Altered stoichiometry of FKBP12.6 versus ryanodine receptor as a cause of abnormal Ca(2+) leak through ryanodine receptor in heart failure

Abnormal phosphorylation / dephosphorylation and Ca2+ dysfunction in heart failure

Heart failure (HF) can be caused by a variety of causes characterized by abnormal myocardial systole and diastole. Ca2+ current through the L-type calcium channel (LTCC) on the membrane is the initial trigger signal for a cardiac cycle. Declined systole and diastole in HF are associated with dysfunction of myocardial Ca2+ function. This disorder can be correlated with unbalanced levels of phosphorylation / dephosphorylation of LTCC, endoplasmic reticulum (ER), and myofilament. Kinase and phosphatase activity changes along with HF progress, resulting in phased changes in the degree of phosphorylation / dephosphorylation. It is important to realize the phosphorylation / dephosphorylation differences between a normal and a failing heart. This review focuses on phosphorylation / dephosphorylation changes in the progression of HF and summarizes the effects of phosphorylation / dephosphorylation of LTCC, ER function, and myofilament function in normal conditions and HF based on previous experiments and clinical research. Also, we summarize current therapeutic methods based on abnormal phosphorylation / dephosphorylation and clarify potential therapeutic directions.

Dual effect of cardiac FKBP12.6 overexpression on excitation-contraction coupling and the incidence of ventricular arrhythmia depending on its expression level

FKBP12.6, a binding protein to the immunosuppressant FK506, which also binds the ryanodine receptor (RyR2) in the heart, has been proposed to regulate RyR2 function and to have antiarrhythmic properties. However, the level of FKBP12.6 expression in normal hearts remains elusive and some controversies still persist regarding its effects, both in basal conditions and during β-adrenergic stimulation. We quantified FKBP12.6 in the left ventricles (LV) of WT (wild-type) mice and in two novel transgenic models expressing distinct levels of FKBP12.6, using a custom-made specific anti-FKBP12.6 antibody and a recombinant protein. FKBP12.6 level in WT LV was very low (0.16 ± 0.02 nmol/g of LV), indicating that <15% RyR2 monomers are bound to the protein. Mice with 14.1 ± 0.2 nmol of FKBP12.6 per g of LV (TG1) had mild cardiac hypertrophy and normal function and were protected against epinephrine/caffeine-evoked arrhythmias. The ventricular myocytes showed higher [Ca2+]i transient amplitudes than WT myocytes and normal SR-Ca2+ load, while fewer myocytes showed Ca2+ sparks. TG1 cardiomyocytes responded to 50 nM Isoproterenol increasing these [Ca2+]i parameters and producing RyR2-Ser2808 phosphorylation. Mice with more than twice the TG1 FKBP12.6 value (TG2) showed marked cardiac hypertrophy with calcineurin activation and more arrhythmias than WT mice during β-adrenergic stimulation, challenging the protective potential of high FKBP12.6. RyR2R420Q CPVT mice overexpressing FKBP12.6 showed fewer proarrhythmic events and decreased incidence and duration of stress-induced bidirectional ventricular tachycardia. Our study, therefore, quantifies for the first time endogenous FKBP12.6 in the mouse heart, questioning its physiological relevance, at least at rest due its low level. By contrast, our work demonstrates that with caution FKBP12.6 remains an interesting target for the development of new antiarrhythmic therapies.

Possible Molecular Mechanisms of Hypertension Induced by Sleep Apnea Syndrome/Intermittent Hypoxia

Intermittent hypoxia (IH) is a central characteristic of sleep apnea syndrome (SAS), and it subjects cells in the body to repetitive apnea, chronic hypoxia, oxygen desaturation, and hypercapnia. Since SAS is linked to various serious cardiovascular complications, especially hypertension, many studies have been conducted to elucidate the mechanism of hypertension induced by SAS/IH. Hypertension in SAS is associated with numerous cardiovascular disorders. As hypertension is the most common complication of SAS, cell and animal models to study SAS/IH have developed and provided lots of hints for elucidating the molecular mechanisms of hypertension induced by IH. However, the detailed mechanisms are obscure and under investigation. This review outlines the molecular mechanisms of hypertension in IH, which include the regulation systems of reactive oxygen species (ROS) that activate the renin-angiotensin system (RAS) and catecholamine biosynthesis in the sympathetic nervous system, resulting in hypertension. And hypoxia-inducible factors (HIFs), Endotheline 1 (ET-1), and inflammatory factors are also mentioned. In addition, we will discuss the influences of SAS/IH in cardiovascular dysfunction and the relationship of microRNA (miRNA)s to regulate the key molecules in each mechanism, which has become more apparent in recent years. These findings provide insight into the pathogenesis of SAS and help in the development of future treatments.

Towards Unbiased Fluorophore Counting in Superresolution Fluorescence Microscopy

With the advent of fluorescence superresolution microscopy, nano-sized structures can be imaged with a previously unprecedented accuracy. Therefore, it is rapidly gaining importance as an analytical tool in the life sciences and beyond. However, the images obtained so far lack an absolute scale in terms of fluorophore numbers. Here, we use, for the first time, a detailed statistical model of the temporal imaging process which relies on a hidden Markov model operating on two timescales. This allows us to extract this information from the raw data without additional calibration measurements. We show this on the basis of added data from experiments on single Alexa 647 molecules as well as GSDIM/dSTORM measurements on DNA origami structures with a known number of labeling positions.

Targeting ryanodine receptors to treat human diseases

This Review provides an update on ryanodine receptors (RyRs) and their role in human diseases of heart, muscle, and brain. Calcium (Ca2+) is a requisite second messenger in all living organisms. From C. elegans to mammals, Ca2+ is necessary for locomotion, bodily functions, and neural activity. However, too much of a good thing can be bad. Intracellular Ca2+ overload can result in loss of function and death. Intracellular Ca2+ release channels evolved to safely provide large, rapid Ca2+ signals without exposure to toxic extracellular Ca2+. RyRs are intracellular Ca2+ release channels present throughout the zoosphere. Over the past 35 years, our knowledge of RyRs has advanced to the level of atomic-resolution structures revealing their role in the mechanisms underlying the pathogenesis of human disorders of heart, muscle, and brain. Stress-induced RyR-mediated intracellular Ca2+ leak in the heart can promote heart failure and cardiac arrhythmias. In skeletal muscle, RyR1 leak contributes to muscle weakness in inherited myopathies, to age-related loss of muscle function and cancer-associated muscle weakness, and to impaired muscle function in muscular dystrophies, including Duchenne. In the brain, leaky RyR channels contribute to cognitive dysfunction in Alzheimer's disease, posttraumatic stress disorder, and Huntington's disease. Novel therapeutics targeting dysfunctional RyRs are showing promise.

