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Waheed‐Ullah Q, Wilsdon A, Abbad A, Rochette S, Bu'Lock F, Hitz M, Dombrowsky G, Cuello F, Brook JD, Loughna S. Effect of deletion of the protein kinase PRKD1 on development of the mouse embryonic heart. J Anat 2024; 245:70-83. [PMID: 38419169 PMCID: PMC11161829 DOI: 10.1111/joa.14033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2023] [Revised: 02/14/2024] [Accepted: 02/15/2024] [Indexed: 03/02/2024] Open
Abstract
Congenital heart disease (CHD) is the most common congenital anomaly, with an overall incidence of approximately 1% in the United Kingdom. Exome sequencing in large CHD cohorts has been performed to provide insights into the genetic aetiology of CHD. This includes a study of 1891 probands by our group in collaboration with others, which identified three novel genes-CDK13, PRKD1, and CHD4, in patients with syndromic CHD. PRKD1 encodes a serine/threonine protein kinase, which is important in a variety of fundamental cellular functions. Individuals with a heterozygous mutation in PRKD1 may have facial dysmorphism, ectodermal dysplasia and may have CHDs such as pulmonary stenosis, atrioventricular septal defects, coarctation of the aorta and bicuspid aortic valve. To obtain a greater appreciation for the role that this essential protein kinase plays in cardiogenesis and CHD, we have analysed a Prkd1 transgenic mouse model (Prkd1em1) carrying deletion of exon 2, causing loss of function. High-resolution episcopic microscopy affords detailed morphological 3D analysis of the developing heart and provides evidence for an essential role of Prkd1 in both normal cardiac development and CHD. We show that homozygous deletion of Prkd1 is associated with complex forms of CHD such as atrioventricular septal defects, and bicuspid aortic and pulmonary valves, and is lethal. Even in heterozygotes, cardiac differences occur. However, given that 97% of Prkd1 heterozygous mice display normal heart development, it is likely that one normal allele is sufficient, with the defects seen most likely to represent sporadic events. Moreover, mRNA and protein expression levels were investigated by RT-qPCR and western immunoblotting, respectively. A significant reduction in Prkd1 mRNA levels was seen in homozygotes, but not heterozygotes, compared to WT littermates. While a trend towards lower PRKD1 protein expression was seen in the heterozygotes, the difference was only significant in the homozygotes. There was no compensation by the related Prkd2 and Prkd3 at transcript level, as evidenced by RT-qPCR. Overall, we demonstrate a vital role of Prkd1 in heart development and the aetiology of CHD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qazi Waheed‐Ullah
- School of Life Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health SciencesUniversity of NottinghamNottinghamUK
| | - Anna Wilsdon
- School of Life Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health SciencesUniversity of NottinghamNottinghamUK
| | - Aseel Abbad
- School of Life Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health SciencesUniversity of NottinghamNottinghamUK
| | - Sophie Rochette
- School of Life Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health SciencesUniversity of NottinghamNottinghamUK
| | - Frances Bu'Lock
- East Midlands Congenital Heart CentreUniversity Hospitals of Leicester NHS TrustLeicesterUK
| | - Marc‐Phillip Hitz
- Institute of Medical GeneticsCarl von Ossietzky University OldenburgOldenburgGermany
| | - Gregor Dombrowsky
- Institute of Medical GeneticsCarl von Ossietzky University OldenburgOldenburgGermany
| | - Friederike Cuello
- Institute of Experimental Pharmacology and Toxicology, Cardiovascular Research CenterUniversity Medical Center Hamburg‐EppendorfHamburgGermany
- DZHK (German Center for Cardiovascular Research), partner site Hamburg/Kiel/LübeckUniversity Medical Center Hamburg‐EppendorfHamburgGermany
| | - J. David Brook
- School of Life Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health SciencesUniversity of NottinghamNottinghamUK
| | - Siobhan Loughna
- School of Life Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health SciencesUniversity of NottinghamNottinghamUK
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Anderson RH, Kerwin J, Lamers WH, Hikspoors JPJM, Mohun TJ, Chaudhry B, Lisgo S, Henderson DJ. Cardiac development demystified by use of the HDBR atlas. J Anat 2024. [PMID: 38783643 DOI: 10.1111/joa.14066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2024] [Revised: 05/08/2024] [Accepted: 05/08/2024] [Indexed: 05/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Much has been learned over the last half century regarding the molecular and genetic changes that take place during cardiac development. As yet, however, these advances have not been translated into knowledge regarding the marked changes that take place in the anatomical arrangements of the different cardiac components. As such, therefore, many aspects of cardiac development are still described on the basis of speculation rather than evidence. In this review, we show how controversial aspects of development can readily be arbitrated by the interested spectator by taking advantage of the material now gathered together in the Human Developmental Biology Resource; HDBR. We use the material to demonstrate the changes taking place during the formation of the ventricular loop, the expansion of the atrioventricular canal, the incorporation of the systemic venous sinus, the formation of the pulmonary vein, the process of atrial septation, the remodelling of the pharyngeal arches, the major changes occurring during formation of the outflow tract, the closure of the embryonic interventricular communication, and the formation of the ventricular walls. We suggest that access to the resource makes it possible for the interested observer to arbitrate, for themselves, the ongoing controversies that continue to plague the understanding of cardiac development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert H Anderson
- Biosciences Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - Janet Kerwin
- Human Developmental Biology Resource, Biosciences Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - Wouter H Lamers
- Department of Anatomy and Embryology, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Jill P J M Hikspoors
- Department of Anatomy and Embryology, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | | | - Bill Chaudhry
- Biosciences Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - Steven Lisgo
- Human Developmental Biology Resource, Biosciences Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - Deborah J Henderson
- Biosciences Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
- Human Developmental Biology Resource, Biosciences Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
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Wessels A. Molecular Pathways and Animal Models of Atrioventricular Septal Defect. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2024; 1441:573-583. [PMID: 38884733 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-031-44087-8_31] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/18/2024]
Abstract
The development of a fully functional four-chambered heart is critically dependent on the correct formation of the structures that separate the atrial and ventricular chambers. Perturbation of this process typically results in defects that allow mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood. Atrioventricular septal defects (AVSD) form a class of congenital heart malformations that are characterized by the presence of a primary atrial septal defect (pASD), a common atrioventricular valve (cAVV), and frequently also a ventricular septal defect (VSD). While AVSD were historically considered to result from failure of the endocardial atrioventricular cushions to properly develop and fuse, more recent studies have determined that inhibition of the development of other components of the atrioventricular mesenchymal complex can lead to AVSDs as well. The role of the dorsal mesenchymal protrusion (DMP) in AVSD pathogenesis has been well-documented in studies using animal models for AVSDs, and in addition, preliminary data suggest that the mesenchymal cap situated on the leading edge of the primary atrial septum may be involved in certain situations as well. In this chapter, we review what is currently known about the molecular mechanisms and animal models that are associated with the pathogenesis of AVSD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andy Wessels
- Department of Regenerative Medicine and Cell Biology, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, USA.
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Okumura K, Ioka T, Sakabe M. Loss of myocardial Hey2/Hrt2 function disrupts rightward shift of atrioventricular cushion tissue and causes tricuspid atresia. Dev Dyn 2024; 253:107-118. [PMID: 37042466 DOI: 10.1002/dvdy.592] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2023] [Revised: 03/13/2023] [Accepted: 04/04/2023] [Indexed: 04/13/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Endocardial cushion tissue is primordia of the valves and septa of the adult heart, and its malformation causes various congenital heart diseases (CHDs). Tricuspid atresia (TA) is defined as congenital absence or agenesis of the tricuspid valve caused by endocardial cushion defects. However, little is known about what type of endocardial cushion defect causes TA. RESULTS Using three-dimensional volume rendering image analysis, we demonstrated morphological changes of endocardial cushion tissue in developing Hey2/Hrt2 KO mouse embryos that showed malformation of the tricuspid valve, which resembled human TA at neonatal period. In control embryos, atrioventricular (AV) endocardial cushion tissues showed rightward shift to form a tricuspid valve. However, the rightward shift of endocardial cushion tissue was disrupted in Hey2/Hrt2 KO embryos, leading to the misalignment of AV cushions. We also found that muscular tissue filled up the space between the right atrium and ventricle, resulting in the absence of the tricuspid valve. Moreover, analysis using tissue-specific conditional KO mice showed that HEY2/HRT2-expressing myocardium may physically regulate the AV shift. CONCLUSION Disruption of rightward cushion movement is an initial cue of TA phenotype, and myocardial HEY2/HRT2 is necessary for the regulation of proper alignment of AV endocardial cushion tissue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kazuki Okumura
- Department of Psychiatry, Nara Medical University, Kashihara, Nara, Japan
- Department of Epidemiology, Nara Medical University, Kashihara, Nara, Japan
| | - Tomoko Ioka
- Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, Nara Medical University, Kashihara, Nara, Japan
| | - Masahide Sakabe
- Division of Experimental Hematology and Cancer Biology, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA
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Houyel L. Ventricular Septal Defects: Molecular Pathways and Animal Models. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2024; 1441:535-549. [PMID: 38884730 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-031-44087-8_28] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/18/2024]
Abstract
Ventricular septation is a complex process which involves the major genes of cardiac development, acting on myocardial cells from first and second heart fields, and on mesenchymal cells from endocardial cushions. These genes, coding for transcription factors, interact with each other, and their differential expression conditions the severity of the phenotype. In this chapter, we will describe the formation of the ventricular septum in the normal heart, as well as the molecular mechanisms leading to the four main anatomic types of ventricular septal defects: outlet, inlet, muscular, and central perimembranous, resulting from failure of development of the different parts of the ventricular septum. Experiments on animal models, particularly transgenic mouse lines, have helped us to decipher the molecular determinants of ventricular septation. However, a precise description of the anatomic phenotypes found in these models is mandatory to achieve a better comprehension of the complex mechanisms responsible for the various types of VSDs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucile Houyel
- Pediatric and Congenital Cardiology Unit, Necker-Enfants Malades Hospital - M3C, University of Paris, Paris, France.
