Characterization of insulin-like growth factor-1-induced activation of the JAK/STAT pathway in rat cardiomyocytes

IGF-1 Peptide Mimetic-functionalized Hydrogels Enhance MSC Survival and Immunomodulatory Activity

Human mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have demonstrated promise when delivered to damaged tissue or tissue defects for their cytokine secretion and inflammation modulation behaviors that can promote repair. Insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) has been shown to augment MSCs' viability and survival and promote their secretion of cytokines that signal to endogenous cells, in the treatment of myocardial infarction, wound healing, and age-related diseases. Biomaterial cell carriers can be functionalized with growth factor-mimetic peptides to enhance MSC function while promoting cell retention and minimizing off-target effects seen with direct administration of soluble growth factors. Here, we functionalized alginate hydrogels with three distinct IGF-1 peptide mimetics and the integrin-binding peptide, cyclic RGD. One IGF-1 peptide mimetic (IGM-3) was found to activate Akt signaling and support survival of serum-deprived MSCs. MSCs encapsulated in alginate hydrogels that presented both IGM-3 and cRGD showed a significant reduction in pro-inflammatory cytokine secretion when challenged with interleukin-1β. Finally, MSCs cultured within the cRGD/IGM-3 hydrogels were able to blunt pro-inflammatory gene expression of human primary cells from degenerated intervertebral discs. These studies indicate the potential to leverage cell adhesive and IGF-1 growth factor peptide mimetics together to control therapeutic secretory behavior of MSCs.

Significance Statement

Insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) plays a multifaceted role in stem cell biology and may promote proliferation, survival, migration, and immunomodulation for MSCs. In this study, we functionalized alginate hydrogels with integrin-binding and IGF-1 peptide mimetics to investigate their impact on MSC function. Embedding MSCs in these hydrogels enhanced their ability to reduce inflammatory cytokine production and promote anti-inflammatory gene expression in cells from degenerative human intervertebral discs exposed to proteins secreted by the MSC. This approach suggests a new way to retain and augment MSC functionality using IGF-1 peptide mimetics, offering an alternative to co-delivery of cells and high dose soluble growth factors for tissue repair and immune- system modulation.

Effect of IGFBP-4 during In Vitro Maturation on Developmental Competence of Bovine Cumulus Oocyte Complexes

Insulin-like growth factors (IGFs) are essential for oocyte maturation. Their bioavailability is regulated by their respective binding proteins (IGFBPs) and proteases. IGFBP-4 blocks the biological effects of IGFs. High IGFBP-4 expression has been associated with follicle atresia. We hypothesized that IGFBP-4 affects oocyte developmental competence during maturation. Therefore, the aim of this study was to examine the effect of IGFBP-4 on the developmental rate of bovine cumulus-oocyte complexes (COCs) during in vitro embryo production. Abattoir-derived COCs were matured with rbIGFBP-4 (2000, 540, and 54 ng/mL) compared to a control. Cumulus expansion, oocyte maturation, cleavage, blastocyst, and hatching rates were evaluated. Furthermore, blastocyst gene expression of SOCS2, STAT3, SLC2A1, SLCA3, BAX, and POU5F1 transcripts were quantified using RT-qPCR. No statistical differences were detected among the groups for cumulus expansion, maturation, cleavage, blastocyst rates, or all gene transcripts analyzed. However, at day 8 and 9, the number of total hatching and successfully hatched blastocysts was lower in 2000 ng/mL rbIGFBP-4 compared to the control (day 8: total hatching: 17.1 ± 0.21 vs. 31.2 ± 0.11%, p = 0.02 and hatched blastocyst 6.7 ± 0.31 vs. 21.5 ± 0.14%, p = 0.004; day 9 total hatching 36.4 ± 0.18 vs. 57.7 ± 0.10%, p = 0.009 and hatched blastocyst 18.2 ± 0.21 vs. 38.1 ± 0.11%, p = 0.004). We concluded that high concentrations of rbIGFBP-4 might negatively affect the subsequent ability of the embryo to hatch and possibly compromise further elongation.

