase activity. Additionally, the process of nitrite and nitrate turnover was demonstrated to be another stable source of NO, with its reduction by xanthine oxidoreductase or hemoglobin. Additional function of hemoglobin in NO synthesis and its subsequent stabilization in steady intermediates is also discussed. Furthermore, RBCs regulate the vascular tone by releasing ATP, inducing smooth muscle cell relaxation, and decreasing platelet aggregation. Erythrocytes and intraerythrocytic NO metabolism are also responsible for the maintenance of normotension. Hence, RBCs became a promising new therapeutic target in restoring NO homeostasis in cardiovascular disorders.
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5
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Gaston B, Smith L, Bosch J, Seckler J, Kunze D, Kiselar J, Marozkina N, Hodges CA, Wintrobe P, McGee K, Morozkina TS, Burton ST, Lewis T, Strassmaier T, Getsy P, Bates JN, Lewis SJ. Voltage-gated potassium channel proteins and stereoselective S-nitroso-l-cysteine signaling. JCI Insight 2020; 5:134174. [PMID: 32790645 PMCID: PMC7526540 DOI: 10.1172/jci.insight.134174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2019] [Accepted: 08/05/2020] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
S-nitroso-l-cysteine (L-CSNO) behaves as a ligand. Its soluble guanylate cyclase–independent (sGC-independent) effects are stereoselective — that is, not recapitulated by S-nitroso-d-cysteine (D-CSNO) — and are inhibited by chemical congeners. However, candidate L-CSNO receptors have not been identified. Here, we have used 2 complementary affinity chromatography assays — followed by unbiased proteomic analysis — to identify voltage-gated K+ channel (Kv) proteins as binding partners for L-CSNO. Stereoselective L-CSNO–Kv interaction was confirmed structurally and functionally using surface plasmon resonance spectroscopy; hydrogen deuterium exchange; and, in Kv1.1/Kv1.2/Kvβ2-overexpressing cells, patch clamp assays. Remarkably, these sGC-independent L-CSNO effects did not involve S-nitrosylation of Kv proteins. In isolated rat and mouse respiratory control (petrosyl) ganglia, L-CSNO stereoselectively inhibited Kv channel function. Genetic ablation of Kv1.1 prevented this effect. In intact animals, L-CSNO injection at the level of the carotid body dramatically and stereoselectively increased minute ventilation while having no effect on blood pressure; this effect was inhibited by the L-CSNO congener S-methyl-l-cysteine. Kv proteins are physiologically relevant targets of endogenous L-CSNO. This may be a signaling pathway of broad relevance. Two complementary affinity chromatography assays, followed by unbiased proteomic analysis, identified voltage-gated K+ channel (Kv) proteins as binding partners for S-nitroso-l-cysteine (L-CSNO).
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin Gaston
- Riley Hospital for Children, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA.,Department of Pediatric Pulmonology.,Department of Physiology and Biophysics
| | | | | | | | | | - Janna Kiselar
- Department of Proteomics and Bioinformatics, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
| | | | | | - Patrick Wintrobe
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Maryland, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - James N Bates
- Department of Anesthesia, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa, USA
| | - Stephen J Lewis
- Department of Pediatric Pulmonology.,Department of Pharmacology, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
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6
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Nitric oxide loading reduces sickle red cell adhesion and vaso-occlusion in vivo. Blood Adv 2020; 3:2586-2597. [PMID: 31484636 DOI: 10.1182/bloodadvances.2019031633] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2019] [Accepted: 07/23/2019] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Sickle red blood cells (SSRBCs) are adherent to the endothelium, activate leukocyte adhesion, and are deficient in bioactive nitric oxide (NO) adducts such as S-nitrosothiols (SNOs), with reduced ability to induce vasodilation in response to hypoxia. All these pathophysiologic characteristics promote vascular occlusion, the hallmark of sickle cell disease (SCD). Loading hypoxic SSRBCs in vitro with NO followed by reoxygenation significantly decreased epinephrine-activated SSRBC adhesion to the endothelium, the ability of activated SSRBCs to mediate leukocyte adhesion in vitro, and vessel obstruction in vivo. Because transfusion is frequently used in SCD, we also determined the effects of banked (SNO-depleted) red blood cells (RBCs) on vaso-occlusion in vivo. Fresh or 14-day-old normal RBCs (AARBCs) reduced epinephrine-activated SSRBC adhesion to the vascular endothelium and prevented vaso-occlusion. In contrast, AARBCs stored for 30 days failed to decrease activated SSRBC adhesivity or vaso-occlusion, unless these RBCs were loaded with NO. Furthermore, NO loading of SSRBCs increased S-nitrosohemoglobin and modulated epinephrine's effect by upregulating phosphorylation of membrane proteins, including pyruvate kinase, E3 ubiquitin ligase, and the cytoskeletal protein 4.1. Thus, abnormal SSRBC NO/SNO content both contributes to the vaso-occlusive pathophysiology of SCD, potentially by affecting at least protein phosphorylation, and is potentially amenable to correction by (S)NO repletion or by RBC transfusion.