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Magnan RA, Kang L, Degenhardt KR, Anderson RH, Jay PY. Molecular Pathways and Animal Models of Atrial Septal Defect. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2024; 1441:481-493. [PMID: 38884727 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-031-44087-8_25] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/18/2024]
Abstract
The relative simplicity of the clinical presentation and management of an atrial septal defect belies the complexity of the developmental pathogenesis. Here, we describe the anatomic development of the atrial septum and the venous return to the atrial chambers. Experimental models suggest how mutations and naturally occurring genetic variation could affect developmental steps to cause a defect within the oval fossa, the so-called secundum defect, or other interatrial communications, such as the sinus venosus defect or ostium primum defect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel A Magnan
- Department of Pediatrics, Goryeb Children's Hospital, Morristown, NJ, USA
| | - Lillian Kang
- Department of Surgery, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Karl R Degenhardt
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Pediatrics, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Robert H Anderson
- Cardiovascular Research Center, Biosciences Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
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Faber JW, Buijtendijk MFJ, Klarenberg H, Vink AS, Coolen BF, Moorman AFM, Christoffels VM, Clur SA, Jensen B. Fetal Tricuspid Valve Agenesis/Atresia: Testing Predictions of the Embryonic Etiology. Pediatr Cardiol 2022; 43:796-806. [PMID: 34988599 DOI: 10.1007/s00246-021-02789-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2021] [Accepted: 11/20/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Tricuspid valve agenesis/atresia (TVA) is a congenital cardiac malformation where the tricuspid valve is not formed. It is hypothesized that TVA results from a failure of the normal rightward expansion of the atrioventricular canal (AVC). We tested predictions of this hypothesis by morphometric analyses of the AVC in fetal hearts. We used high-resolution MRI and ultrasonography on a post-mortem fetal heart with TVA and with tricuspid valve stenosis (TVS) to validate the position of measurement landmarks that were to be applied to clinical echocardiograms. This revealed a much deeper right atrioventricular sulcus in TVA than in TVS. Subsequently, serial echocardiograms of in utero fetuses between 12 and 38 weeks of gestation were included (n = 23 TVA, n = 16 TVS, and n = 74 controls) to establish changes in AVC width and ventricular dimensions over time. Ventricular length and width and estimated fetal weight all increased significantly with age, irrespective of diagnosis. Heart rate did not differ between groups. However, in the second trimester, in TVA, the ratio of AVC to ventricular width was significantly lower compared to TVS and controls. This finding supports the hypothesis that TVA is due to a failed rightward expansion of the AVC. Notably, we found in the third trimester that the AVC to ventricular width normalized in TVA fetuses as their mitral valve area was greater than in controls. Hence, TVA associates with a quantifiable under-development of the AVC. This under-development is obscured in the third trimester, likely because of adaptational growth that allows for increased stroke volume of the left ventricle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaeike W Faber
- Department of Medical Biology, Amsterdam Cardiovascular Sciences, Amsterdam University Medical Centres, 1105 AZ, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Marieke F J Buijtendijk
- Department of Medical Biology, Amsterdam Cardiovascular Sciences, Amsterdam University Medical Centres, 1105 AZ, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Hugo Klarenberg
- Department of Biomedical Engineering & Physics, Amsterdam University Medical Centres, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Arja Suzanne Vink
- Department of Cardiology, Amsterdam University Medical Centres, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.,Department of Paediatric Cardiology, Emma Children's Hospital, Academic Medical Centre, Amsterdam University Medical Centres, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Bram F Coolen
- Department of Biomedical Engineering & Physics, Amsterdam University Medical Centres, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Antoon F M Moorman
- Department of Medical Biology, Amsterdam Cardiovascular Sciences, Amsterdam University Medical Centres, 1105 AZ, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Vincent M Christoffels
- Department of Medical Biology, Amsterdam Cardiovascular Sciences, Amsterdam University Medical Centres, 1105 AZ, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Sally-Ann Clur
- Department of Paediatric Cardiology, Emma Children's Hospital, Academic Medical Centre, Amsterdam University Medical Centres, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Bjarke Jensen
- Department of Medical Biology, Amsterdam Cardiovascular Sciences, Amsterdam University Medical Centres, 1105 AZ, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
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8
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Predisposition to atrioventricular septal defects may be caused by SOX7 variants that impair interaction with GATA4. Mol Genet Genomics 2022; 297:671-687. [PMID: 35260939 DOI: 10.1007/s00438-022-01859-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2021] [Accepted: 01/12/2022] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Atrioventricular septal defects (AVSD) are a complicated subtype of congenital heart defects for which the genetic basis is poorly understood. Many studies have demonstrated that the transcription factor SOX7 plays a pivotal role in cardiovascular development. However, whether SOX7 single nucleotide variants are involved in AVSD pathogenesis is unclear. To explore the potential pathogenic role of SOX7 variants, we recruited a total of 100 sporadic non-syndromic AVSD Chinese Han patients and screened SOX7 variants in the patient cohort by targeted sequencing. Functional assays were performed to evaluate pathogenicity of nonsynonymous variants of SOX7. We identified three rare SOX7 variants, c.40C > G, c.542G > A, and c.743C > T, in the patient cohort, all of which were found to be highly conserved in mammals. Compared to the wild type, these SOX7 variants had increased mRNA expression and decreased protein expression. In developing hearts, SOX7 and GATA4 were highly expressed in the region of atrioventricular cushions. Moreover, SOX7 overexpression promoted the expression of GATA4 in human umbilical vein endothelial cells. A chromatin immunoprecipitation assay revealed that SOX7 could directly bind to the GATA4 promoter and luciferase assays demonstrated that SOX7 activated the GATA4 promoter. The SOX7 variants had impaired transcriptional activity relative to wild-type SOX7. Furthermore, the SOX7 variants altered the ability of GATA4 to regulate its target genes. In conclusion, our findings showed that deleterious SOX7 variants potentially contribute to human AVSD by impairing its interaction with GATA4. This study provides novel insights into the etiology of AVSD and contributes new strategies to the prenatal diagnosis of AVSD.
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Abstract
Congenital heart disease is the most frequent birth defect and the leading cause of death for the fetus and in the first year of life. The wide phenotypic diversity of congenital heart defects requires expert diagnosis and sophisticated repair surgery. Although these defects have been described since the seventeenth century, it was only in 2005 that a consensus international nomenclature was adopted, followed by an international classification in 2017 to help provide better management of patients. Advances in genetic engineering, imaging, and omics analyses have uncovered mechanisms of heart formation and malformation in animal models, but approximately 80% of congenital heart defects have an unknown genetic origin. Here, we summarize current knowledge of congenital structural heart defects, intertwining clinical and fundamental research perspectives, with the aim to foster interdisciplinary collaborations at the cutting edge of each field. We also discuss remaining challenges in better understanding congenital heart defects and providing benefits to patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucile Houyel
- Unité de Cardiologie Pédiatrique et Congénitale and Centre de Référence des Malformations Cardiaques Congénitales Complexes (M3C), Hôpital Necker-Enfants Malades, Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris (AP-HP), 75015 Paris, France.,Université de Paris, 75015 Paris, France
| | - Sigolène M Meilhac
- Université de Paris, 75015 Paris, France.,Imagine-Institut Pasteur Unit of Heart Morphogenesis, INSERM UMR 1163, 75015 Paris, France;
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Loomba RS, Tretter JT, Mohun TJ, Anderson RH, Kramer S, Spicer DE. Identification and Morphogenesis of Vestibular Atrial Septal Defects. J Cardiovasc Dev Dis 2020; 7:jcdd7030035. [PMID: 32927616 PMCID: PMC7570000 DOI: 10.3390/jcdd7030035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2020] [Revised: 08/03/2020] [Accepted: 08/10/2020] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: The vestibular atrial septal defect is an interatrial communication located in the antero-inferior portion of the atrial septum. Reflecting either inadequate muscularization of the vestibular spine and mesenchymal cap during development, or excessive apoptosis within the developing antero-inferior septal component, the vestibular defect represents an infrequently recognized true deficiency of the atrial septum. We reviewed necropsy specimens from three separate archives to establish the frequency of such vestibular defects and their associated cardiac findings, providing additional analysis from developing mouse hearts to illustrate their potential morphogenesis. Materials and methods: We analyzed the hearts in the Farouk S. Idriss Cardiac Registry at Ann and Robert H. Lurie Children’s Hospital in Chicago, IL, the Van Mierop Archive at the University of Florida in Gainesville, Florida, and the archive at Johns Hopkins All Children’s Heart Institute in St. Petersburg, Florida, identifying all those exhibiting a vestibular atrial septal defect, along with the associated intracardiac malformations. We then assessed potential mechanisms for the existence of such defects, based on the assessment of 450 datasets of developing mouse hearts prepared using the technique of episcopic microscopy. Results: We analyzed a total of 2100 specimens. Of these, 68 (3%) were found to have a vestibular atrial septal defect. Comparable defects were identified in 10 developing mouse embryos sacrificed at embryonic data 15.5, by which stage the antero-inferior component of the atrial septum is usually normally formed. Conclusion: The vestibular defect is a true septal defect located in the muscular antero-inferior rim of the oval fossa. Our retrospective review of autopsied hearts suggests that the defect may be more common than previously thought. Increased awareness of the location of the defect should optimize its future clinical identification. We suggest that the defect exists because of failure, during embryonic development, of union of the components that bind the leading edge of the primary atrial septum to the atrioventricular junctions, either because of inadequate muscularisation or excessive apoptosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rohit S. Loomba
- Division of Cardiology, Advocate Children’s Hospital, Chicago, IL 60453, USA
- Correspondence:
| | - Justin T. Tretter
- Heart Institute, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH 45229, USA;
| | | | - Robert H. Anderson
- Cardiovascular Research Centre, Institute of Genetic Medicine, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 3BZ, UK;
| | - Scott Kramer
- Division of Pediatric Cardiology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA; (S.K.); (D.E.S.)
| | - Diane E. Spicer
- Division of Pediatric Cardiology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA; (S.K.); (D.E.S.)
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Versacci P, Pugnaloni F, Digilio MC, Putotto C, Unolt M, Calcagni G, Baban A, Marino B. Some Isolated Cardiac Malformations Can Be Related to Laterality Defects. J Cardiovasc Dev Dis 2018; 5:jcdd5020024. [PMID: 29724030 PMCID: PMC6023464 DOI: 10.3390/jcdd5020024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2018] [Revised: 04/21/2018] [Accepted: 04/25/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Human beings are characterized by a left–right asymmetric arrangement of their internal organs, and the heart is the first organ to break symmetry in the developing embryo. Aberrations in normal left–right axis determination during embryogenesis lead to a wide spectrum of abnormal internal laterality phenotypes, including situs inversus and heterotaxy. In more than 90% of instances, the latter condition is accompanied by complex and severe cardiovascular malformations. Atrioventricular canal defect and transposition of the great arteries—which are particularly frequent in the setting of heterotaxy—are commonly found in situs solitus with or without genetic syndromes. Here, we review current data on morphogenesis of the heart in human beings and animal models, familial recurrence, and upstream genetic pathways of left–right determination in order to highlight how some isolated congenital heart diseases, very common in heterotaxy, even in the setting of situs solitus, may actually be considered in the pathogenetic field of laterality defects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paolo Versacci
- Department of Pediatrics, Sapienza University of Rome, 00161 Rome, Italy.
| | - Flaminia Pugnaloni
- Department of Pediatrics, Sapienza University of Rome, 00161 Rome, Italy.
| | - Maria Cristina Digilio
- Genetics and Rare Diseases Research Division, Bambino Gesù Children's Hospital and Research Institute, 00165 Rome, Italy.
| | - Carolina Putotto
- Department of Pediatrics, Sapienza University of Rome, 00161 Rome, Italy.
| | - Marta Unolt
- Department of Pediatrics, Sapienza University of Rome, 00161 Rome, Italy.
| | - Giulio Calcagni
- Department of Pediatric Cardiology and Cardiac Surgery, Bambino Gesù Children's Hospital and Research Institute, 00165 Rome, Italy.
| | - Anwar Baban
- Department of Pediatric Cardiology and Cardiac Surgery, Bambino Gesù Children's Hospital and Research Institute, 00165 Rome, Italy.
| | - Bruno Marino
- Department of Pediatrics, Sapienza University of Rome, 00161 Rome, Italy.