The Impact of Intermittent Hypoxia on Metabolism and Cognition

Intermittent hypoxia (IH), one of the primary pathologies of sleep apnea syndrome (SAS), exposes cells throughout the body to repeated cycles of hypoxia/normoxia that result in oxidative stress and systemic inflammation. Since SAS is epidemiologically strongly correlated with type 2 diabetes/insulin resistance, obesity, hypertension, and dyslipidemia included in metabolic syndrome, the effects of IH on gene expression in the corresponding cells of each organ have been studied intensively to clarify the molecular mechanism of the association between SAS and metabolic syndrome. Dementia has recently been recognized as a serious health problem due to its increasing incidence, and a large body of evidence has shown its strong correlation with SAS and metabolic disorders. In this narrative review, we first outline the effects of IH on the expression of genes related to metabolism in neuronal cells, pancreatic β cells, hepatocytes, adipocytes, myocytes, and renal cells (mainly based on the results of our experiments). Next, we discuss the literature regarding the mechanisms by which metabolic disorders and IH develop dementia to understand how IH directly and indirectly leads to the development of dementia.

Chai-Hu-San-Shen Capsule Ameliorates Ventricular Arrhythmia Through Inhibition of the CaMKII/FKBP12.6/RyR2/Ca2+ Signaling Pathway in Rats with Myocardial Ischemia

Ventricular arrhythmia is one of the main causes of sudden cardiac death, especially after myocardial ischemia. Previous studies have shown that Chai-Hu-San-Shen capsule (CHSSC) can reduce the incidence of ventricular arrhythmias following myocardial ischemia, however, the mechanisms of it are unclear. In present study, we explored the mechanism of CHSSC ameliorates ventricular arrhythmia following myocardial ischemia via inhibiting the CaMKII/FKBP12.6/RyR2/Ca²⁺ signaling pathway. In vivo, a myocardial ischemia rat model was established and treated with CHSSC to evaluate the therapeutic effect of CHSSC. In vitro, we established an ischemia model in H9C2 cells and treated with CHSSC, KN-93, or H-89. Then, intracellular Ca²⁺ content, the expression of RyR2, and the interaction between FKBP12.6 and RyR2 were detected. The results showed that CHSSC could delay the occurrence of ventricular arrhythmias and shorten the duration of ventricular arrhythmias. After myocardial ischemia, the intracellular Ca²⁺ content was increased, and CHSSC treatment mitigated this increase, down-regulated the levels of p-CaMKII, CaMKII, p-RyR2, and RyR2, and up-regulated the levels of p-RyR2 (Ser2808) and p-RyR2 (Ser2814). Co-immunoprecipitation showed an interaction between FKBP12.6 and RyR2, and CHSSC up-regulated the content of the FKBP12.6-RyR2 complex in ischemic cells. In conclusion, our study showed that CaMKII activation led to hyperphosphorylation of RyR2 (Ser2814) and RyR2 (Ser2808) during cardiomyocyte ischemia, which resulted in dissociation of the FKBP12.6-RyR2 complex, and increased intracellular Ca²⁺ content, which may contribute to the development of ventricular arrhythmias. CHSSC may reduce the incidence of ventricular arrhythmias following myocardial ischemia through inhibition of the CaMKII/RyR2/FKBP12.6/Ca²⁺ signaling pathway.

Stimulation of the mitochondrial calcium uniporter mitigates chronic heart failure-associated ventricular arrhythmia in mice

BACKGROUND

An aberrant increase in the diastolic calcium concentration ([Ca2+]i) level is a hallmark of heart failure (HF) and the cause of delayed afterdepolarization and ventricular arrhythmia (VA). Although mitochondria play a role in regulating [Ca2+]i, whether they can compensate for the [Ca2+]i abnormality in ventricular myocytes is unknown.

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this study was to investigate whether enhanced Ca2+ uptake of mitochondria may compensate for an abnormal increase in the [Ca2+]i of ventricular myocytes in HF to effectively mitigate VA.

METHODS

We used a HF mouse model in which myocardial infarction was induced by permanent left anterior descending coronary artery ligation. The mitochondrial Ca2+ uniporter was stimulated by kaempferol. Ca2+ dynamics and membrane potential were measured using an epifluorescence microscope, a confocal microscope, and the perforated patch-clamp technique. VA was induced in Langendorff-perfused hearts, and hemodynamic parameters were measured using a microtip transducer catheter.

RESULTS

Protein expression of the mitochondrial Ca2+ uniporter, as assessed by its subunit expression, did not change between HF and sham mice. Treatment of cardiomyocytes with kaempferol, isolated from HF mice 28 days after coronary ligation, reduced the appearance of aberrant diastolic [Ca2+]i waves and sparks and spontaneous action potentials. Kaempferol effectively reduced VA occurring in Langendorff-perfused hearts. Intravenous administration of kaempferol did not markedly affect left ventricular hemodynamic parameters.

CONCLUSION

The effects of kaempferol in HF of mice implied that mitochondria may have the potential to compensate for abnormal [Ca2+]i. Mechanisms involved in mitochondrial Ca2+ uptake may provide novel targets for treatment of HF-associated VA.

Downregulation of the Cd38-Cyclic ADP-Ribose Signaling in Cardiomyocytes by Intermittent Hypoxia via Pten Upregulation

Sleep apnea syndrome (SAS) is characterized by recurrent episodes of oxygen desaturation and reoxygenation (intermittent hypoxia, IH), and it is a risk factor for cardiovascular disease (CVD) and insulin resistance/type 2 diabetes. However, the mechanisms linking IH stress and CVD remain elusive. We exposed rat H9c2 and mouse P19.CL6 cardiomyocytes to experimental IH or normoxia for 24 h to analyze the mRNA expression of the components of Cd38-cyclic ADP-ribose (cADPR) signaling. We found that the mRNA levels of cluster of differentiation 38 (Cd38), type 2 ryanodine receptor (Ryr2), and FK506-binding protein 12.6 (Fkbp12.6) in H9c2 and P19.CL6 cardiomyocytes were significantly decreased by IH, whereas the promoter activities of these genes were not decreased. By contrast, the expression of phosphatase and tensin homolog deleted from chromosome 10 (Pten) was upregulated in IH-treated cells. The small interfering RNA for Pten (siPten) and a non-specific control RNA were introduced into the H9c2 cells. The IH-induced downregulation of Cd38, Ryr2, and Fkbp12.6 was abolished by the introduction of the siPten, but not by the control RNA. These results indicate that IH stress upregulated the Pten in cardiomyocytes, resulting in the decreased mRNA levels of Cd38, Ryr2, and Fkbp12.6, leading to the inhibition of cardiomyocyte functions in SAS patients.