Decoding Insulin-Like Growth Factor Signaling Pathway From a Non-coding RNAs Perspective: A Step Towards Precision Oncology in Breast Cancer

Breast cancer (BC) is a highly complex and heterogenous disease. Several oncogenic signaling pathways drive BC oncogenic activity, thus hindering scientists to unravel the exact molecular pathogenesis of such multifaceted disease. This highlights the urgent need to find a key regulator that tunes up such intertwined oncogenic drivers to trim the malignant transformation process within the breast tissue. The Insulin-like growth factor (IGF) signaling pathway is a tenacious axis that is heavily intertwined with BC where it modulates the amplitude and activity of vital downstream oncogenic signaling pathways. Yet, the complexity of the pathway and the interactions driven by its different members seem to aggravate its oncogenicity and hinder its target-ability. In this review, the authors shed the light on the stubbornness of the IGF signaling pathway and its potential regulation by non-coding RNAs in different BC subtypes. Nonetheless, this review also spots light on the possible transport systems available for efficient delivery of non-coding RNAs to their respective targets to reach a personalized treatment code for BC patients.

Therapeutic siRNAs Targeting the JAK/STAT Signalling Pathway in Inflammatory Bowel Diseases

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Inflammatory bowel diseases are highly debilitating conditions that require constant monitoring and life-long medication. Current treatments are focused on systemic administration of immunomodulatory drugs, but they have a broad range of undesirable side-effects. RNA interference is a highly specific endogenous mechanism that regulates the expression of the gene at the transcript level, which can be repurposed using exogenous short interfering RNA [siRNA] to repress expression of the target gene. While siRNA therapeutics can offer an alternative to existing therapies, with a high specificity critical for chronically administrated drugs, evidence of their potency compared to chemical kinase inhibitors used in clinics is still lacking in alleviating an adverse inflammatory response.

METHODS

We provide a framework to select highly specific siRNA, with a focus on two kinases strongly involved in pro-inflammatory diseases, namely JAK1 and JAK3. Using western-blot, real-time quantitative PCR and large-scale analysis, we assessed the specificity profile of these siRNA drugs and compared their efficacy to the most recent and promising kinase inhibitors for Janus kinases [Jakinibs], tofacitinib and filgotinib.

RESULTS

siRNA drugs can reach higher efficiency and selectivity at lower doses [5 pM vs 1 µM] than Jakinibs. Moreover, JAK silencing lasted up to 11 days, even with 6 h pulse transfection.

CONCLUSIONS

The siRNA-based drugs developed hold the potential to develop more potent therapeutics for chronic inflammatory diseases.

Neutrophil stimulation with citrullinated histone H4 slows down calcium influx and reduces NET formation compared with native histone H4

Peptidylarginine deiminase 4 (PAD4) catalyzes posttranslational modification of many target proteins through converting protein arginine or mono-methylarginine to citrulline. Neutrophil extracellular trap (NET) formation is the most dramatic manifestation of PAD4-mediated hypercitrullination reaction in neutrophils, which is characterized by the release of nuclear chromatin to form a chromatin network in the extracellular space. Histones H4, one of the major protein components of chromatin, is released into the extracellular space during sepsis, trauma, and ischemia-reperfusion injury and can also be released during the process of NET formation, along with its citrullinated form. The present study showed that histone H4 can induce NET formation in a calcium and PAD4 dependent manner. Histone H4 caused permeabilization of the neutrophil membrane and sustained rise in intracellular calcium that is necessary for activation of PAD4. In comparison, citrullinated histone H4 induced less calcium influx compared with its native form, leading to reduced NET formation. These studies suggest that citrullinated histone H4 could serve as a brake in the pathology of NETs, slowing down the vicious circle between histone H4 and NETs.