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BMP2 expression in the endocardial lineage is required for AV endocardial cushion maturation and remodeling. Dev Biol 2017; 430:113-128. [PMID: 28790014 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2017.08.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2017] [Revised: 07/16/2017] [Accepted: 08/04/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Distal outgrowth, maturation and remodeling of the endocardial cushion mesenchyme in the atrioventricular (AV) canal are the essential morphogenetic events during four-chambered heart formation. Mesenchymalized AV endocardial cushions give rise to the AV valves and the membranous ventricular septum (VS). Failure of these processes results in several human congenital heart defects. Despite this clinical relevance, the mechanisms governing how mesenchymalized AV endocardial cushions mature and remodel into the membranous VS and AV valves have only begun to be elucidated. The role of BMP signaling in the myocardial and secondary heart forming lineage has been well studied; however, little is known about the role of BMP2 expression in the endocardial lineage. To fill this knowledge gap, we generated Bmp2 endocardial lineage-specific conditional knockouts (referred to as Bmp2 cKOEndo) by crossing conditionally-targeted Bmp2flox/flox mice with a Cre-driver line, Nfatc1Cre, wherein Cre-mediated recombination was restricted to the endocardial cells and their mesenchymal progeny. Bmp2 cKOEndo mouse embryos did not exhibit failure or delay in the initial AV endocardial cushion formation at embryonic day (ED) 9.5-11.5; however, significant reductions in AV cushion size were detected in Bmp2 cKOEndo mouse embryos when compared to control embryos at ED13.5 and ED16.5. Moreover, deletion of Bmp2 from the endocardial lineage consistently resulted in membranous ventricular septal defects (VSDs), and mitral valve deficiencies, as evidenced by the absence of stratification of mitral valves at birth. Muscular VSDs were not found in Bmp2 cKOEndo mouse hearts. To understand the underlying morphogenetic mechanisms leading to a decrease in cushion size, cell proliferation and cell death were examined for AV endocardial cushions. Phospho-histone H3 analyses for cell proliferation and TUNEL assays for apoptotic cell death did not reveal significant differences between control and Bmp2 cKOEndo in AV endocardial cushions. However, mRNA expression of the extracellular matrix components, versican, Has2, collagen 9a1, and periostin was significantly reduced in Bmp2 cKOEndo AV cushions. Expression of transcription factors implicated in the cardiac valvulogenesis, Snail2, Twist1 and Sox9, was also significantly reduced in Bmp2 cKOEndo AV cushions. These data provide evidence that BMP2 expression in the endocardial lineage is essential for the distal outgrowth, maturation and remodeling of AV endocardial cushions into the normal membranous VS and the stratified AV valves.
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Pang KL, Parnall M, Loughna S. Effect of altered haemodynamics on the developing mitral valve in chick embryonic heart. J Mol Cell Cardiol 2017; 108:114-126. [PMID: 28576718 PMCID: PMC5529288 DOI: 10.1016/j.yjmcc.2017.05.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2017] [Revised: 05/23/2017] [Accepted: 05/29/2017] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Intracardiac haemodynamics is crucial for normal cardiogenesis, with recent evidence showing valvulogenesis is haemodynamically dependent and inextricably linked with shear stress. Although valve anomalies have been associated with genetic mutations, often the cause is unknown. However, altered haemodynamics have been suggested as a pathogenic contributor to bicuspid aortic valve disease. Conversely, how abnormal haemodynamics impacts mitral valve development is still poorly understood. In order to analyse altered blood flow, the outflow tract of the chick heart was constricted using a ligature to increase cardiac pressure overload. Outflow tract-banding was performed at HH21, with harvesting at crucial valve development stages (HH26, HH29 and HH35). Although normal valve morphology was found in HH26 outflow tract banded hearts, smaller and dysmorphic mitral valve primordia were seen upon altered haemodynamics in histological and stereological analysis at HH29 and HH35. A decrease in apoptosis, and aberrant expression of a shear stress responsive gene and extracellular matrix markers in the endocardial cushions were seen in the chick HH29 outflow tract banded hearts. In addition, dysregulation of extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins fibrillin-2, type III collagen and tenascin were further demonstrated in more mature primordial mitral valve leaflets at HH35, with a concomitant decrease of ECM cross-linking enzyme, transglutaminase-2. These data provide compelling evidence that normal haemodynamics are a prerequisite for normal mitral valve morphogenesis, and abnormal blood flow could be a contributing factor in mitral valve defects, with differentiation as a possible underlying mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kar Lai Pang
- School of Life Sciences, Medical School, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2UH, UK
| | - Matthew Parnall
- School of Life Sciences, Medical School, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2UH, UK
| | - Siobhan Loughna
- School of Life Sciences, Medical School, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2UH, UK.
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Gata4 potentiates second heart field proliferation and Hedgehog signaling for cardiac septation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2017; 114:E1422-E1431. [PMID: 28167794 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1605137114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
GATA4, an essential cardiogenic transcription factor, provides a model for dominant transcription factor mutations in human disease. Dominant GATA4 mutations cause congenital heart disease (CHD), specifically atrial and atrioventricular septal defects (ASDs and AVSDs). We found that second heart field (SHF)-specific Gata4 heterozygote embryos recapitulated the AVSDs observed in germline Gata4 heterozygote embryos. A proliferation defect of SHF atrial septum progenitors and hypoplasia of the dorsal mesenchymal protrusion, rather than anlage of the atrioventricular septum, were observed in this model. Knockdown of the cell-cycle repressor phosphatase and tensin homolog (Pten) restored cell-cycle progression and rescued the AVSDs. Gata4 mutants also demonstrated Hedgehog (Hh) signaling defects. Gata4 acts directly upstream of Hh components: Gata4 activated a cis-regulatory element at Gli1 in vitro and occupied the element in vivo. Remarkably, SHF-specific constitutive Hh signaling activation rescued AVSDs in Gata4 SHF-specific heterozygous knockout embryos. Pten expression was unchanged in Smoothened mutants, and Hh pathway genes were unchanged in Pten mutants, suggesting pathway independence. Thus, both the cell-cycle and Hh-signaling defects caused by dominant Gata4 mutations were required for CHD pathogenesis, suggesting a combinatorial model of disease causation by transcription factor haploinsufficiency.
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Zhang KK, Xiang M, Zhou L, Liu J, Curry N, Heine Suñer D, Garcia-Pavia P, Zhang X, Wang Q, Xie L. Gene network and familial analyses uncover a gene network involving Tbx5/Osr1/Pcsk6 interaction in the second heart field for atrial septation. Hum Mol Genet 2016; 25:1140-51. [PMID: 26744331 PMCID: PMC4764195 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddv636] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2015] [Revised: 12/21/2015] [Accepted: 12/30/2015] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Atrial septal defects (ASDs) are a common human congenital heart disease (CHD) that can be induced by genetic abnormalities. Our previous studies have demonstrated a genetic interaction between Tbx5 and Osr1 in the second heart field (SHF) for atrial septation. We hypothesized that Osr1 and Tbx5 share a common signaling networking and downstream targets for atrial septation. To identify this molecular networks, we acquired the RNA-Seq transcriptome data from the posterior SHF of wild-type, Tbx5(+/) (-), Osr1(+/-), Osr1(-/-) and Tbx5(+/-)/Osr1(+/-) mutant embryos. Gene set analysis was used to identify the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes pathways that were affected by the doses of Tbx5 and Osr1. A gene network module involving Tbx5 and Osr1 was identified using a non-parametric distance metric, distance correlation. A subset of 10 core genes and gene-gene interactions in the network module were validated by gene expression alterations in posterior second heart field (pSHF) of Tbx5 and Osr1 transgenic mouse embryos, a time-course gene expression change during P19CL6 cell differentiation. Pcsk6 was one of the network module genes that were linked to Tbx5. We validated the direct regulation of Tbx5 on Pcsk6 using immunohistochemical staining of pSHF, ChIP-quantitative polymerase chain reaction and luciferase reporter assay. Importantly, we identified Pcsk6 as a novel gene associated with ASD via a human genotyping study of an ASD family. In summary, our study implicated a gene network involving Tbx5, Osr1 and Pcsk6 interaction in SHF for atrial septation, providing a molecular framework for understanding the role of Tbx5 in CHD ontogeny.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ke K Zhang
- Department of Pathology, School of Medicine and Health Sciences, ND INBRE Bioinformatics Core, University of North Dakota, Grand Forks, ND 58202, USA
| | - Menglan Xiang
- Department of Basic Sciences, School of Medicine and Health Sciences and ND INBRE Bioinformatics Core, University of North Dakota, Grand Forks, ND 58202, USA
| | - Lun Zhou
- Department of Basic Sciences, School of Medicine and Health Sciences and Department of Gerontology, Tongji Hospital, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430030, China
| | - Jielin Liu
- Department of Basic Sciences, School of Medicine and Health Sciences and
| | - Nathan Curry
- Department of Basic Sciences, School of Medicine and Health Sciences and
| | - Damian Heine Suñer
- Laboratori de Genetica Molecular, Hospital Son Espases, Palma de Mallorca 07010, Spain
| | - Pablo Garcia-Pavia
- Department of Cardiology, Heart Failure and Inherited Cardiac Diseases Unit, Hospital Universitario Puerta de Hierro Majadahonda, Manuel de Falla, 1, 28222 Majadahonda, Madrid, Spain
| | - Xiaohua Zhang
- Nemours Research Institute, Nemours Children's hospital, Orlando, FL 32827, USA
| | - Qin Wang
- Department of Molecular Cardiology, Center for Cardiovascular Genetics, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA, Department of Molecular Medicine and Department of Genetics and Genome Sciences, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA and
| | - Linglin Xie
- Department of Basic Sciences, School of Medicine and Health Sciences and Department of Nutrition and Food Science, Texas A&M University, Cater-Mattil Hall Rm 217B, TAMU 2253, College Station, TX 77843, USA
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16
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Lana-Elola E, Watson-Scales S, Slender A, Gibbins D, Martineau A, Douglas C, Mohun T, Fisher EM, Tybulewicz VL. Genetic dissection of Down syndrome-associated congenital heart defects using a new mouse mapping panel. eLife 2016; 5:11614. [PMID: 26765563 PMCID: PMC4764572 DOI: 10.7554/elife.11614] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2015] [Accepted: 01/04/2016] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Down syndrome (DS), caused by trisomy of human chromosome 21 (Hsa21), is the most common cause of congenital heart defects (CHD), yet the genetic and mechanistic causes of these defects remain unknown. To identify dosage-sensitive genes that cause DS phenotypes, including CHD, we used chromosome engineering to generate a mapping panel of 7 mouse strains with partial trisomies of regions of mouse chromosome 16 orthologous to Hsa21. Using high-resolution episcopic microscopy and three-dimensional modeling we show that these strains accurately model DS CHD. Systematic analysis of the 7 strains identified a minimal critical region sufficient to cause CHD when present in 3 copies, and showed that it contained at least two dosage-sensitive loci. Furthermore, two of these new strains model a specific subtype of atrio-ventricular septal defects with exclusive ventricular shunting and demonstrate that, contrary to current hypotheses, these CHD are not due to failure in formation of the dorsal mesenchymal protrusion. Down syndrome is a condition caused by having an extra copy of one of the 46 chromosomes found inside human cells. Specifically, instead of two copies, people with Down syndrome are born with three copies of chromosome 21. This results in many different effects, including learning and memory problems, heart defects and Alzheimer’s disease. Each of these different effects is caused by having a third copy of one or more of the approximately 230 genes found on chromosome 21. However, it is not known which of these genes cause any of these effects, and how an extra copy of the genes results in such changes. Now, Lana-Elola et al. have investigated which genes on chromosome 21 cause the heart defects seen in Down syndrome, and how those heart defects come about. This involved engineering a new strain of mouse that has an extra copy of 148 mouse genes that are very similar to 148 genes found on chromosome 21 in humans. Like people with Down syndrome, this mouse strain developed heart defects when it was an embryo. Using a series of six further mouse strains, Lana-Elola et al. then narrowed down the potential genes that, when in three copies, are needed to cause the heart defects, to a list of just 39 genes. Further experiments then showed that at least two genes within these 39 genes were required in three copies to cause the heart defects. The next step will be to identify the specific genes that actually cause the heart defects, and then work out how a third copy of these genes causes the developmental problems.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Amy Slender
- The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
| | | | | | | | | | - Elizabeth Mc Fisher
- Department of Neurodegenerative Disease, UCL Institute of Neurology, London, United Kingdom
| | - Victor Lj Tybulewicz