CD38–Cyclic ADP-Ribose Signal System in Physiology, Biochemistry, and Pathophysiology

Calcium (Ca²⁺) is a ubiquitous and fundamental signaling component that is utilized by cells to regulate a diverse range of cellular functions, such as insulin secretion from pancreatic β-cells of the islets of Langerhans. Cyclic ADP-ribose (cADPR), synthesized from NAD⁺ by ADP-ribosyl cyclase family proteins, such as the mammalian cluster of differentiation 38 (CD38), is important for intracellular Ca²⁺ mobilization for cell functioning. cADPR induces Ca²⁺ release from endoplasmic reticulum via the ryanodine receptor intracellular Ca²⁺ channel complex, in which the FK506-binding protein 12.6 works as a cADPR-binding regulatory protein. Recently, involvements of the CD38-cADPR signal system in several human diseases and animal models have been reported. This review describes the biochemical and molecular biological basis of the CD38-cADPR signal system and the diseases caused by its abnormalities.

The Ryanodine Receptor as a Sensor for Intracellular Environments in Muscles

The ryanodine receptor (RyR) is a Ca²⁺ release channel in the sarcoplasmic reticulum of skeletal and cardiac muscles and plays a key role in excitation-contraction coupling. The activity of the RyR is regulated by the changes in the level of many intracellular factors, such as divalent cations (Ca²⁺ and Mg²⁺), nucleotides, associated proteins, and reactive oxygen species. Since these intracellular factors change depending on the condition of the muscle, e.g., exercise, fatigue, or disease states, the RyR channel activity will be altered accordingly. In this review, we describe how the RyR channel is regulated under various conditions and discuss the possibility that the RyR acts as a sensor for changes in the intracellular environments in muscles.

Cardiac sarcomere mechanics in health and disease

The sarcomere is the fundamental structural and functional unit of striated muscle and is directly responsible for most of its mechanical properties. The sarcomere generates active or contractile forces and determines the passive or elastic properties of striated muscle. In the heart, mutations in sarcomeric proteins are responsible for the majority of genetically inherited cardiomyopathies. Here, we review the major determinants of cardiac sarcomere mechanics including the key structural components that contribute to active and passive tension. We dissect the molecular and structural basis of active force generation, including sarcomere composition, structure, activation, and relaxation. We then explore the giant sarcomere-resident protein titin, the major contributor to cardiac passive tension. We discuss sarcomere dynamics exemplified by the regulation of titin-based stiffness and the titin life cycle. Finally, we provide an overview of therapeutic strategies that target the sarcomere to improve cardiac contraction and filling.

A comprehensive overview of the complex world of the endo- and sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2+-leak channels

Inside cells, the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) forms the largest Ca²⁺ store. Ca²⁺ is actively pumped by the SERCA pumps in the ER, where intraluminal Ca²⁺-binding proteins enable the accumulation of large amount of Ca²⁺. IP₃ receptors and the ryanodine receptors mediate the release of Ca²⁺ in a controlled way, thereby evoking complex spatio-temporal signals in the cell. The steady state Ca²⁺ concentration in the ER of about 500 μM results from the balance between SERCA-mediated Ca²⁺ uptake and the passive leakage of Ca²⁺. The passive Ca²⁺ leak from the ER is often ignored, but can play an important physiological role, depending on the cellular context. Moreover, excessive Ca²⁺ leakage significantly lowers the amount of Ca²⁺ stored in the ER compared to normal conditions, thereby limiting the possibility to evoke Ca²⁺ signals and/or causing ER stress, leading to pathological consequences. The so-called Ca²⁺-leak channels responsible for Ca²⁺ leakage from the ER are however still not well understood, despite over 20 different proteins have been proposed to contribute to it. This review has the aim to critically evaluate the available evidence about the various channels potentially involved and to draw conclusions about their relative importance.

Okamoto model for necrosis and its expansions, CD38-cyclic ADP-ribose signal system for intracellular Ca2+ mobilization and Reg (Regenerating gene protein)-Reg receptor system for cell regeneration

In pancreatic islet cell culture models and animal models, we studied the molecular mechanisms involved in the development of insulin-dependent diabetes. The diabetogenic agents, alloxan and streptozotocin, caused DNA strand breaks, which in turn activated poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase/synthetase (PARP) to deplete NAD+, thereby inhibiting islet β-cell functions such as proinsulin synthesis and ultimately leading to β-cell necrosis. Radical scavengers protected against the formation of DNA strand breaks and inhibition of proinsulin synthesis. Inhibitors of PARP prevented the NAD+ depletion, inhibition of proinsulin synthesis and β-cell death. These findings led to the proposed unifying concept for β-cell damage and its prevention (the Okamoto model). The model met one proof with PARP knockout animals and was further extended by the discovery of cyclic ADP-ribose as the second messenger for Ca2+ mobilization in glucose-induced insulin secretion and by the identification of Reg (Regenerating gene) for β-cell regeneration. Physiological and pathological events found in pancreatic β-cells have been observed in other cells and tissues.

BMAL1 regulates mitochondrial fission and mitophagy through mitochondrial protein BNIP3 and is critical in the development of dilated cardiomyopathy

Dysregulation of circadian rhythms associates with cardiovascular disorders. It is known that deletion of the core circadian gene Bmal1 in mice causes dilated cardiomyopathy. However, the biological rhythm regulation system in mouse is very different from that of humans. Whether BMAL1 plays a role in regulating human heart function remains unclear. Here we generated a BMAL1 knockout human embryonic stem cell (hESC) model and further derived human BMAL1 deficient cardiomyocytes. We show that BMAL1 deficient hESC-derived cardiomyocytes exhibited typical phenotypes of dilated cardiomyopathy including attenuated contractility, calcium dysregulation, and disorganized myofilaments. In addition, mitochondrial fission and mitophagy were suppressed in BMAL1 deficient hESC-cardiomyocytes, which resulted in significantly attenuated mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation and compromised cardiomyocyte function. We also found that BMAL1 binds to the E-box element in the promoter region of BNIP3 gene and specifically controls BNIP3 protein expression. BMAL1 knockout directly reduced BNIP3 protein level, causing compromised mitophagy and mitochondria dysfunction and thereby leading to compromised cardiomyocyte function. Our data indicated that the core circadian gene BMAL1 is critical for normal mitochondria activities and cardiac function. Circadian rhythm disruption may directly link to compromised heart function and dilated cardiomyopathy in humans.