Essential roles of insulin and IGF-1 receptors during embryonic lineage development

The insulin and insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) receptors are important for the growth and development of embryonic tissues. To directly define their roles in the maintenance of pluripotency and differentiation of stem cells, we knocked out both receptors in induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs). iPSCs lacking both insulin and IGF-1 receptors (double knockout, DKO) exhibited preserved pluripotency potential despite decreased expression of transcription factors Lin28a and Tbx3 compared to control iPSCs. While embryoid body and teratoma assays revealed an intact ability of DKO iPSCs to form all three germ layers, the latter were composed of primitive neuroectodermal tumor-like cells in the DKO group. RNA-seq analyses of control vs DKO iPSCs revealed differential regulation of pluripotency, developmental, E2F1, and apoptosis pathways. Signaling analyses pointed to downregulation of the AKT/mTOR pathway and upregulation of the STAT3 pathway in DKO iPSCs in the basal state and following stimulation with insulin/IGF-1. Directed differentiation toward the three lineages was dysregulated in DKO iPSCs, with significant downregulation of key markers (Cebpα, Fas, Pparγ, and Fsp27) in adipocytes and transcription factors (Ngn3, Isl1, Pax6, and Neurod1) in pancreatic endocrine progenitors. Furthermore, differentiated pancreatic endocrine progenitor cells from DKO iPSCs showed increased apoptosis. We conclude that insulin and insulin-like growth factor-1 receptors are indispensable for normal lineage development and perturbations in the function and signaling of these receptors leads to upregulation of alternative compensatory pathways to maintain pluripotency.

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Insulin and IGF-1 receptor signaling regulate the expression of pluripotency genes Lin28 and Tbx3.

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The STAT3 pathway is upregulated in DKO iPSCs.

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RNA-seq analyses revealed key developmental and apoptosis pathways regulated by insulin and IGF-1 receptors.

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Lineage development was dysregulated in DKO iPSCs with downregulation of key mesoderm and endodermal markers.

An Autocrine IL-6/IGF-1R Loop Mediates EMT and Promotes Tumor Growth in Non-small Cell Lung Cancer

Epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) is a key process in EGFR-TKI resistance but the detailed mechanism is largely unknown. We aim to evaluate the role of interleukin-6 (IL-6) and insulin-like growth factor-1 receptor (IGR-1R) in EMT in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). We used IL-6 to induce EMT in EGFR-TKI sensitive NSCLC cells. We found that both STAT3 and IGF-1R were activated. Interestingly activation of STAT3 and JAK1 was blocked by inhibiting IGF-1R, suggesting that IGF-1R might signal via JAK/STAT3. Activation of IGF-1R and AKT was inhibited by blocking STAT3, suggesting that STAT3 blockade might provide negative feedback signal to inhibiting IGF-1R. Reporter assay further confirmed that STAT3 activated gene transcription of IGF-1R. RT-PCR analyses showed that IL-6 induced the expression of IL-6 per se as well as IGF-1 and IGF-2. Expression of IL-6 and IGF-1R ligands was suppressed by inhibiting either STAT3 or IGF-1R. Meanwhile IL-6 induced gefitinib resistance and increased migration. We elucidated an autocrine loop of IL-6/IGF-1R/STAT3 in EMT-mediated resistance and tumor growth in NSCLC.

Cardioprotective effect of ghrelin against myocardial infarction-induced left ventricular injury via inhibition of SOCS3 and activation of JAK2/STAT3 signaling

The molecular mechanisms through which ghrelin exerts its cardioprotective effects during cardiac remodeling post-myocardial infarction (MI) are poorly understood. The aim of this study was to investigate whether the cardioprotection mechanisms are mediated by modulation of JAK/STAT signaling and what triggers this modulation. Rats were divided into six groups (n = 12/group): control, sham, sham + ghrelin (100 µg/kg, s.c., daily, starting 1 day post-MI), MI, MI+ ghrelin, and MI+ ghrelin+ AG490, a potent JAK2 inhibitor (5 mg/kg, i.p., daily). All treatments were administered for 3 weeks. Administration of ghrelin to MI rats improved left ventricle (LV) architecture and restored cardiac contraction. In remote non-infarcted areas of MI rats, ghrelin reduced cardiac inflammation and lipid peroxidation and enhanced antioxidant enzymatic activity. In addition, independent of the growth factor/insulin growth factor-1 (GF/IGF-1) axis, ghrelin significantly increased the phosphorylation of JAK2 and Tyr702 and Ser727 residues of STAT3 and inhibited the phosphorylation of JAK1 and Tyr701 and Ser727 residues of STAT1, simultaneously increasing the expression of BCL-2 and decreasing in the expression of BAX, cleaved CASP3, and FAS. This effect coincided with decreased expression of SOCS3. All these beneficial effects of ghrelin, except its inhibitory action on IL-6 expression, were partially and significantly abolished by the co-administration of AG490. In conclusion, the cardioprotective effect of ghrelin against MI-induced LV injury is exerted via activation of JAK2/STAT3 signaling and inhibition of STAT1 signaling. These effects were independent of the GF/IGF-1 axis and could be partially mediated via inhibition of cardiac IL-6.