- The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom.,Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
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17
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Atrioventricular septal defect: From embryonic development to long-term follow-up. Int J Cardiol 2016; 202:784-95. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijcard.2015.09.081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2015] [Revised: 07/28/2015] [Accepted: 09/23/2015] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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18
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Zhou L, Liu J, Olson P, Zhang K, Wynne J, Xie L. Tbx5 and Osr1 interact to regulate posterior second heart field cell cycle progression for cardiac septation. J Mol Cell Cardiol 2015; 85:1-12. [PMID: 25986147 DOI: 10.1016/j.yjmcc.2015.05.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2015] [Revised: 05/05/2015] [Accepted: 05/07/2015] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Mutations of TBX5 cause Holt-Oram syndrome (HOS) in humans, a disease characterized by atrial or occasionally ventricular septal defects in the heart and skeletal abnormalities of the upper extremity. Previous studies have demonstrated that Tbx5 regulates Osr1 expression in the second heart field (SHF) of E9.5 mouse embryos. However, it is unknown whether and how Tbx5 and Osr1 interact in atrial septation. OBJECTIVE To determine if and how Tbx5 and Osr1 interact in the posterior SHF for cardiac septation. METHODS AND RESULTS In the present study, genetic inducible fate mapping showed that Osr1-expressing cells contribute to atrial septum progenitors between E8.0 and E11.0. Osr1 expression in the pSHF was dependent on the level of Tbx5 at E8.5 and E9.5 but not E10.5, suggesting that the embryo stage before E10.5 is critical for Tbx5 interacting with Osr1 in atrial septation. Significantly more atrioventricular septal defects (AVSDs) were observed in embryos with compound haploinsufficiency for Tbx5 and Osr1. Conditional compound haploinsufficiency for Tbx5 and Osr1 resulted in a significant cell proliferation defect in the SHF, which was associated with fewer cells in the G2 and M phases and a decreased level of Cdk6 expression. Remarkably, genetically targeted disruption of Pten expression in atrial septum progenitors rescued AVSDs caused by Tbx5 and Osr1 compound haploinsufficiency. There was a significant decrease in Smo expression, which is a Hedgehog (Hh) signaling pathway modulator, in the pSHF of Osr1 knockout embryos at E9.5, implying a role for Osr1 in regulating Hh signaling. CONCLUSIONS Tbx5 and Osr1 interact to regulate posterior SHF cell cycle progression for cardiac septation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lun Zhou
- Department of Basic Sciences, School of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of North Dakota, Grand Forks, ND 58202, USA; Department of Gerontology, Tongji Hospital, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430030, China
| | - Jielin Liu
- Department of Basic Sciences, School of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of North Dakota, Grand Forks, ND 58202, USA
| | - Patrick Olson
- Department of Basic Sciences, School of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of North Dakota, Grand Forks, ND 58202, USA
| | - Ke Zhang
- Department of Pathology, School of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of North Dakota, Grand Forks, ND 58202, USA
| | - Joshua Wynne
- Department of Internal Medicine, School of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of North Dakota, Grand Forks, ND 58202, USA
| | - Linglin Xie
- Department of Basic Sciences, School of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of North Dakota, Grand Forks, ND 58202, USA.
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19
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Anderson RH, Mohun TJ, Brown NA. Clarifying the morphology of the ostium primum defect. J Anat 2015; 226:244-57. [PMID: 25676858 DOI: 10.1111/joa.12272] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/24/2014] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
The 'ostium primum' defect is still frequently considered to be the consequence of deficient atrial septation, although the key feature is a common atrioventricular junction. The bridging leaflets of the common atrioventricular valve, which are joined to each other, are depressed distal to the atrioventricular junction, and fused to the crest of the muscular ventricular septum, which is bowed in the concave direction towards the ventricular apex. As a result, shunting across the defect occurs between the atrial chambers. These observations suggest that the basic deficiency in the 'ostium primum' defect is best understood as a product of defective atrioventricular septation, rather than an atrial septal defect. We have now encountered four examples of 'ostium primum' defects in mouse embryos that support this view. These were identified from a large number of mouse embryo hearts collected from a normal, outbred mouse colony and analysed by episcopic microscopy as part of an ongoing study of normal mouse cardiac development. The abnormal hearts were identified from embryos collected at embryonic days 15.5, 16.5 and 18.5 (two cases). We have analysed the features of the abnormal hearts, and compared the findings with those obtained in the large number of normally developed embryos. Our data show that the key feature of normal atrioventricular septation is the ventral growth through the right pulmonary ridge of a protrusion from the dorsal pharyngeal mesenchyme, confirming previous findings. This protrusion, known as the vestibular spine, or the dorsal mesenchymal protrusion, reinforces the closure of the primary atrial foramen, and muscularises along with the mesenchymal cap of the primary atrial septum to form the ventro-caudal buttress of the oval foramen, identified by some as the 'canal septum'. Detailed analysis of the four abnormal hearts suggests that in each case there has been failure of growth of the vestibular spine, with the result that the common atrioventricular junction found earlier during normal development now persists during cardiac development. Failure of separation of the common junction also accounts for the trifoliate arrangement of the left atrioventricular valve in the abnormal hearts. Analysis of the episcopic datasets also permits recognition of the location of the atrioventricular conduction axis. Comparison of the location of this tract in the normal and abnormal hearts shows that there is no separate formation of a ventricular component of the 'canal septum' as part of normal development. We conclude that it is abnormal formation of the primary atrial septum that is the cause of so-called 'secundum' atrial septal defects, whereas it is the failure to produce a second contribution to atrial septation (via growth of the vestibular spine) that results in the 'ostium primum' defect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert H Anderson
- Institute of Genetic Medicine, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK; Division of Biomedical Sciences, St George's University of London, London, UK
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20
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Krishnan A, Samtani R, Dhanantwari P, Lee E, Yamada S, Shiota K, Donofrio MT, Leatherbury L, Lo CW. A detailed comparison of mouse and human cardiac development. Pediatr Res 2014; 76:500-7. [PMID: 25167202 PMCID: PMC4233008 DOI: 10.1038/pr.2014.128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2013] [Accepted: 05/29/2014] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Mouse mutants are used to model human congenital cardiovascular disease. Few studies exist comparing normal cardiovascular development in mice vs. humans. We carried out a systematic comparative analysis of mouse and human fetal cardiovascular development. METHODS Episcopic fluorescence image capture (EFIC) was performed on 66 wild-type mouse embryos from embryonic day (E) 9.5 to birth; 2-dimensional and 3-dimensional datasets were compared with EFIC and magnetic resonance images from a study of 52 human fetuses (Carnegie stage 13-23). RESULTS Time course of atrial, ventricular, and outflow septation were outlined and followed a similar sequence in both species. Bilateral venae cavae and prominent atrial appendages were seen in the mouse fetus; in human fetuses, atrial appendages were small, and a single right superior vena cava was present. In contrast to humans with separate pulmonary vein orifices, a pulmonary venous confluence with one orifice enters the left atrium in mice. CONCLUSION The cardiac developmental sequences observed in mouse and human fetuses are comparable, with minor differences in atrial and venous morphology. These comparisons of mouse and human cardiac development strongly support that mouse morphogenesis is a good model for human development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anita Krishnan
- Laboratory of Developmental Biology; National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute; National Institutes of Health; Bethesda, MD; United States,Children’s National Heart Institute; Children’s National Medical Center; Washington, DC; United States
| | - Rajeev Samtani
- Laboratory of Developmental Biology; National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute; National Institutes of Health; Bethesda, MD; United States
| | - Preeta Dhanantwari
- Division of Pediatric Cardiology; Schneider Children’s Hospital; New Hyde Park, NY; United States
| | - Elaine Lee
- Laboratory of Developmental Biology; National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute; National Institutes of Health; Bethesda, MD; United States
| | - Shigehito Yamada
- Congenital Anomaly Research Center, Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine; Kyoto, Japan
| | - Kohei Shiota
- Congenital Anomaly Research Center, Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine; Kyoto, Japan
| | - Mary T. Donofrio
- Children’s National Heart Institute; Children’s National Medical Center; Washington, DC; United States
| | - Linda Leatherbury
- Laboratory of Developmental Biology; National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute; National Institutes of Health; Bethesda, MD; United States,Children’s National Heart Institute; Children’s National Medical Center; Washington, DC; United States
| | - Cecilia W. Lo
- Laboratory of Developmental Biology; National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute; National Institutes of Health; Bethesda, MD; United States,Department of Developmental Biology; University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine; Pittsburgh, PA; United States
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21
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Chamberlain AA, Lin M, Lister RL, Maslov AA, Wang Y, Suzuki M, Wu B, Greally JM, Zheng D, Zhou B. DNA methylation is developmentally regulated for genes essential for cardiogenesis. J Am Heart Assoc 2014; 3:e000976. [PMID: 24947998 PMCID: PMC4309105 DOI: 10.1161/jaha.114.000976] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2014] [Accepted: 04/11/2014] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND DNA methylation is a major epigenetic mechanism altering gene expression in development and disease. However, its role in the regulation of gene expression during heart development is incompletely understood. The aim of this study is to reveal DNA methylation in mouse embryonic hearts and its role in regulating gene expression during heart development. METHODS AND RESULTS We performed the genome-wide DNA methylation profiling of mouse embryonic hearts using methyl-sensitive, tiny fragment enrichment/massively parallel sequencing to determine methylation levels at ACGT sites. The results showed that while global methylation of 1.64 million ACGT sites in developing hearts remains stable between embryonic day (E) 11.5 and E14.5, a small fraction (2901) of them exhibit differential methylation. Gene Ontology analysis revealed that these sites are enriched at genes involved in heart development. Quantitative real-time PCR analysis of 350 genes with differential DNA methylation showed that the expression of 181 genes is developmentally regulated, and 79 genes have correlative changes between methylation and expression, including hyaluronan synthase 2 (Has2). Required for heart valve formation, Has2 expression in the developing heart valves is downregulated at E14.5, accompanied with increased DNA methylation in its enhancer. Genetic knockout further showed that the downregulation of Has2 expression is dependent on DNA methyltransferase 3b, which is co-expressed with Has2 in the forming heart valve region, indicating that the DNA methylation change may contribute to the Has2 enhancer's regulating function. CONCLUSIONS DNA methylation is developmentally regulated for genes essential to heart development, and abnormal DNA methylation may contribute to congenital heart disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alyssa A. Chamberlain
- Division of Hematology, Department of Genetics, Albert Einstein College of Medicine of Yeshiva University, Bronx, NY (A.A.C., M.L., A.A.M., Y.W., M.S., B.W., J.M.G., D.Z.)
| | - Mingyan Lin
- Division of Hematology, Department of Genetics, Albert Einstein College of Medicine of Yeshiva University, Bronx, NY (A.A.C., M.L., A.A.M., Y.W., M.S., B.W., J.M.G., D.Z.)
| | - Rolanda L. Lister
- Division of Hematology, Department of Obstetrics & Gynecology and Women's Health (Maternal & Fetal Medicine), Albert Einstein College of Medicine of Yeshiva University, Bronx, NY (R.L.L.)
| | - Alex A. Maslov
- Division of Hematology, Department of Genetics, Albert Einstein College of Medicine of Yeshiva University, Bronx, NY (A.A.C., M.L., A.A.M., Y.W., M.S., B.W., J.M.G., D.Z.)
| | - Yidong Wang
- Division of Hematology, Department of Genetics, Albert Einstein College of Medicine of Yeshiva University, Bronx, NY (A.A.C., M.L., A.A.M., Y.W., M.S., B.W., J.M.G., D.Z.)
| | - Masako Suzuki
- Division of Hematology, Department of Genetics, Albert Einstein College of Medicine of Yeshiva University, Bronx, NY (A.A.C., M.L., A.A.M., Y.W., M.S., B.W., J.M.G., D.Z.)
| | - Bingruo Wu
- Division of Hematology, Department of Genetics, Albert Einstein College of Medicine of Yeshiva University, Bronx, NY (A.A.C., M.L., A.A.M., Y.W., M.S., B.W., J.M.G., D.Z.)
| | - John M. Greally
- Division of Hematology, Department of Medicine, Albert Einstein College of Medicine of Yeshiva University, Bronx, NY (J.M.G.)