Intracellular calcium leak in heart failure and atrial fibrillation: a unifying mechanism and therapeutic target

Ca²⁺ is a fundamental second messenger in all cell types and is required for numerous essential cellular functions, including cardiac and skeletal muscle contraction. The intracellular concentration of free Ca²⁺ ([Ca²⁺]) is regulated primarily by ion channels, pumps (ATPases), exchangers and Ca²⁺-binding proteins. Defective regulation of [Ca²⁺] is found in a diverse spectrum of pathological states that affect all the major organs. In the heart, abnormalities in the regulation of cytosolic and mitochondrial [Ca²⁺] occur in heart failure (HF) and atrial fibrillation (AF), two common forms of heart disease and leading contributors to morbidity and mortality. In this Review, we focus on the mechanisms that regulate ryanodine receptor 2 (RYR2), the major sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) Ca²⁺-release channel in the heart, how RYR2 becomes dysfunctional in HF and AF, and its potential as a therapeutic target. Inherited RYR2 mutations and/or stress-induced phosphorylation and oxidation of the protein destabilize the closed state of the channel, resulting in a pathological diastolic Ca²⁺ leak from the SR that both triggers arrhythmias and impairs contractility. On the basis of our increased understanding of SR Ca²⁺ leak as a shared Ca²⁺-dependent pathological mechanism in HF and AF, a new class of drugs developed in our laboratory, known as rycals, which stabilize RYR2 channels and prevent Ca²⁺ leak from the SR, are undergoing investigation in clinical trials.

The FKBP12 subunit modifies the long-range allosterism of the ryanodine receptor

Ryanodine receptors (RyRs) are large conductance intracellular channels controlling intracellular calcium homeostasis in myocytes, neurons, and other cell types. Loss of RyR's constitutive cytoplasmic partner FKBP results in channel sensitization, dominant subconductance states, and increased cytoplasmic Ca²⁺. FKBP12 binds to RyR1's cytoplasmic assembly 130 Å away from the ion gate at four equivalent sites in the RyR1 tetramer. To understand how FKBP12 binding alters RyR1's channel properties, we studied the 3D structure of RyR1 alone in the closed conformation in the context of the open and closed conformations of FKBP12-bound RyR1. We analyzed the metrics of conformational changes of existing structures, the structure of the ion gate, and carried out multivariate statistical analysis of thousands of individual cryoEM RyR1 particles. We find that under closed state conditions, in the presence of FKBP12, the cytoplasmic domain of RyR1 adopts an upward conformation, whereas absence of FKBP12 results in a relaxed conformation, while the ion gate remains closed. The relaxed conformation is intermediate between the RyR1-FKBP12 complex closed (upward) and open (downward) conformations. The closed-relaxed conformation of RyR1 appears to be consistent with a lower energy barrier separating the closed and open states of RyR1-FKBP12, and suggests that FKBP12 plays an important role by restricting conformations within RyR1's conformational landscape.

Toll-like receptor 4-induced ryanodine receptor 2 oxidation and sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ leakage promote cardiac contractile dysfunction in sepsis

Studies suggest the potential role of a sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) Ca²⁺ leak in cardiac contractile dysfunction in sepsis. However, direct supporting evidence is lacking, and the mechanisms underlying this SR leak are poorly understood. Here, we investigated the changes in cardiac Ca²⁺ handling and contraction in LPS-treated rat cardiomyocytes and a mouse model of polymicrobial sepsis produced by cecal ligation and puncture (CLP). LPS decreased the systolic Ca²⁺ transient and myocyte contraction as well as SR Ca²⁺ content. Meanwhile, LPS increased Ca²⁺ spark-mediated SR Ca²⁺ leak. Preventing the SR leak with ryanodine receptor (RyR) blocker tetracaine restored SR load and increased myocyte contraction. Similar alterations in Ca²⁺ handling were observed in cardiomyocytes from CLP mice. Treatment with JTV-519, an anti-SR leak drug, restored Ca²⁺ handling and improved cardiac function. In the LPS-treated cardiomyocytes, mitochondrial reactive oxygen species and oxidative stress in RyR2 were increased, whereas the levels of the RyR2-associated FK506-binding protein 1B (FKBP12.6) were decreased. The Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4)-specific inhibitor TAK-242 reduced the oxidative stress in LPS-treated cells, decreased the SR leak, and normalized Ca²⁺ handling and myocyte contraction. Consistently, TLR4 deletion significantly improved cardiac function and corrected abnormal Ca²⁺ handling in the CLP mice. This study provides evidence for the critical role of the SR Ca²⁺ leak in the development of septic cardiomyopathy and highlights the therapeutic potential of JTV-519 by preventing SR leak. Furthermore, it reveals that TLR4 activation-induced mitochondrial reactive oxygen species production and the resulting oxidative stress in RyR2 contribute to the SR Ca²⁺ leak.

From insulin synthesis to secretion: Alternative splicing of type 2 ryanodine receptor gene is essential for insulin secretion in pancreatic β cells

Increases in the intracellular Ca²⁺ concentration in pancreatic islets, resulting from the Ca²⁺ mobilization from the intracellular source through the ryanodine receptor, are essential for insulin secretion by glucose. Cyclic ADP-ribose, a potent Ca²⁺ mobilizing second messenger synthesized from NAD⁺ by CD38, regulates the opening of ryanodine receptor. A novel ryanodine receptor mRNA (the islet-type ryanodine receptor) was found to be generated from the type 2 ryanodine receptor gene by the alternative splicing of exons 4 and 75. The islet-type ryanodine receptor mRNA is expressed in a variety of tissues such as pancreatic islets, cerebrum, cerebellum, and other neuro-endocrine cells, whereas the authentic type 2 ryanodine receptor mRNA (the heart-type ryanodine receptor) was found to be generated using GG/AG splicing of intron 75 and is expressed in the heart and the blood vessel. The islet-type ryanodine receptor caused a greater increase in the Ca²⁺ release by caffeine when expressed in HEK293 cells pre-treated with cyclic ADP-ribose, suggesting that the novel ryanodine receptor is an intracellular target for the CD38-cyclic ADP-ribose signal system in mammalian cells and that the tissue-specific alternative splicing of type 2 ryanodine receptor mRNA plays an important role in the functioning of the cyclic ADP-ribose-sensitive Ca²⁺ release.

Calcium Signaling and Cardiac Arrhythmias

There has been a significant progress in our understanding of the molecular mechanisms by which calcium (Ca2+) ions mediate various types of cardiac arrhythmias. A growing list of inherited gene defects can cause potentially lethal cardiac arrhythmia syndromes, including catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia, congenital long QT syndrome, and hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. In addition, acquired deficits of multiple Ca2+-handling proteins can contribute to the pathogenesis of arrhythmias in patients with various types of heart disease. In this review article, we will first review the key role of Ca2+ in normal cardiac function-in particular, excitation-contraction coupling and normal electric rhythms. The functional involvement of Ca2+ in distinct arrhythmia mechanisms will be discussed, followed by various inherited arrhythmia syndromes caused by mutations in Ca2+-handling proteins. Finally, we will discuss how changes in the expression of regulation of Ca2+ channels and transporters can cause acquired arrhythmias, and how these mechanisms might be targeted for therapeutic purposes.

Ryanodine receptor modification and regulation by intracellular Ca2+ and Mg2+ in healthy and failing human hearts

RATIONALE

Heart failure is a multimodal disorder, of which disrupted Ca²⁺ homeostasis is a hallmark. Central to Ca²⁺ homeostasis is the major cardiac Ca²⁺ release channel - the ryanodine receptor (RyR2) - whose activity is influenced by associated proteins, covalent modification and by Ca²⁺ and Mg²⁺. That RyR2 is remodelled and its function disturbed in heart failure is well recognized, but poorly understood.