IGF-1R signalling contributes to IL-6 production and T cell dependent inflammation in rheumatoid arthritis

BACKGROUND

Signalling through insulin-like growth factor 1 receptor (IGF-1R) is essential for cell survival, but may turn pathogenic in uncontrolled tissue growth in tumours. In rheumatoid arthritis (RA), the IGF-1R signalling is activated and supports expansion of the inflamed synovia.

AIM

In the present study, we assess if disruption of IGF-1R signalling resolves arthritis.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Clinical associations of IGF-1R expression in leukocytes of the peripheral blood were studied in 84 RA patients. Consequences of the IGF-1R signalling inhibition for arthritis were studied in mBSA immunised Balb/c mice treated with NT157 compound promoting degradation of insulin receptor substrates.

RESULTS

In RA patients, high expression of IGF-1R in leukocytes was associated with systemic inflammation as verified by higher expression of NF-kB, serum levels of IL6 and erythrocyte sedimentation rate, and higher pain perception. Additionally, phosphorylated IGF-1R and STAT3 enriched T cells infiltrate in RA synovia. Treatment with NT157 inhibited the phosphorylation of IGF-1R and STAT3 in synovia, and alleviated arthritis and joint damage in mice. It also reduced expression of IGF-1R and despaired ERK and Akt signalling in spleen T cells. This limited IL-6 production, changed RoRgt/FoxP3 balance and IL17 levels.

CONCLUSION

IGF-1R signalling contributes to T cell dependent inflammation in arthritis. Inhibition of IGF-1R on the level of insulin receptor substrates alleviates arthritis by restricting IL6-dependent formation of Th17 cells and may open for new treatment strategies in RA.

Leptin-Induced JAK/STAT Signaling and Cancer Growth

Growth factor and cytokine signaling can influence the development of several cancer types. One of the key players in the development of cancer is the Janus kinas (JAK) signal transducer of activators of transcription (STAT) signaling pathway. The majority of growth factors and cytokine interactions with their membrane-bound receptors trigger JAK-STAT activation. The influential relationship between obesity and cancer is a fact. However, there is a complex sequence of events contributing to the regulation of this mechanism to promote tumor growth, yet to be fully elucidated. The JAK-STAT pathway is influenced by obesity-associated changes that have been shown to impact cancer growth and progression. This intricate process is highly regulated by a vast array of adipokines and cytokines that exert their pleiotropic effects on cancer cells to enhance metastasis to distant target sites. Leptin is a cytokine, or more precise, an adipokine secreted mainly by adipose tissue that requires JAK-STAT activation to exert its biological functions. Leptin is the central regulator of energy balance and appetite. Leptin binding to its receptor OB-R in turn activates JAK-STAT, which induces proliferation, angiogenesis, and anti-apoptotic events in normal cells and malignant cells expressing the receptor. Leptin also induces crosstalk with Notch and IL-1 (NILCO), which involves other angiogenic factors promoting tumor growth. Therefore, the existence of multiple novel classes of therapeutics that target the JAK/STAT pathway has significant clinical implications. Then, the identification of the signaling networks and factors that regulate the obesity-cancer link to which potential pharmacologic interventions can be implemented to inhibit tumor growth and metastasis. In this review, we will discuss the specific relationship between leptin-JAK-STAT signaling and cancer.