- Division of Hematology, Department of Pediatrics, Albert Einstein College of Medicine of Yeshiva University, Bronx, NY (J.M.G.)
- Division of Hematology, Department of Genetics, Albert Einstein College of Medicine of Yeshiva University, Bronx, NY (A.A.C., M.L., A.A.M., Y.W., M.S., B.W., J.M.G., D.Z.)
| | - Deyou Zheng
- Division of Hematology, Department of Neurology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine of Yeshiva University, Bronx, NY (D.Z.)
- Division of Hematology, Department of Neuroscience, Albert Einstein College of Medicine of Yeshiva University, Bronx, NY (D.Z.)
- Division of Hematology, Department of Genetics, Albert Einstein College of Medicine of Yeshiva University, Bronx, NY (A.A.C., M.L., A.A.M., Y.W., M.S., B.W., J.M.G., D.Z.)
| | - Bin Zhou
- Division of Cardiology, Departments of Medicine, Pediatrics, and Genetics, and Wilf Family Cardiovascular Research Institute, Albert Einstein College of Medicine of Yeshiva University, Bronx, NY (B.Z.)
- Department of Cardiology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China (B.Z.)
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22
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McGinley AL, Li Y, Deliu Z, Wang QT. Additional sex combs-likefamily genes are required for normal cardiovascular development. Genesis 2014; 52:671-86. [DOI: 10.1002/dvg.22793] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2014] [Revised: 05/14/2014] [Accepted: 05/20/2014] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Andrea L. McGinley
- Department of Biological Sciences; University of Illinois at Chicago; Chicago Illinois
| | - Yanyang Li
- Department of Biological Sciences; University of Illinois at Chicago; Chicago Illinois
| | - Zane Deliu
- Department of Biological Sciences; University of Illinois at Chicago; Chicago Illinois
| | - Q. Tian Wang
- Department of Biological Sciences; University of Illinois at Chicago; Chicago Illinois
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23
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Anderson RH, Spicer DE, Brown NA, Mohun TJ. The development of septation in the four-chambered heart. Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2014; 297:1414-29. [PMID: 24863187 DOI: 10.1002/ar.22949] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Revised: 07/13/2013] [Accepted: 08/30/2013] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The past decades have seen immense progress in the understanding of cardiac development. Appreciation of precise details of cardiac anatomy, however, has yet to be fully translated into the more general understanding of the changing structure of the developing heart, particularly with regard to formation of the septal structures. In this review, using images obtained with episcopic microscopy together with scanning electron microscopy, we show that the newly acquired information concerning the anatomic changes occurring during separation of the cardiac chambers in the mouse is able to provide a basis for understanding the morphogenesis of septal defects in the human heart. It is now established that as part of the changes seen when the heart tube changes from a short linear structure to the looped arrangement presaging formation of the ventricles, new material is added at both its venous and arterial poles. The details of these early changes, however, are beyond the scope of our current review. It is during E10.5 in the mouse that the first anatomic features of septation are seen, with formation of the primary atrial septum. This muscular structure grows toward the cushions formed within the atrioventricular canal, carrying on its leading edge a mesenchymal cap. Its cranial attachment breaks down to form the secondary foramen by the time the mesenchymal cap has used with the atrioventricular endocardial cushions, the latter fusion obliterating the primary foramen. Then the cap, along with a mesenchymal protrusion that grows from the mediastinal mesenchyme, muscularizes to form the base of the definitive atrial septum, the primary septum itself forming the floor of the oval foramen. The cranial margin of the foramen is a fold between the attachments of the pulmonary veins to the left atrium and the roof of the right atrium. The apical muscular ventricular septum develops concomitant with the ballooning of the apical components from the inlet and outlet of the ventricular loop. Its apical part is initially trabeculated. The membranous part of the septum is derived from the rightward margins of the atrioventricular cushions, with the muscularizing proximal outflow cushions fusing with the muscular septum and becoming the subpulmonary infundibulum as the aorta is committed to the left ventricle. Perturbations of these processes explain well the phenotypic variants of deficient atrial and ventricular septation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert H Anderson
- Institute of Genetic Medicine, Newcastle University, Newcastle, United Kingdom
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Nakaya T, Ishiguro KI, Belzil C, Rietsch AM, Yu Q, Mizuno SI, Bronson RT, Geng Y, Nguyen MD, Akashi K, Sicinski P, Nakatani Y. p600 Plays Essential Roles in Fetal Development. PLoS One 2013; 8:e66269. [PMID: 23824717 PMCID: PMC3688873 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0066269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2012] [Accepted: 05/03/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
p600 is a multifunctional protein implicated in cytoskeletal organization, integrin-mediated survival signaling, calcium-calmodulin signaling and the N-end rule pathway of ubiquitin-proteasome-mediated proteolysis. While push, the Drosophila counterpart of p600, is dispensable for development up to adult stage, the role of p600 has not been studied during mouse development. Here we generated p600 knockout mice to investigate the in vivo functions of p600. Interestingly, we found that homozygous deletion of p600 results in lethality between embryonic days 11.5 and 13.5 with severe defects in both embryo and placenta. Since p600 is required for placental development, we performed conditional disruption of p600, which deletes selectively p600 in the embryo but not in the placenta. The conditional mutant embryos survive longer than knockout embryos but ultimately die before embryonic day 14.5. The mutant embryos display severe cardiac problems characterized by ventricular septal defects and thin ventricular walls. These anomalies are associated with reduced activation of FAK and decreased expression of MEF2, which is regulated by FAK and plays a crucial role in cardiac development. Moreover, we observed pleiotropic defects in the liver and brain. In sum, our study sheds light on the essential roles of p600 in fetal development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takeo Nakaya
- Department of Cancer Biology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
- Translational Research Unit and Department of Molecular Pathology, Tokyo Medical University, Shinjuku, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Kei-ichiro Ishiguro
- Department of Cancer Biology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
- Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biosciences, University of Tokyo, Bunkyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Camille Belzil
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Anna M. Rietsch
- Department of Cancer Biology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Qunyan Yu
- Department of Cancer Biology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Shin-ichi Mizuno
- Department of Cancer Immunology and AIDS, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
- Department of Medicine and Biosystemic Science, Kyushu University Graduate School of Medical Science, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Roderick T. Bronson
- Dana-Farber/Harvard Cancer Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Yan Geng
- Department of Cancer Biology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Minh Dang Nguyen
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Koichi Akashi
- Department of Cancer Immunology and AIDS, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
- Department of Medicine and Biosystemic Science, Kyushu University Graduate School of Medical Science, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Piotr Sicinski
- Department of Cancer Biology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Yoshihiro Nakatani
- Department of Cancer Biology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Wu B, Baldwin HS, Zhou B. Nfatc1 directs the endocardial progenitor cells to make heart valve primordium. Trends Cardiovasc Med 2013; 23:294-300. [PMID: 23669445 DOI: 10.1016/j.tcm.2013.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2013] [Revised: 04/09/2013] [Accepted: 04/10/2013] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Heart valves arise from the cardiac endocardial cushions located at the atrioventricular canal (AVC) and cardiac outflow tract (OFT) during development. A subpopulation of cushion endocardial cells undergoes endocardial to mesenchymal transformation (EMT) and generates the cushion mesenchyme, which is then remodeled into the interstitial tissue of the mature valves. The cushion endocardial cells that do not undertake EMT proliferate to elongate valve leaflets. During EMT and the post-EMT valve remodeling, endocardial cells at the cushions highly express nuclear factor in activated T cell, cytoplasmic 1 (Nfatc1), a transcription factor required for valve formation in mice. In this review, we present the current knowledge of Nfatc1 roles in the ontogeny of heart valves with a focus on the fate decision of the endocardial cells in the processes of EMT and valve remodeling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bingruo Wu
- Department of Genetics, Division of Cardiology, Wilf Cardiovascular Institute, Albert Einstein College of Medicine of Yeshiva University, Bronx, NY 10461, USA; Department of Pediatrics, Division of Cardiology, Wilf Cardiovascular Institute, Albert Einstein College of Medicine of Yeshiva University, Bronx, NY 10461, USA; Department of Medicine, Division of Cardiology, Wilf Cardiovascular Institute, Albert Einstein College of Medicine of Yeshiva University, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
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Briggs LE, Phelps AL, Brown E, Kakarla J, Anderson RH, van den Hoff MJB, Wessels A. Expression of the BMP receptor Alk3 in the second heart field is essential for development of the dorsal mesenchymal protrusion and atrioventricular septation. Circ Res 2013; 112:1420-32. [PMID: 23584254 DOI: 10.1161/circresaha.112.300821] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE The dorsal mesenchymal protrusion (DMP) is a prong of mesenchyme derived from the second heart field (SHF) located at the venous pole of the developing heart. Recent studies have shown that perturbation of its development is associated with the pathogenesis of atrioventricular (AV) septal defect. Although the importance of the DMP to AV septation is now established, the molecular and cellular mechanisms underlying its development are far from fully understood. Prior studies have demonstrated that bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) signaling is essential for proper formation of the AV endocardial cushions and the cardiac outflow tract. A role for BMP signaling in regulation of DMP development remained to be elucidated. OBJECTIVE To determine the role of BMP signaling in DMP development. METHODS AND RESULTS Conditional deletion of the BMP receptor Alk3 from venous pole SHF cells leads to impaired formation of the DMP and a completely penetrant phenotype of ostium primum defect, a hallmark feature of AV septal defects. Analysis of mutants revealed decreased proliferative index of SHF cells and, consequently, reduced number of SHF cells at the cardiac venous pole. In contrast, volume and expression of markers associated with proliferation and active BMP/transforming growth factor β signaling were not significantly altered in the AV cushions of SHF-Alk3 mutants. CONCLUSIONS BMP signaling is required for expansion of the SHF-derived DMP progenitor population at the cardiac venous pole. Perturbation of Alk3-mediated BMP signaling from the SHF results in impaired development of the DMP and ostium primum defects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura E Briggs
- Department of Regenerative Medicine and Cell Biology, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC 29425, USA
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Abstract
Melanoma differentiation associated gene-9 (MDA-9)/syntenin is a PDZ domain-containing adaptor protein involved in multiple diverse cellular processes including organization of protein complexes in the plasma membrane, intracellular trafficking and cell surface targeting, synaptic transmission, and cancer metastasis. In the present study, we analyzed the expression pattern of MDA-9/syntenin during mouse development. MDA-9/syntenin was robustly expressed with tight regulation of its temporal and spatial expression during fetal development in the developing skin, spinal cord, heart, lung and liver, which are regulated by multiple signaling pathways in the process of organogenesis. Recent studies also indicate that MDA-9/syntenin is involved in the signaling pathways crucial during development such as Wnt, Notch and FGF. Taken together, these results suggest that MDA-9/syntenin may play a prominent role during normal mouse development in the context of cell proliferation as well as differentiation through modulating multiple signaling pathways as a crucial adaptor protein. Additionally, temporal regulation of MDA-9/syntenin expression may be required during specific stages and in specific tissues during development.