OBJECTIVE

To assess Ca²⁺ and Mg²⁺ regulation of RyR2 from left ventricles of healthy, cystic fibrosis and failing hearts, and to correlate these functional changes with RyR2 modifications and remodelling.

METHODS AND RESULTS

The function of RyR2 from left ventricular samples was assessed using lipid bilayer single-channel measurements, whilst RyR2 modification and protein:protein interactions were determined using Western Blots and co-immunoprecipitation. In all failing hearts there was an increase in RyR2 activity at end-diastolic cytoplasmic Ca²⁺ (100nM), a decreased cytoplasmic [Ca²⁺] required for half maximal activation (K_a) and a decrease in inhibition by cytoplasmic Mg²⁺. This was accompanied by significant hyperphosphorylation of RyR2 S²⁸⁰⁸ and S²⁸¹⁴, reduced free thiol content and a reduced interaction with FKBP12.0 and FKBP12.6. Either dephosphorylation of RyR2 using PP1 or thiol reduction using DTT eliminated any significant difference in the activity of RyR2 from healthy and failing hearts. We also report a subgroup of RyR2 in failing hearts that were not responsive to regulation by intracellular Ca²⁺ or Mg²⁺.

CONCLUSION

Despite different aetiologies, disrupted RyR2 Ca²⁺ sensitivity and biochemical modification of the channel are common constituents of failing heart RyR2 and may underlie the pathological disturbances in intracellular Ca²⁺ signalling.

The effect of PKA-mediated phosphorylation of ryanodine receptor on SR Ca2+ leak in ventricular myocytes

Functional impact of cardiac ryanodine receptor (type 2 RyR or RyR2) phosphorylation by protein kinase A (PKA) remains highly controversial. In this study, we characterized a functional link between PKA-mediated RyR2 phosphorylation level and sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) Ca²⁺ release and leak in permeabilized rabbit ventricular myocytes. Changes in cytosolic [Ca²⁺] and intra-SR [Ca²⁺]_SR were measured with Fluo-4 and Fluo-5N, respectively. Changes in RyR2 phosphorylation at two PKA sites, serine-2031 and -2809, were measured with phospho-specific antibodies. cAMP (10μM) increased Ca²⁺ spark frequency approximately two-fold. This effect was associated with an increase in SR Ca²⁺ load from 0.84 to 1.24mM. PKA inhibitory peptide (PKI; 10μM) abolished the cAMP-dependent increase of SR Ca²⁺ load and spark frequency. When SERCA was completely blocked by thapsigargin, cAMP did not affect RyR2-mediated Ca²⁺ leak. The lack of a cAMP effect on RyR2 function can be explained by almost maximal phosphorylation of RyR2 at serine-2809 after sarcolemma permeabilization. This high RyR2 phosphorylation level is likely the consequence of a balance shift between protein kinase and phosphatase activity after permeabilization. When RyR2 phosphorylation at serine-2809 was reduced to its "basal" level (i.e. RyR2 phosphorylation level in intact myocytes) using kinase inhibitor staurosporine, SR Ca²⁺ leak was significantly reduced. Surprisingly, further dephosphorylation of RyR2 with protein phosphatase 1 (PP1) markedly increased SR Ca²⁺ leak. At the same time, phosphorylation of RyR2 at serine 2031 did not significantly change under identical experimental conditions. These results suggest that RyR2 phosphorylation by PKA has a complex effect on SR Ca²⁺ leak in ventricular myocytes. At an intermediate level of RyR2 phosphorylation SR Ca²⁺ leak is minimal. However, complete dephosphorylation and maximal phosphorylation of RyR2 increases SR Ca²⁺ leak.

Junctophilin-2 in the nanoscale organisation and functional signalling of ryanodine receptor clusters in cardiomyocytes

Signalling nanodomains requiring close contact between the plasma membrane and internal compartments, known as 'junctions', are fast communication hubs within excitable cells such as neurones and muscle. Here, we have examined two transgenic murine models probing the role of junctophilin-2, a membrane-tethering protein crucial for the formation and molecular organisation of sub-microscopic junctions in ventricular muscle cells of the heart. Quantitative single-molecule localisation microscopy showed that junctions in animals producing above-normal levels of junctophilin-2 were enlarged, allowing the re-organisation of the primary functional protein within it, the ryanodine receptor (RyR; in this paper, we use RyR to refer to the myocardial isoform RyR2). Although this change was associated with much enlarged RyR clusters that, due to their size, should be more excitable, functionally it caused a mild inhibition in the Ca2+ signalling output of the junctions (Ca2+ sparks). Analysis of the single-molecule densities of both RyR and junctophilin-2 revealed an ∼3-fold increase in the junctophilin-2 to RyR ratio. This molecular rearrangement is compatible with direct inhibition of RyR opening by junctophilin-2 to intrinsically stabilise the Ca2+ signalling properties of the junction and thus the contractile function of the cell.

What is a Ca(2+) wave? Is it like an Electrical Wave?

Arrhythmia subcellular mechanisms are constantly being explored. Recent knowledge has shown that travelling Ca(2+) waves in cardiac cells are critical for delayed afterdepolarisations and in some cases, early afterdepolarisations. In this review, we comment on the properties of cardiac Ca(2+) waves and abnormal Ca(2+) releases in terms of properties used to describe electrical waves; propagation, excitability and refractoriness.

Stochastic approach to the molecular counting problem in superresolution microscopy

Superresolution imaging methods--now widely used to characterize biological structures below the diffraction limit--are poised to reveal in quantitative detail the stoichiometry of protein complexes in living cells. In practice, the photophysical properties of the fluorophores used as tags in superresolution methods have posed a severe theoretical challenge toward achieving this goal. Here we develop a stochastic approach to enumerate fluorophores in a diffraction-limited area measured by superresolution microscopy. The method is a generalization of aggregated Markov methods developed in the ion channel literature for studying gating dynamics. We show that the method accurately and precisely enumerates fluorophores in simulated data while simultaneously determining the kinetic rates that govern the stochastic photophysics of the fluorophores to improve the prediction's accuracy. This stochastic method overcomes several critical limitations of temporal thresholding methods.

Electrophysiological and structural remodeling in heart failure modulate arrhythmogenesis. 1D simulation study

Background

Heart failure is a final common pathway or descriptor for various cardiac pathologies. It is associated with sudden cardiac death, which is frequently caused by ventricular arrhythmias. Electrophysiological remodeling, intercellular uncoupling, fibrosis and autonomic imbalance have been identified as major arrhythmogenic factors in heart failure etiology and progression.