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7
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Sayama S, Song A, Brown BC, Couturier J, Cai X, Xu P, Chen C, Zheng Y, Iriyama T, Sibai B, Longo M, Kellems RE, D'Alessandro A, Xia Y. Maternal erythrocyte ENT1-mediated AMPK activation counteracts placental hypoxia and supports fetal growth. JCI Insight 2020; 5:130205. [PMID: 32434995 DOI: 10.1172/jci.insight.130205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2019] [Accepted: 04/15/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Insufficient O2 supply is frequently associated with fetal growth restriction (FGR), a leading cause of perinatal mortality and morbidity. Although the erythrocyte is the most abundant and only cell type to deliver O2 in our body, its function and regulatory mechanism in FGR remain unknown. Here, we report that genetic ablation of mouse erythrocyte equilibrative nucleoside transporter 1 (eENT1) in dams, but not placentas or fetuses, results in FGR. Unbiased high-throughput metabolic profiling coupled with in vitro and in vivo flux analyses with isotopically labeled tracers led us to discover that maternal eENT1-dependent adenosine uptake is critical in activating AMPK by controlling the AMP/ATP ratio and its downstream target, bisphosphoglycerate mutase (BPGM); in turn, BPGM mediates 2,3-BPG production, which enhances O2 delivery to maintain placental oxygenation. Mechanistically and functionally, we revealed that genetic ablation of maternal eENT1 increases placental HIF-1α; preferentially reduces placental large neutral aa transporter 1 (LAT1) expression, activity, and aa supply; and induces FGR. Translationally, we revealed that elevated HIF-1α directly reduces LAT1 gene expression in cultured human trophoblasts. We demonstrate the importance and molecular insight of maternal eENT1 in fetal growth and open up potentially new diagnostic and therapeutic possibilities for FGR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seisuke Sayama
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, Texas, USA.,Department of Obstetrics & Gynecology, University of Tokyo, Japan
| | - Anren Song
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - Benjamin C Brown
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, USA
| | | | - Xiaoli Cai
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - Ping Xu
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - Changhan Chen
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - Yangxi Zheng
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - Takayuki Iriyama
- Department of Obstetrics & Gynecology, University of Tokyo, Japan
| | - Baha Sibai
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology, and Reproductive Sciences, and
| | - Monica Longo
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology, and Reproductive Sciences, and
| | - Rodney E Kellems
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, Texas, USA.,Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - Angelo D'Alessandro
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, USA
| | - Yang Xia
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, Texas, USA.,Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, Texas, USA
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8
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McMahon TJ. Red Blood Cell Deformability, Vasoactive Mediators, and Adhesion. Front Physiol 2019; 10:1417. [PMID: 31803068 PMCID: PMC6873820 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2019.01417] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2019] [Accepted: 11/01/2019] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Healthy red blood cells (RBCs) deform readily in response to shear stress in the circulation, facilitating their efficient passage through capillaries. RBCs also export vasoactive mediators in response to deformation and other physiological and pathological stimuli. Deoxygenation of RBC hemoglobin leads to the export of vasodilator and antiadhesive S-nitrosothiols (SNOs) and adenosine triphosphate (ATP) in parallel with oxygen transport in the respiratory cycle. Together, these mediated responses to shear stress and oxygen offloading promote the efficient flow of blood cells and in turn optimize oxygen delivery. In diseases including sickle cell anemia and conditions including conventional blood banking, these adaptive functions may be compromised as a result, for example, of limited RBC deformability, impaired mediator formation, or dysfunctional mediator export. Ongoing work, including single cell approaches, is examining relevant mechanisms and remedies in health and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timothy J McMahon
- Durham VA Medical Center, Duke University, Durham, NC, United States
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9
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Rogers SC, Dosier LB, McMahon TJ, Zhu H, Timm D, Zhang H, Herbert J, Atallah J, Palmer GM, Cook A, Ernst M, Prakash J, Terng M, Towfighi P, Doctor R, Said A, Joens MS, Fitzpatrick JAJ, Hanna G, Lin X, Reisz JA, Nemkov T, D’Alessandro A, Doctor A. Red blood cell phenotype fidelity following glycerol cryopreservation optimized for research purposes. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0209201. [PMID: 30576340 PMCID: PMC6303082 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0209201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2018] [Accepted: 12/01/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Intact red blood cells (RBCs) are required for phenotypic analyses. In order to allow separation (time and location) between subject encounter and sample analysis, we developed a research-specific RBC cryopreservation protocol and assessed its impact on data fidelity for key biochemical and physiological assays. RBCs drawn from healthy volunteers were aliquotted for immediate analysis or following glycerol-based cryopreservation, thawing, and deglycerolization. RBC phenotype was assessed by (1) scanning electron microscopy (SEM) imaging and standard morphometric RBC indices, (2) osmotic fragility, (3) deformability, (4) endothelial adhesion, (5) oxygen (O2) affinity, (6) ability to regulate hypoxic vasodilation, (7) nitric oxide (NO) content, (8) metabolomic phenotyping (at steady state, tracing with [1,2,3-13C3]glucose ± oxidative challenge with superoxide thermal source; SOTS-1), as well as in vivo quantification (following human to mouse RBC xenotransfusion) of (9) blood oxygenation content mapping and flow dynamics (velocity and adhesion). Our revised glycerolization protocol (40% v/v final) resulted in >98.5% RBC recovery following freezing (-80°C) and thawing (37°C), with no difference compared to the standard reported method (40% w/v final). Full deglycerolization (>99.9% glycerol removal) of 40% v/v final samples resulted in total cumulative lysis of ~8%, compared to ~12-15% with the standard method. The post cryopreservation/deglycerolization RBC phenotype was indistinguishable from that for fresh RBCs with regard to physical RBC parameters (morphology, volume, and density), osmotic fragility, deformability, endothelial adhesivity, O2 affinity, vasoregulation, metabolomics, and flow dynamics. These results indicate that RBC cryopreservation/deglycerolization in 40% v/v glycerol final does not significantly impact RBC phenotype (compared to fresh cells).
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen C. Rogers
- Department of Pediatrics, Divisions of Critical Care Medicine, Washington University in Saint Louis, School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO, United States of America
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biophysics, Washington University in Saint Louis, School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO, United States of America
| | - Laura B. Dosier
- Department of Pediatrics, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC, United States of America
| | - Timothy J. McMahon
- Department Medicine, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC, United States of America
- Departments of Medicine, Durham VA Medical Center, Durham, NC, United States of America
| | - Hongmei Zhu
- Department Medicine, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC, United States of America
- Departments of Medicine, Durham VA Medical Center, Durham, NC, United States of America
| | - David Timm
- Department of Pediatrics, Divisions of Critical Care Medicine, Washington University in Saint Louis, School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO, United States of America
| | - Hengtao Zhang
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Duke Univ. School of Medicine, Durham, NC, United States of America
| | - Joseph Herbert
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Duke Univ. School of Medicine, Durham, NC, United States of America
| | - Jacqueline Atallah
- Department Medicine, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC, United States of America
| | - Gregory M. Palmer
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Duke Univ. School of Medicine, Durham, NC, United States of America
| | - Asa Cook
- Department of Pediatrics, Divisions of Critical Care Medicine, Washington University in Saint Louis, School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO, United States of America
| | - Melanie Ernst
- Department of Pediatrics, Divisions of Critical Care Medicine, Washington University in Saint Louis, School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO, United States of America
| | - Jaya Prakash
- Department of Pediatrics, Divisions of Critical Care Medicine, Washington University in Saint Louis, School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO, United States of America
| | - Mark Terng
- Department of Pediatrics, Divisions of Critical Care Medicine, Washington University in Saint Louis, School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO, United States of America
| | - Parhom Towfighi
- Department of Pediatrics, Divisions of Critical Care Medicine, Washington University in Saint Louis, School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO, United States of America
| | - Reid Doctor
- Department of Pediatrics, Divisions of Critical Care Medicine, Washington University in Saint Louis, School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO, United States of America
| | - Ahmed Said
- Department of Pediatrics, Divisions of Critical Care Medicine, Washington University in Saint Louis, School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO, United States of America
| | - Matthew S. Joens
- Washington University Center for Cellular Imaging, Washington University in Saint Louis, School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO, United States of America
| | - James A. J. Fitzpatrick
- Washington University Center for Cellular Imaging, Washington University in Saint Louis, School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO, United States of America
- Departments of Neuroscience and Cell Biology & Physiology, Washington University in Saint Louis, School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO, United States of America
| | - Gabi Hanna
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Duke Univ. School of Medicine, Durham, NC, United States of America
| | - Xue Lin
- Department of Pediatrics, Divisions of Critical Care Medicine, Washington University in Saint Louis, School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO, United States of America
| | - Julie A. Reisz
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Colorado Denver—Aurora, CO, United States of America
| | - Travis Nemkov
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Colorado Denver—Aurora, CO, United States of America
| | - Angelo D’Alessandro
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Colorado Denver—Aurora, CO, United States of America
| | - Allan Doctor
- Department of Pediatrics, Divisions of Critical Care Medicine, Washington University in Saint Louis, School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO, United States of America
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biophysics, Washington University in Saint Louis, School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO, United States of America
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