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28
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Lin CJ, Lin CY, Chen CH, Zhou B, Chang CP. Partitioning the heart: mechanisms of cardiac septation and valve development. Development 2012; 139:3277-99. [PMID: 22912411 DOI: 10.1242/dev.063495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 143] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Heart malformations are common congenital defects in humans. Many congenital heart defects involve anomalies in cardiac septation or valve development, and understanding the developmental mechanisms that underlie the formation of cardiac septal and valvular tissues thus has important implications for the diagnosis, prevention and treatment of congenital heart disease. The development of heart septa and valves involves multiple types of progenitor cells that arise either within or outside the heart. Here, we review the morphogenetic events and genetic networks that regulate spatiotemporal interactions between the cells that give rise to septal and valvular tissues and hence partition the heart.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chien-Jung Lin
- Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Department of Medicine, Stanford Cardiovascular Institute, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
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Sankova B, Benes J, Krejci E, Dupays L, Theveniau-Ruissy M, Miquerol L, Sedmera D. The effect of connexin40 deficiency on ventricular conduction system function during development. Cardiovasc Res 2012; 95:469-79. [PMID: 22739121 DOI: 10.1093/cvr/cvs210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
AIMS The aim of this study was to characterize ventricular activation patterns in normal and connexin40-deficient mice in order to dissect the role of connexin40 in developing the conduction system. METHODS AND RESULTS We performed optical mapping of epicardial activation between ED9.5-18.5 and analysed ventricular activation patterns and times of left ventricular activation. Mouse embryos deficient for connexin40 were compared with normal and heterozygous littermates. Morphology of the primary interventricular ring (PIR) was delineated with the help of T3-LacZ transgene. Four major types of ventricular activation patterns characterized by primary breakthrough in different parts of the heart were detected during development: PIR, left ventricular apex, right ventricular apex, and dual right and left ventricular apices. Activation through PIR was frequently present at the early stages until ED12.5. From ED14.5, the majority of hearts showed dual left and right apical breakthrough, suggesting functionality of both bundle branches. Connexin40-deficient embryos showed initially a delay in left bundle branch function, but the right bundle branch block, previously described in the adults, was not detected in ED14.5 embryos and appeared only gradually with 80% penetrance at ED18.5. CONCLUSION The switch of function from the early PIR conduction pathway to the mature apex to base activation is dependent upon upregulation of connexin40 expression in the ventricular trabeculae. The early function of right bundle branch does not depend on connexin40. Quantitative analysis of normal mouse embryonic ventricular conduction patterns will be useful for interpretation of effects of mutations affecting the function of the cardiac conduction system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbora Sankova
- Department of Cardiovascular Morphogenesis, Institute of Physiology, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Videnska 1083, 14220 Prague, Czech Republic
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Briggs LE, Kakarla J, Wessels A. The pathogenesis of atrial and atrioventricular septal defects with special emphasis on the role of the dorsal mesenchymal protrusion. Differentiation 2012; 84:117-30. [PMID: 22709652 PMCID: PMC3389176 DOI: 10.1016/j.diff.2012.05.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2011] [Revised: 04/17/2012] [Accepted: 05/04/2012] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Partitioning of the four-chambered heart requires the proper formation, interaction and fusion of several mesenchymal tissues derived from different precursor populations that together form the atrioventricular mesenchymal complex. This includes the major endocardial cushions and the mesenchymal cap of the septum primum, which are of endocardial origin, and the dorsal mesenchymal protrusion (DMP), which is derived from the Second Heart Field. Failure of these structures to develop and/or fully mature results in atrial septal defects (ASDs) and atrioventricular septal defects (AVSD). AVSDs are congenital malformations in which the atria are permitted to communicate due to defective septation between the inferior margin of the septum primum and the atrial surface of the common atrioventricular valve. The clinical presentation of AVSDs is variable and depends on both the size and/or type of defect; less severe defects may be asymptomatic while the most severe defect, if untreated, results in infantile heart failure. For many years, maldevelopment of the endocardial cushions was thought to be the sole etiology of AVSDs. More recent work, however, has demonstrated that perturbation of DMP development also results in AVSD. Here, we discuss in detail the formation of the DMP, its contribution to cardiac septation and describe the morphological features as well as potential etiologies of ASDs and AVSDs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura E. Briggs
- Department of Regenerative Medicine and Cell Biology, Medical University of South Carolina, 173 Ashley Avenue, Charleston, South Carolina 29425, USA
| | - Jayant Kakarla
- Institute of Genetic Medicine, Newcastle University, Newcastle Upon Tyne, United Kingdom
| | - Andy Wessels
- Department of Regenerative Medicine and Cell Biology, Medical University of South Carolina, 173 Ashley Avenue, Charleston, South Carolina 29425, USA
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Abstract
Tissue fusion events during embryonic development are crucial for the correct formation and function of many organs and tissues, including the heart, neural tube, eyes, face and body wall. During tissue fusion, two opposing tissue components approach one another and integrate to form a continuous tissue; disruption of this process leads to a variety of human birth defects. Genetic studies, together with recent advances in the ability to culture developing tissues, have greatly enriched our knowledge of the mechanisms involved in tissue fusion. This review aims to bring together what is currently known about tissue fusion in several developing mammalian organs and highlights some of the questions that remain to be addressed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heather J Ray
- HHMI, Department of Pediatrics, Cell Biology Stem Cells and Development Graduate Program, University of Colorado School of Medicine and Children's Hospital Colorado, Aurora, CO 80045, USA
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32
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NOing the heart: role of nitric oxide synthase-3 in heart development. Differentiation 2012; 84:54-61. [PMID: 22579300 DOI: 10.1016/j.diff.2012.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2012] [Revised: 04/03/2012] [Accepted: 04/10/2012] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Congenital heart disease is the most common birth defect in humans. Identifying factors that are critical to embryonic heart development could further our understanding of the disease and lead to new strategies of its prevention and treatment. Nitric oxide synthase-3 (NOS3) or endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) is known for many important biological functions including vasodilation, vascular homeostasis and angiogenesis. Over the past decade, studies from our lab and others have shown that NOS3 is required during heart development. More specifically, deficiency in NOS3 results in congenital septal defects, cardiac hypertrophy and postnatal heart failure. In addition, NOS3 is pivotal to the morphogenesis of major coronary arteries and myocardial capillary development. Interestingly, these effects of NOS3 are mediated through induction of transcription and growth factors that are crucial in the formation of coronary arteries. Finally, deficiency in NOS3 results in high incidences of bicuspid aortic valves, a disease in humans that often leads to complications with age including aortic valve stenosis or regurgitation, endocarditis, aortic aneurysm formation, and aortic dissection. In summary, these data suggest NOS3 plays a critical role in embryonic heart development and morphogenesis of coronary arteries and aortic valves.
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33
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Patel SS, Mahoney LT, Burns TL. Is a shorter atrioventricular septal length an intermediate phenotype in the spectrum of nonsyndromic atrioventricular septal defects? J Am Soc Echocardiogr 2012; 25:782-9. [PMID: 22542274 DOI: 10.1016/j.echo.2012.03.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2011] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Atrioventricular septal defects (AVSDs) account for 7% of all congenital cardiovascular malformations. The atrioventricular septum (AVS) is the portion of the septal tissue that separates the right atrium from the left ventricle; deficiency of the AVS contributes to the AVSD phenotype. A study of case and control families was performed to identify whether an intermediate phenotype consisting of a shortened AVS existed in relatives of children with AVSDs. METHODS AVS length (AVSL) was measured on the echocardiograms of clinically unaffected parents and siblings from families that were identified through children with nonsyndromic AVSDs and in families with no histories of congenital heart disease. RESULTS No significant differences were seen between case and control family members in terms of gender, age, weight, and height. AVSLs were significantly shorter in case parents compared with control parents. Similar findings were noted within the sibling groups. There was significant evidence for two-component distributions in the case parent, case sibling, and control sibling groups after standardizing AVSL for age and body surface area. Heritability of AVSL standardized for age and body surface area was 0.82 and 0.71 in nonsyndromic case and control families, respectively. CONCLUSIONS Evidence for two-component distributions from the analysis of AVSL standardized for age and body surface area for case parents and case siblings suggests the presence of an intermediate phenotype for nonsyndromic AVSD. The high heritability in the control families suggests that there may be polygenic involvement in the determination of AVSL. Broadening the definition of AVSD to include those with shortened AVSL may increase the power of genetic association and mapping studies to identify susceptibility genes for AVSD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonali S Patel
- Department of Pediatrics, Carver College of Medicine, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa, USA.