Objective

In this study we investigate in silico the role of electrophysiological and structural heart failure remodeling on the modulation of key elements of the arrhythmogenic substrate, i.e., electrophysiological gradients and abnormal impulse propagation.

Methods

Two different mathematical models of the human ventricular action potential were used to formulate models of the failing ventricular myocyte. This provided the basis for simulations of the electrical activity within a transmural ventricular strand. Our main goal was to elucidate the roles of electrophysiological and structural remodeling in setting the stage for malignant life-threatening arrhythmias.

Results

Simulation results illustrate how the presence of M cells and heterogeneous electrophysiological remodeling in the human failing ventricle modulate the dispersion of action potential duration and repolarization time. Specifically, selective heterogeneous remodeling of expression levels for the Na⁺/Ca²⁺ exchanger and SERCA pump decrease these heterogeneities. In contrast, fibroblast proliferation and cellular uncoupling both strongly increase repolarization heterogeneities. Conduction velocity and the safety factor for conduction are also reduced by the progressive structural remodeling during heart failure.

Conclusion

An extensive literature now establishes that in human ventricle, as heart failure progresses, gradients for repolarization are changed significantly by protein specific electrophysiological remodeling (either homogeneous or heterogeneous). Our simulations illustrate and provide new insights into this. Furthermore, enhanced fibrosis in failing hearts, as well as reduced intercellular coupling, combine to increase electrophysiological gradients and reduce electrical propagation. In combination these changes set the stage for arrhythmias.

Ca handling during excitation-contraction coupling in heart failure

In the heart, coupling between excitation of the surface membrane and activation of contractile apparatus is mediated by Ca released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR). Several components of Ca machinery are perfectly arranged within the SR network and the T-tubular system to generate a regular Ca cycling and thereby rhythmic beating activity of the heart. Among these components, ryanodine receptor (RyR) and SR Ca ATPase (SERCA) complexes play a particularly important role and their dysfunction largely underlies abnormal Ca homeostasis in diseased hearts such as in heart failure. The abnormalities in Ca regulation occur at practically all main steps of Ca cycling in the failing heart, including activation and termination of SR Ca release, diastolic SR Ca leak, and SR Ca uptake. The contributions of these different mechanisms to depressed contractile function and enhanced arrhythmogenesis may vary in different HF models. This brief review will therefore focus on modifications in RyR and SERCA structure that occur in the failing heart and how these molecular modifications affect SR Ca regulation and excitation-contraction coupling.

Mechanisms of altered Ca²⁺ handling in heart failure

Ca²⁺ plays a crucial role in connecting membrane excitability with contraction in myocardium. The hallmark features of heart failure are mechanical dysfunction and arrhythmias; defective intracellular Ca²⁺ homeostasis is a central cause of contractile dysfunction and arrhythmias in failing myocardium. Defective Ca²⁺ homeostasis in heart failure can result from pathological alteration in the expression and activity of an increasingly understood collection of Ca²⁺ homeostatic and structural proteins, ion channels, and enzymes. This review focuses on the molecular mechanisms of defective Ca²⁺ cycling in heart failure and considers how fundamental understanding of these pathways may translate into novel and innovative therapies.

Dysfunctional ryanodine receptors in the heart: new insights into complex cardiovascular diseases

Calcium dependent signaling is highly regulated in cardiomyocytes and determines the force of cardiac muscle contraction. The cardiac ryanodine receptors (RyR2) play important roles in health and disease. Modulation of RyR2 by phosphorylation is required for sympathetic regulation of cardiac function. Abnormal regulation of RyR2 contributes to heart failure, and atrial and ventricular arrhythmias. RyR2 channels are oxidized, nitrosylated, and hyperphosphorylated by protein kinase A (PKA) in heart failure, resulting in "leaky" channels. These leaky RyR2 channels contribute to depletion of calcium from the sarcoplasmic reticulum, resulting in defective cardiac excitation-contraction coupling. In this review, we discuss both the importance of PKA and calcium/calmodulin-dependent kinase II (CaMKII) regulation of RyR2 in health, and how altered phosphorylation, nitrosylation and oxidation of RyR2 channels lead to cardiac disease. Correcting these defects using either genetic manipulation (knock-in) in mice, or specific and novel small molecules ameliorates the RyR2 dysfunction, reducing the progression to heart failure and the incidence of arrhythmias.

Calcium cycling proteins and heart failure: mechanisms and therapeutics

Ca2+-dependent signaling is highly regulated in cardiomyocytes and determines the force of cardiac muscle contraction. Ca2+ cycling refers to the release and reuptake of intracellular Ca2+ that drives muscle contraction and relaxation. In failing hearts, Ca2+ cycling is profoundly altered, resulting in impaired contractility and fatal cardiac arrhythmias. The key defects in Ca2+ cycling occur at the level of the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR), a Ca2+ storage organelle in muscle. Defects in the regulation of Ca2+ cycling proteins including the ryanodine receptor 2, cardiac (RyR2)/Ca2+ release channel macromolecular complexes and the sarcoplasmic/endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ ATPase 2a (SERCA2a)/phospholamban complex contribute to heart failure. RyR2s are oxidized, nitrosylated, and PKA hyperphosphorylated, resulting in "leaky" channels in failing hearts. These leaky RyR2s contribute to depletion of Ca2+ from the SR, and the leaking Ca2+ depolarizes cardiomyocytes and triggers fatal arrhythmias. SERCA2a is downregulated and phospholamban is hypophosphorylated in failing hearts, resulting in impaired SR Ca2+ reuptake that conspires with leaky RyR2 to deplete SR Ca2+. Two new therapeutic strategies for heart failure (HF) are now being tested in clinical trials: (a) fixing the leak in RyR2 channels with a novel class of Ca2+-release channel stabilizers called Rycals and (b) increasing expression of SERCA2a to improve SR Ca2+ reuptake with viral-mediated gene therapy. There are many potential opportunities for additional mechanism-based therapeutics involving the machinery that regulates Ca2+ cycling in the heart.

In cardiomyocytes, binding of unzipping peptide activates ryanodine receptor 2 and reciprocally inhibits calmodulin binding

RATIONALE

One hypothesis for elevated Ca(2+) leak through cardiac ryanodine receptors (ryanodine receptor 2 [RyR2]) in heart failure is interdomain unzipping that can enhance aberrant channel activation. A peptide (domain peptide corresponding to RyR2 residues 2460-2495 [DPc10]) corresponding to RyR2 central domain residues 2460-2495 recapitulates this arrhythmogenic RyR2 leakiness by unzipping N-terminal and central domains. Calmodulin (CaM) and FK506-binding protein (FKBP12.6) bind to RyR2 and stabilize the closed channel. Little is known about DPc10 binding to the RyR2 and how that may interact with binding (and effects) of CaM and FKBP12.6 to RyR2.