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34
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Winston JB, Schulkey CE, Chen IBD, Regmi SD, Efimova M, Erlich JM, Green CA, Aluko A, Jay PY. Complex trait analysis of ventricular septal defects caused by Nkx2-5 mutation. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2012; 5:293-300. [PMID: 22534315 DOI: 10.1161/circgenetics.111.961136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The occurrence of a congenital heart defect has long been thought to have a multifactorial basis, but the evidence is indirect. Complex trait analysis could provide a more nuanced understanding of congenital heart disease. METHODS AND RESULTS We assessed the role of genetic and environmental factors on the incidence of ventricular septal defects (VSDs) caused by a heterozygous Nkx2-5 knockout mutation. We phenotyped >3100 hearts from a second-generation intercross of the inbred mouse strains C57BL/6 and FVB/N. Genetic linkage analysis mapped loci with lod scores of 5 to 7 on chromosomes 6, 8, and 10 that influence the susceptibility to membranous VSDs in Nkx2-5(+/-) animals. The chromosome 6 locus overlaps one for muscular VSD susceptibility. Multiple logistic regression analysis for environmental variables revealed that maternal age is correlated with the risk of membranous and muscular VSD in Nkx2-5(+/-) but not wild-type animals. The maternal age effect is unrelated to aneuploidy or a genetic polymorphism in the affected individuals. The risk of a VSD is not only complex but dynamic. Whereas the effect of genetic modifiers on risk remains constant, the effect of maternal aging increases over time. CONCLUSIONS Enumerable factors contribute to the presentation of a congenital heart defect. The factors that modify rather than cause congenital heart disease substantially affect risk in predisposed individuals. Their characterization in a mouse model offers the potential to narrow the search space in human studies and to develop alternative strategies for prevention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia B Winston
- Department of Pediatrics, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
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35
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Zhao Z. Endoplasmic reticulum stress in maternal diabetes-induced cardiac malformations during critical cardiogenesis period. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011; 95:1-6. [PMID: 21922638 DOI: 10.1002/bdrb.20330] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2011] [Accepted: 07/12/2011] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cardiac abnormalities, including atrioventricular (AV) septal defects (AVSDs), are the most common birth defects in diabetic embryopathy. The AV septum is derived from the endocardial cushions, which undergo development and remodeling during septation. The impact of maternal diabetes on these processes needs to be identified. Maternal diabetes disturbs the function of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). The role of ER stress in cardiac malformation remains to be delineated to gain information for developing therapy. METHODS Female mice were induced diabetic via intravenous injection of streptozotocin. Pregnant mice were made hyperglycemic at desired embryonic (E) days. AVSDs were examined histologically at E15.5. ER stress-associated factors were examined and quantified using immunohistochemical and immunoblot assays at E10.5. The role of ER stress in endocardial cell migration was investigated by treating endocardial cushion explants that were cultured in high glucose with an organic chaperone molecule, sodium 4-phenylbutyrate. RESULTS The rate of AVSDs in the embryos that were exposed to maternal hyperglycemia during the period of endocardial cushion development was significantly higher than that in those during endocardial cushion remodeling. ER stress was increased in the hearts. Amelioration of ER stress restored endocardial cell migration under hyperglycemic conditions. CONCLUSIONS The development, rather than remodeling, of the endocardial cushions is the cardiomorphogenic process that is susceptible to the insult of maternal hyperglycemia in the formation of AVSDs. Maternal diabetes increases ER stress in the developing heart. ER stress plays an essential role in mediating the effect of hyperglycemia on endocardial cell migration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhiyong Zhao
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology, and Reproductive Sciences, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA.
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36
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Robson A, Allinson KR, Anderson RH, Henderson DJ, Arthur HM. The TGFβ type II receptor plays a critical role in the endothelial cells during cardiac development. Dev Dyn 2011; 239:2435-42. [PMID: 20652948 DOI: 10.1002/dvdy.22376] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
TGFβ signalling is required for normal cardiac development. To investigate which cell types are involved, we used mice carrying a floxed Type II TGFβ receptor (Tgfbr2fl) allele and Cre-lox genetics to deplete this receptor in different regions of the heart. The three target tissues and corresponding Cre transgenic lines were atrioventricular myocardium (using cGata6-Cre), ventricular myocardium (using Mlc2v-Cre), and vascular endothelium (using tamoxifen-activated Cdh5(PAC)-CreERT2). Spatio-temporal Cre activity in each case was tracked via lacZ activation from the Rosa26R locus. Atrioventricular-myocardial-specific Tgfbr2 knockout (KO) embryos had short septal leaflets of the tricuspid valve, whereas ventricular myocardial-specific KO embryos mainly exhibited a normal cardiac phenotype. Inactivation of Tgfbr2 in endothelial cells from E11.5 resulted in deficient ventricular septation, accompanied by haemorrhage from cerebral blood vessels. We conclude that TGFβ signalling through the Tgfbr2 receptor, in endothelial cells, plays an important role in cardiac development, and is essential for cerebral vascular integrity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Robson
- Institute of Human Genetics, Newcastle University, Newcastle, United Kingdom
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Probing human cardiovascular congenital disease using transgenic mouse models. PROGRESS IN MOLECULAR BIOLOGY AND TRANSLATIONAL SCIENCE 2011; 100:83-110. [PMID: 21377625 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-384878-9.00003-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Congenital heart defects (CHDs) impact in utero embryonic viability, children, and surviving adults. Since the first transfer of genes into mice, transgenic mouse models have enabled researchers to experimentally study and genetically test the roles of genes in development, physiology, and disease progression. Transgenic mice have become a bona fide human CHD pathology model and their use has dramatically increased within the past two decades. Now that the entire mouse and human genomes are known, it is possible to knock out, mutate, misexpress, and/or replace every gene. Not only have transgenic mouse models changed our understanding of normal development, CHD processes, and the complex interactions of genes and pathways required during heart development, but they are also being used to identify new avenues for medical therapy.
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MESH Headings
- Abnormalities, Multiple
- Animals
- Chromosomes, Human, Pair 21
- Disease Models, Animal
- Down Syndrome/embryology
- Down Syndrome/genetics
- Embryo, Mammalian/abnormalities
- Endocardial Cushion Defects/embryology
- Endocardial Cushion Defects/genetics
- Fetal Heart/abnormalities
- Genotype
- Gestational Age
- Heart Septal Defects, Atrial/embryology
- Heart Septal Defects, Atrial/genetics
- Heart Septal Defects, Ventricular/embryology
- Heart Septal Defects, Ventricular/genetics
- Humans
- Imaging, Three-Dimensional
- Mice
- Mice, 129 Strain
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Microscopy/methods
- Morphogenesis
- Phenotype
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van der Flier A, Badu-Nkansah K, Whittaker CA, Crowley D, Bronson RT, Lacy-Hulbert A, Hynes RO. Endothelial alpha5 and alphav integrins cooperate in remodeling of the vasculature during development. Development 2010; 137:2439-49. [PMID: 20570943 PMCID: PMC2889609 DOI: 10.1242/dev.049551] [Citation(s) in RCA: 124] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/06/2010] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Integrin cell adhesion receptors and fibronectin, one of their extracellular matrix ligands, have been demonstrated to be important for angiogenesis using functional perturbation studies and complete knockout mouse models. Here, we report on the roles of the alpha5 and alphav integrins, which are the major endothelial fibronectin receptors, in developmental angiogenesis. We generated an integrin alpha5-floxed mouse line and ablated alpha5 integrin in endothelial cells. Unexpectedly, endothelial-specific knockout of integrin alpha5 has no obvious effect on developmental angiogenesis. We provide evidence for genetic interaction between mutations in integrin alpha5 and alphav and for overlapping functions and compensation between these integrins and perhaps others. Nonetheless, in embryos lacking both alpha5 and alphav integrins in their endothelial cells, initial vasculogenesis and angiogenesis proceed normally, at least up to E11.5, including the formation of apparently normal embryonic vasculature and development of the branchial arches. However, in the absence of endothelial alpha5 and alphav integrins, but not of either alone, there are extensive defects in remodeling of the great vessels and heart resulting in death at ~E14.5. We also found that fibronectin assembly is somewhat affected in integrin alpha5 knockout endothelial cells and markedly reduced in integrin alpha5/alphav double-knockout endothelial cell lines. Therefore, neither alpha5 nor alphav integrins are required in endothelial cells for initial vasculogenesis and angiogenesis, although they are required for remodeling of the heart and great vessels. These integrins on other cells, and/or other integrins on endothelial cells, might contribute to fibronectin assembly and vascular development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arjan van der Flier
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Kwabena Badu-Nkansah
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Charles A. Whittaker
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Denise Crowley
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Roderick T. Bronson
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | | | - Richard O. Hynes
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
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Hildreth V, Webb S, Chaudhry B, Peat JD, Phillips HM, Brown N, Anderson RH, Henderson DJ. Left cardiac isomerism in the Sonic hedgehog null mouse. J Anat 2010; 214:894-904. [PMID: 19538633 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-7580.2009.01087.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Sonic hedgehog (Shh) is a secreted morphogen necessary for the production of sidedness in the developing embryo. In this study, we describe the morphology of the atrial chambers and atrioventricular junctions of the Shh null mouse heart. We demonstrate that the essential phenotypic feature is isomerism of the left atrial appendages, in combination with an atrioventricular septal defect and a common atrioventricular junction. These malformations are known to be frequent in humans with left isomerism. To confirm the presence of left isomerism, we show that Pitx2c, a recognized determinant of morphological leftness, is expressed in the Shh null mutants on both the right and left sides of the inflow region, and on both sides of the solitary arterial trunk exiting from the heart. It has been established that derivatives of the second heart field expressing Isl1 are asymmetrically distributed in the developing normal heart. We now show that this population is reduced in the hearts from the Shh null mutants, likely contributing to the defects. To distinguish the consequences of reduced contributions from the second heart field from those of left-right patterning disturbance, we disrupted the movement of second heart field cells into the heart by expressing dominant-negative Rho kinase in the population of cells expressing Isl1. This resulted in absence of the vestibular spine, and presence of atrioventricular septal defects closely resembling those seen in the hearts from the Shh null mutants. The primary atrial septum, however, was well formed, and there was no evidence of isomerism of the atrial appendages, suggesting that these features do not relate to disruption of the contributions made by the second heart field. We demonstrate, therefore, that the Shh null mouse is a model of isomerism of the left atrial appendages, and show that the recognized associated malformations found at the venous pole of the heart in the setting of left isomerism are likely to arise from the loss of the effects of Shh in the establishment of laterality, combined with a reduced contribution made by cells derived from the second heart field.