OBJECTIVE

To measure, directly in cardiac myocytes, the kinetics and binding affinity of DPc10 to RyR2 and how that affects RyR2 interaction with FKBP12.6 and CaM.

METHODS AND RESULTS

We used permeabilized rat ventricular myocytes and fluorescently labeled DPc10, FKBP12.6, and CaM. DPc10 access to its binding site is extremely slow in resting RyR2 but is accelerated by promoting RyR opening or unzipping (by unlabeled DPc10). RyR2-bound CaM (but not FKBP12.6) drastically slowed DPc10 binding. Conversely, DPc10 binding significantly reduced CaM (but not FKBP12.6) binding to the RyR2. Fluorescence resonance energy transfer measurements indicate that DPc10-binding and CaM-binding sites are separate and allow triangulation of the structural DPc10 binding locus on RyR2 vs FKBP12.6-binding and CaM-binding sites.

CONCLUSIONS

DPc10-RyR2 binding is sterically limited by the resting zipped RyR2 state. CaM binding to RyR2 stabilizes this zipped state, whereas RyR2 activation or prebound DPc10 enhances DPc10 access. DPc10-binding and CaM-binding sites are distinct but are allosterically interacting RyR2 sites. Neither DPc10 nor FKBP12.6 influences RyR2 binding of the other.

Altered sarcoplasmic reticulum calcium cycling--targets for heart failure therapy

Cardiac myocyte function is dependent on the synchronized movements of Ca(2+) into and out of the cell, as well as between the cytosol and sarcoplasmic reticulum. These movements determine cardiac rhythm and regulate excitation-contraction coupling. Ca(2+) cycling is mediated by a number of critical Ca(2+)-handling proteins and transporters, such as L-type Ca(2+) channels (LTCCs) and sodium/calcium exchangers in the sarcolemma, and sarcoplasmic/endoplasmic reticulum calcium ATPase 2a (SERCA2a), ryanodine receptors, and cardiac phospholamban in the sarcoplasmic reticulum. The entry of Ca(2+) into the cytosol through LTCCs activates the release of Ca(2+) from the sarcoplasmic reticulum through ryanodine receptor channels and initiates myocyte contraction, whereas SERCA2a and cardiac phospholamban have a key role in sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca(2+) sequesteration and myocyte relaxation. Excitation-contraction coupling is regulated by phosphorylation of Ca(2+)-handling proteins. Abnormalities in sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca(2+) cycling are hallmarks of heart failure and contribute to the pathophysiology and progression of this disease. Correcting impaired intracellular Ca(2+) cycling is a promising new approach for the treatment of heart failure. Novel therapeutic strategies that enhance myocyte Ca(2+) homeostasis could prevent and reverse adverse cardiac remodeling and improve clinical outcomes in patients with heart failure.

Enhanced binding of calmodulin to the ryanodine receptor corrects contractile dysfunction in failing hearts

AIMS

The channel function of the cardiac ryanodine receptor (RyR2) is modulated by calmodulin (CaM). However, the involvement of CaM in aberrant Ca(2+) release in diseased hearts remains unclear. Here, we investigated the pathogenic role of defective CaM binding to the RyR2 in the channel dysfunction associated with heart failure.

METHODS AND RESULTS

The involvement of CaM in aberrant Ca(2+) release was assessed in normal and pacing-induced failing canine hearts. The apparent affinity of CaM for RyR2 was considerably lower in failing sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) compared with normal SR. Thus, the amount of CaM bound to RyR2 was markedly decreased in failing myocytes. Expression of the CaM isoform Gly-Ser-His-CaM (GSH-CaM), which has much higher binding affinity than wild-type CaM for RyR1, restored normal CaM binding to RyR2 in both SR and myocytes of failing hearts. The Ca(2+) spark frequency (SpF) was markedly higher and the SR Ca(2+) content was lower in failing myocytes compared with normal myocytes. The incorporation of GSH-CaM into the failing myocytes corrected the aberrant SpF and SR Ca(2+) content to normal levels.

CONCLUSION

Reduced CaM binding to RyR2 seems to play a critical role in the pathogenesis of aberrant Ca(2+) release in failing hearts. Correction of the reduced CaM binding to RyR2 stabilizes the RyR2 channel function and thereby restores normal Ca(2+) handling and contractile function to failing hearts.

Modulation of cardiac contractility by the phospholamban/SERCA2a regulatome

Heart disease remains the leading cause of death and disability in the Western world. Current therapies aim at treating the symptoms rather than the subcellular mechanisms, underlying the etiology and pathological remodeling in heart failure. A universal characteristic, contributing to the decreased contractile performance in human and experimental failing hearts, is impaired calcium sequestration into the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR). SR calcium uptake is mediated by a Ca(2+)-ATPase (SERCA2), whose activity is reversibly regulated by phospholamban (PLN). Dephosphorylated PLN is an inhibitor of SERCA and phosphorylation of PLN relieves this inhibition. However, the initial simple view of a PLN/SERCA regulatory complex has been modified by our recent identification of SUMO, S100 and the histidine-rich Ca-binding protein as regulators of SERCA activity. In addition, PLN activity is regulated by 2 phosphoproteins, the inhibitor-1 of protein phosphatase 1 and the small heat shock protein 20, which affect the overall SERCA-mediated Ca-transport. This review will highlight the regulatory mechanisms of cardiac contractility by the multimeric SERCA/PLN-ensemble and the potential for new therapeutic avenues targeting this complex by using small molecules and gene transfer methods.

Altered spatial calcium regulation enhances electrical heterogeneity in the failing canine left ventricle: implications for electrical instability

Myocytes across the left ventricular (LV) wall of the mammalian heart are known to exhibit heterogeneity of electrophysiological properties; however, the transmural variation of cellular electrophysiology and Ca2+ homeostasis in the failing LV is incompletely understood. We studied action potentials (APs), the L-type calcium (Ca2+) current ( ICa,L), and intracellular Ca2+ transients ([Ca2+]i) of subendocardial (Endo), midmyocardial (Mid), and subepicardial (Epi) tissue layers in the canine normal and tachycardia pacing-induced failing left ventricles. Heart failure (HF) was associated with significant prolongation of the AP duration in Mid myocytes. There were no differences in ICa,L density in normal Endo, Mid, and Epi myocytes, whereas in the failing heart, ICa,L density was downregulated by 45% and 26% (at +10 mV) in Endo and Mid myocytes, respectively. The rates of sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) Ca2+ release and decay of the [Ca2+]i were slowed, and the amplitude of the [Ca2+]i was depressed in Endo and Epi myocytes isolated from failing, compared with normal, hearts. Experiments in sodium (Na+)-free solutions showed that Epi and Mid myocytes of the failing ventricle exhibit a greater reliance on the Na+-Ca2+ exchanger to remove cytosolic Ca2+ than myocytes isolated from normal hearts. Simulation studies in Endo, Mid, and Epi canine myocytes demonstrate the importance of L-type current density and SR Ca2+ uptake in modulating the potentially arrhythmogenic repolarization in HF. In conclusion, these results demonstrate that spatially heterogeneous decreases in ICa,L and defective cytosolic Ca2+ removal contribute to the altered [Ca2+]i and AP profiles across the canine failing LV. These distinct electrophysiological features in myocytes from a failing heart contribute to a characteristic electrogram arising from increased dispersion of refractoriness across the LV, which may result in significant arrhythmogenic sequellae.