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41
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Holler KL, Hendershot TJ, Troy SE, Vincentz JW, Firulli AB, Howard MJ. Targeted deletion of Hand2 in cardiac neural crest-derived cells influences cardiac gene expression and outflow tract development. Dev Biol 2010; 341:291-304. [PMID: 20144608 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2010.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2009] [Revised: 01/29/2010] [Accepted: 02/01/2010] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The basic helix-loop-helix DNA binding protein Hand2 has critical functions in cardiac development both in neural crest-derived and mesoderm-derived structures. Targeted deletion of Hand2 in the neural crest has allowed us to genetically dissect Hand2-dependent defects specifically in outflow tract and cardiac cushion independent of Hand2 functions in mesoderm-derived structures. Targeted deletion of Hand2 in the neural crest results in misalignment of the aortic arch arteries and outflow tract, contributing to development of double outlet right ventricle (DORV) and ventricular septal defects (VSD). These neural crest-derived developmental anomalies are associated with altered expression of Hand2-target genes we have identified by gene profiling. A number of Hand2 direct target genes have been identified using ChIP and ChIP-on-chip analyses. We have identified and validated a number of genes related to cell migration, proliferation/cell cycle and intracellular signaling whose expression is affected by Hand2 deletion in the neural crest and which are associated with development of VSD and DORV. Our data suggest that Hand2 is a multifunctional DNA binding protein affecting expression of target genes associated with a number of functional interactions in neural crest-derived cells required for proper patterning of the outflow tract, generation of the appropriate number of neural crest-derived cells for elongation of the conotruncus and cardiac cushion organization. Our genetic model has made it possible to investigate the molecular genetics of neural crest contributions to outflow tract morphogenesis and cell differentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristen L Holler
- Department of Neurosciences and Program in Neurosciences and Degenerative Disease, Health Sciences Campus, University of Toledo, 3000 Arlington Ave., Toledo, OH 43614-1007, USA
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Abstract
In recent years, significant advances have been made in the definition of regulatory pathways that control normal and abnormal cardiac valve development. Here, we review the cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying the early development of valve progenitors and establishment of normal valve structure and function. Regulatory hierarchies consisting of a variety of signaling pathways, transcription factors, and downstream structural genes are conserved during vertebrate valvulogenesis. Complex intersecting regulatory pathways are required for endocardial cushion formation, valve progenitor cell proliferation, valve cell lineage development, and establishment of extracellular matrix compartments in the stratified valve leaflets. There is increasing evidence that the regulatory mechanisms governing normal valve development also contribute to human valve pathology. In addition, congenital valve malformations are predominant among diseased valves replaced late in life. The understanding of valve developmental mechanisms has important implications in the diagnosis and management of congenital and adult valve disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle D Combs
- Division of Molecular Cardiovascular Biology, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center ML7020, 240 Albert Sabin Way, Cincinnati, OH 45229, USA
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43
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Hoffmann AD, Peterson MA, Friedland-Little JM, Anderson SA, Moskowitz IP. sonic hedgehog is required in pulmonary endoderm for atrial septation. Development 2009; 136:1761-70. [PMID: 19369393 DOI: 10.1242/dev.034157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
The genesis of the septal structures of the mammalian heart is central to understanding the ontogeny of congenital heart disease and the evolution of cardiac organogenesis. We found that Hedgehog (Hh) signaling marked a subset of cardiac progenitors specific to the atrial septum and the pulmonary trunk in the mouse. Using genetic inducible fate mapping with Gli1(CreERT2), we marked Hh-receiving progenitors in anterior and posterior second heart field splanchnic mesoderm between E8 and E10. In the inflow tract, Hh-receiving progenitors migrated from the posterior second heart field through the dorsal mesocardium to form the atrial septum, including both the primary atrial septum and dorsal mesenchymal protrusion (DMP). In the outflow tract, Hh-receiving progenitors migrated from the anterior second heart field to populate the pulmonary trunk. Abrogation of Hh signaling during atrial septal progenitor specification resulted in atrial and atrioventricular septal defects and hypoplasia of the developing DMP. Hedgehog signaling appeared necessary and sufficient for atrial septal progenitor fate: Hh-receiving cells rendered unresponsive to the Hh ligand migrated into the atrium in normal numbers but populated the atrial free wall rather than the atrial septum. Conversely, constitutive activation of Hh signaling caused inappropriate enlargement of the atrial septum. The close proximity of posterior second heart field cardiac progenitors to pulmonary endoderm suggested a pulmonary source for the Hh ligand. We found that Shh is required in the pulmonary endoderm for atrial septation. Therefore, Hh signaling from distinct pulmonary and pharyngeal endoderm is required for inflow and outflow septation, respectively. These data suggest a model in which respiratory endoderm patterns the morphogenesis of cardiac structural components required for efficient cardiopulmonary circulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew D Hoffmann
- Departments of Pediatrics and Pathology, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
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44
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Savolainen SM, Foley JF, Elmore SA. Histology atlas of the developing mouse heart with emphasis on E11.5 to E18.5. Toxicol Pathol 2009; 37:395-414. [PMID: 19359541 DOI: 10.1177/0192623309335060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
In humans, congenital heart diseases are common. Since the rapid progression of transgenic technologies, the mouse has become the major animal model of defective cardiovascular development. Moreover, genetically modified mice frequently die in utero, commonly due to abnormal cardiovascular development. A variety of publications address specific developmental stages or structures of the mouse heart, but a single reference reviewing and describing the anatomy and histology of cardiac developmental events, stage by stage, has not been available. The aim of this color atlas, which demonstrates embryonic/fetal heart development, is to provide a tool for pathologists and biomedical scientists to use for detailed histological evaluation of hematoxylin and eosin (H&E)-stained sections of the developing mouse heart with emphasis on embryonic days (E) 11.5-18.5. The selected images illustrate the main structures and developmental events at each stage and serve as reference material for the confirmation of the chronological age of the embryo/early fetus and assist in the identification of any abnormalities. An extensive review of the literature covering cardiac development pre-E11.5 is summarized in the introduction. Although the focus of this atlas is on the descriptive anatomic and histological development of the normal mouse heart from E11.5 to E18.5, potential embryonic cardiac lesions are discussed with a list of the most common transgenic pre- and perinatal heart defects. Representative images of hearts at E11.5-15.5 and E18.5 are provided in Figures 2-4, 6, 8, and 9. A complete set of labeled images (Figures E11.5-18.5) is available on the CD enclosed in this issue of Toxicologic Pathology. All digital images can be viewed online at https://niehsimages.epl-inc.com with the username "ToxPath" and the password "embryohearts."
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Affiliation(s)
- Saija M Savolainen
- NIEHS, Cellular and Molecular Pathology Branch, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27709, USA
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45
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Horsthuis T, Christoffels VM, Anderson RH, Moorman AFM. Can recent insights into cardiac development improve our understanding of congenitally malformed hearts? Clin Anat 2009; 22:4-20. [PMID: 19031393 DOI: 10.1002/ca.20723] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Congenital cardiac malformations account for one-quarter of all human congenital abnormalities. They are caused by environmental and genetic factors. Despite increasing efforts in fundamental research, as yet, the morphogenesis of only a limited number of malformations has been elucidated. Over the last decades, new genetic modifications have made it possible to manipulate the mammalian embryo. Evidence provided using these transgenic techniques has, over the past decade, necessitated re-evaluation of several developmental processes, important in the understanding of normal as opposed to abnormal cardiac development. In this review, we discuss current understanding of the patterning of the initial heart tube, new insights into formation of the atrial and ventricular chambers, and novel information on the origin of the cells that are added to the heart after formation of the initial tube. All of these advances modify our appreciation of malformations involving the venous and arterial poles. As we demonstrate, this new information sheds light not only on normal cardiac development, but also explains the structure of several previously controversial lesions seen in malformed human hearts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Horsthuis
- Heart Failure Research Center, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Meibergdreef 15, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
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Sund KL, Roelker S, Ramachandran V, Durbin L, Benson DW. Analysis of Ellis van Creveld syndrome gene products: implications for cardiovascular development and disease. Hum Mol Genet 2009; 18:1813-24. [PMID: 19251731 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddp098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutations identified in a cohort of patients with atrioventricular septal defects as a part of Ellis van Creveld syndrome (EvC syndrome) led us to study the role of two non-homologous genes, EVC and LBN, in heart development and disease pathogenesis. To address the cause of locus heterogeneity resulting in an indistinguishable heart-hand phenotype, we carried out in situ hybridization and immunofluorescence and identified co-localization of Evc and Lbn mRNA and protein. In the heart, expression was identified to be strongest in the secondary heart field, including both the outflow tract and the dorsal mesenchymal protrusion, but was also found in mesenchymal structures of the atrial septum and the atrioventricular cushions. Finally, we studied the transcriptional hierarchy of EVC and LBN but did not find any evidence of direct transcriptional interregulation between the two. Due to the locus heterogeneity of human mutations predicted to result in a loss of protein function, a bidirectional genomic organization and overlapping expression patterns, we speculate that these proteins function coordinately in cardiac development and that loss of this coordinate function results in the characteristics of EvC syndrome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristen Lipscomb Sund
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Pediatrics, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH 45229, USA
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47
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Chen G, Zhu J, Lv T, Wu G, Sun H, Huang X, Tian J. Spatiotemporal expression of histone acetyltransferases, p300 and CBP, in developing embryonic hearts. J Biomed Sci 2009; 16:24. [PMID: 19272189 PMCID: PMC2653528 DOI: 10.1186/1423-0127-16-24] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2009] [Accepted: 02/23/2009] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Histone acetyltransferases (HATs), p300 and cAMP response element binding protein (CREB)-binding protein (CBP) are two structurally related transcriptional co-activators that activate expression of many eukaryotic genes involved in cellular growth and signaling, muscle differentiation and embryogenesis. However, whether these proteins play important and different roles in mouse cardiogenesis is not clear. Here, we investigate the protein distributions and mRNA expression of the two HATs in embryonic and adult mouse heart during normal heart development by using immunohistochemical and RT-PCR techniques. The data from immunohistochemical experiments revealed that p300 was extensively present in nearly every region of the hearts from embryonic stages to the adulthood. However, no CBP expression was detected in embryonic hearts at day E7.5. CBP expression appeared at the later stages, and the distribution of CBP was less than that of p300. In the developmental hearts after E10.5, both for p300 and CBP, the mRNA expression levels reached a peak on day E10.5, and then were gradually decreased afterwards. These results reveal that both p300 and CBP are related to embryonic heart development. The dynamic expression patterns of these two enzymes during mouse heart development indicate that they may play an important role on heart development. However, there is a difference in spatiotemporal expression patterns between these two enzymes during heart development. The expression of p300 is earlier and more predominate, suggesting that p300 may play a more important role in embryonic heart development especially during cardiac precursor cell induction and interventricular septum formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guozhen Chen
- Department of Cardiology, The Children's Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, PR China.
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48
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Goldman DC, Donley N, Christian JL. Genetic interaction between Bmp2 and Bmp4 reveals shared functions during multiple aspects of mouse organogenesis. Mech Dev 2008; 126:117-27. [PMID: 19116164 DOI: 10.1016/j.mod.2008.11.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2008] [Revised: 11/15/2008] [Accepted: 11/30/2008] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Vertebrate Bmp2 and Bmp4 diverged from a common ancestral gene and encode closely related proteins. Mice homozygous for null mutations in either gene show early embryonic lethality, thereby precluding analysis of shared functions. In the current studies, we present phenotypic analysis of compound mutant mice heterozygous for a null allele of Bmp2 in combination with null or hypomorphic alleles of Bmp4. Whereas mice lacking a single copy of Bmp2 or Bmp4 are viable and have subtle developmental defects, compound mutants show embryonic and postnatal lethality due to defects in multiple organ systems including the allantois, placental vasculature, ventral body wall, skeleton, eye and heart. Within the heart, BMP2 and BMP4 function coordinately to direct normal lengthening of the outflow tract, proper positioning of the outflow vessels, and septation of the atria, ventricle and atrioventricular canal. Our results identify numerous BMP4-dependent developmental processes that are also very sensitive to BMP2 dosage, thus revealing novel functions of Bmp2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Devorah C Goldman
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Oregon Health and Sciences University, School of Medicine, 3181 SW Sam Jackson Park Road, Portland, OR 97239-3098, USA
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49
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Juszyński M, Ciszek B, Stachurska E, Jabłońska A, Ratajska A. Development of lymphatic vessels in mouse embryonic and early postnatal hearts. Dev Dyn 2008; 237:2973-86. [DOI: 10.1002/dvdy.21693] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
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50
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Goddeeris MM, Rho S, Petiet A, Davenport CL, Johnson GA, Meyers EN, Klingensmith J. Intracardiac septation requires hedgehog-dependent cellular contributions from outside the heart. Development 2008; 135:1887-95. [PMID: 18441277 DOI: 10.1242/dev.016147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 129] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Septation of the mammalian heart into four chambers requires the orchestration of multiple tissue progenitors. Abnormalities in this process can result in potentially fatal atrioventricular septation defects (AVSD). The contribution of extracardiac cells to atrial septation has recently been recognized. Here, we use a genetic marker and novel magnetic resonance microscopy techniques to demonstrate the origins of the dorsal mesenchymal protrusion in the dorsal mesocardium, and its substantial contribution to atrioventricular septation. We explore the functional significance of this tissue to atrioventricular septation through study of the previously uncharacterized AVSD phenotype of Shh(-/-) mutant mouse embryos. We demonstrate that Shh signaling is required within the dorsal mesocardium for its contribution to the atria. Failure of this addition results in severe AVSD. These studies demonstrate that AVSD can result from a primary defect in dorsal mesocardium, providing a new paradigm for the understanding of human AVSD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew M Goddeeris
- Department of Cell Biology,, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, USA
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