Remodeling of calcium handling in human heart failure

Heart failure (HF) is an increasing public health problem accelerated by a rapidly aging global population. Despite considerable progress in managing the disease, the development of new therapies for effective treatment of HF remains a challenge. To identify targets for early diagnosis and therapeutic intervention, it is essential to understand the molecular and cellular basis of calcium handling and the signaling pathways governing the functional remodeling associated with HF in humans. Calcium (Ca(2+)) cycling is an essential mediator of cardiac contractile function, and remodeling of calcium handling is thought to be one of the major factors contributing to the mechanical and electrical dysfunction observed in HF. Active research in this field aims to bridge the gap between basic research and effective clinical treatments of HF. This chapter reviews the most relevant studies of calcium remodeling in failing human hearts and discusses their connections to current and emerging clinical therapies for HF patients.

Ryanodine receptor: a new therapeutic target to control diabetic cardiomyopathy

Diabetes mellitus is a major risk factor for cardiovascular complications. Intracellular Ca(2+) release plays an important role in the regulation of muscle contraction. Sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca(2+) release is controlled by dedicated molecular machinery, composed of a complex of cardiac ryanodine receptors (RyR2s). Acquired and genetic defects in this complex result in a spectrum of abnormal Ca(2+) release phenotypes in heart. Cardiovascular dysfunction is a leading cause for mortality of diabetic individuals due, in part, to a specific cardiomyopathy, and to altered vascular reactivity. Cardiovascular complications result from multiple parameters, including glucotoxicity, lipotoxicity, fibrosis, and mitochondrial uncoupling. In diabetic subjects, oxidative stress arises from an imbalance between production of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species and capability of the system to readily detoxify reactive intermediates. To date, the etiology underlying diabetes-induced reductions in myocyte and cardiac contractility remains incompletely understood. However, numerous studies, including work from our laboratory, suggest that these defects stem in part from perturbation in intracellular Ca(2+) cycling. Since the RyR2s are one of the well-characterized redox-sensitive ion channels in heart, this article summarizes recent findings on redox regulation of cardiac Ca(2+) transport systems and discusses contributions of redox regulation to pathological cardiac function in diabetes.

Mutation-linked defective interdomain interactions within ryanodine receptor cause aberrant Ca²⁺release leading to catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia

BACKGROUND

The molecular mechanism by which catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia is induced by single amino acid mutations within the cardiac ryanodine receptor (RyR2) remains elusive. In the present study, we investigated mutation-induced conformational defects of RyR2 using a knockin mouse model expressing the human catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia-associated RyR2 mutant (S2246L; serine to leucine mutation at the residue 2246).

METHODS AND RESULTS

All knockin mice we examined produced ventricular tachycardia after exercise on a treadmill. cAMP-dependent increase in the frequency of Ca²⁺ sparks was more pronounced in saponin-permeabilized knockin cardiomyocytes than in wild-type cardiomyocytes. Site-directed fluorescent labeling and quartz microbalance assays of the specific binding of DP2246 (a peptide corresponding to the 2232 to 2266 region: the 2246 domain) showed that DP2246 binds with the K201-binding sequence of RyR2 (1741 to 2270). Introduction of S2246L mutation into the DP2246 increased the affinity of peptide binding. Fluorescence quench assays of interdomain interactions within RyR2 showed that tight interaction of the 2246 domain/K201-binding domain is coupled with domain unzipping of the N-terminal (1 to 600)/central (2000 to 2500) domain pair in an allosteric manner. Dantrolene corrected the mutation-caused domain unzipping of the domain switch and stopped the exercise-induced ventricular tachycardia.

CONCLUSIONS

The catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia-linked mutation of RyR2, S2246L, causes an abnormally tight local subdomain-subdomain interaction within the central domain involving the mutation site, which induces defective interaction between the N-terminal and central domains. This results in an erroneous activation of Ca²⁺ channel in a diastolic state reflecting on the increased Ca²⁺ spark frequency, which then leads to lethal arrhythmia.

Endoplasmic reticulum Ca(2+) handling in excitable cells in health and disease

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a morphologically and functionally diverse organelle capable of integrating multiple extracellular and internal signals and generating adaptive cellular responses. It plays fundamental roles in protein synthesis and folding and in cellular responses to metabolic and proteotoxic stress. In addition, the ER stores and releases Ca(2+) in sophisticated scenarios that regulate a range of processes in excitable cells throughout the body, including muscle contraction and relaxation, endocrine regulation of metabolism, learning and memory, and cell death. One or more Ca(2+) ATPases and two types of ER membrane Ca(2+) channels (inositol trisphosphate and ryanodine receptors) are the major proteins involved in ER Ca(2+) uptake and release, respectively. There are also direct and indirect interactions of ER Ca(2+) stores with plasma membrane and mitochondrial Ca(2+)-regulating systems. Pharmacological agents that selectively modify ER Ca(2+) release or uptake have enabled studies that revealed many different physiological roles for ER Ca(2+) signaling. Several inherited diseases are caused by mutations in ER Ca(2+)-regulating proteins, and perturbed ER Ca(2+) homeostasis is implicated in a range of acquired disorders. Preclinical investigations suggest a therapeutic potential for use of agents that target ER Ca(2+) handling systems of excitable cells in disorders ranging from cardiac arrhythmias and skeletal muscle myopathies to Alzheimer disease.

Exercise, heart and health

Regular physical activity provides a variety of health benefits, including improvement in cardiopulmonary or metabolic status, reduction of the risk of coronary artery disease or stroke, prevention of cancer, and decrease in total mortality. Exercise-related cardiac events are occasionally reported during highly competitive sports activity or vigorous exercises. However, the risk of sudden death is extremely low during vigorous exercise, and habitual vigorous exercise actually decreases the risk of sudden death during exercise. The cause of sudden death is ischemic in older subjects (≥35 years old), while cardiomyopathies or genetic ion channel diseases are important underlying pathology in younger (<35 years old) victims. The subgroup of patients who are particularly at higher risk of exercise-related sudden death may be identified in different ways, such as pre-participation history taking, physical examination and/or supplementary cardiac evaluation. Limitations exist because current diagnostic tools are not sufficient to predict a coronary artery plaque with potential risk of disruption and/or an acute thrombotic occlusion. Proper and cost-effective methods for identification of younger subjects with cardiac structural problems or genetic ion channel diseases are still controversial.