Prolactin protects cardiomyocytes against intermittent hypoxia-induced cell damage by the modulation of signaling pathways related to cardiac hypertrophy and proliferation

OBJECTIVES

Prolactin (PRL) is a multifunctional hormone that influences multiple physiological processes. It has been shown to have a protective effect on the cardiovascular system; however, the mechanisms of this effect are poorly understood. The purpose of the study was to elucidate the role of PRL in intermittent hypoxia (IH)-induced apoptosis in the cardiovascular system.

METHOD AND RESULTS

We established a hyperprolactinemic rat model by implanting two anterior pituitary (AP) glands into the renal capsule of male Sprague-Dawley rats. The rats were kept under normoxic conditions for 4weeks after implantation in order to reach the expression plateau of PRL in the plasma, and then treated with IH for 7 or 14days. Their hearts were then removed for histological and protein expression analyses. Cerebral cortex (CX)-grafted control rats challenged with IH displayed unique phenotypes such as a thicker heart wall, an abnormal myocardial architecture and an increased interstitial space of the left ventricle. They exhibited reduced expressions of p-JAK2, p-STAT5, cell cycle-dependent proteins (cyclin D1, cyclin E and cyclin A), IGF-IRα, PI3Kα, p-AKT and p-ERK1/2 in cardiomyocytes at 7days.

CONCLUSIONS

Our comprehensive analysis suggested that high plasma PRL can protect rat cardiomyocytes against IH through (1) the p-JAK2 and p-STAT5 pathways for transient cell proliferation, (2) the PI3Kα/AKT and MAPK survival pathways through IGF-I, and (3) the downregulation of IGF-II and ERK5, which inhibit cell hypertrophy.

Inhibition of the insulin-like growth factor system is a potential therapy for rheumatoid arthritis

OBJECTIVE

We have shown that connective tissue growth factor (CTGF) plays an important role in the pathogenesis of rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Insulin-like growth factor binding proteins (IGFBPs) are modules of CTGF. IGFBPs bind IGF-I and IGF-II. IGF-I plays a role in the regulation of immunity, bone metabolism and inflammation. Therefore, we investigated how the IGF system is associated with RA disease progression.

METHODS

Serum samples were collected from RA patients. IGF-I and IGFBP-3 production were evaluated by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, real-time RT-PCR and indirect immunofluorescence microscopy. Osteoclastogenesis was evaluated using tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase staining, a bone resorption assay and osteoclast-specific enzyme production. Angiogenesis was examined by a tube formation assay using human umbilical vein endothelial cells.

RESULTS

The serum concentrations of IGFBP-3 in RA patients were greater than those in normal controls. IGF-I and IGFBP-3 were produced primarily by macrophages in the RA synovium. Furthermore, tumor necrosis factor-α could induce aberrant IGF-I and IGFBP-3 production in synovial fibroblasts. IGF-I and IGFBP-3 promoted the induction of osteoclast generation and morphological changes, in combination with M-colony stimulating factor and the receptor activator of NF-κB ligand. In addition, IGF-I and IGFBP-3 induced angiogenesis, as determined by the tube formation assay. These effects were neutralized by anti-IGF-IR monoclonal antibody (mAb).

CONCLUSIONS

These results indicate that aberrant IGF-I and IGFBP-3 production plays a role in abnormal osteoclastic activation and angiogenesis in RA. This work supports future clinical exploration of anti-IGF-IR mAb in drug repositioning as a new treatment for RA.

Insulin-like growth factor 1 receptor signaling induced by supraphysiological doses of IGF-1 in human peripheral blood lymphocytes

Insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) mediates some of growth hormone anabolic functions through its receptor, IGF-1R. Following ligand binding, intracellular signaling pathways are activated favouring proliferation, cell survival, tissue growth, development, and differentiation. IGF-1 is included in the World Anti-Doping Agency Prohibited List. While the evidence for IGF-1 as performance-enhancing substrate in healthy humans is still weak, clinical studies demonstrated that the endogenous growth hormone/IGF-1 excess is associated with cardiovascular implications. Previously, we demonstrated that human peripheral blood lymphocytes represent a suitable system to identify a gene signature, related to dihydrotestosterone or IGF-1 abuse, independent from the type of sport. In addition, in a proteomic study, we demonstrated that dihydrotestosterone hyperdosage affects cell motility and apoptosis. Here, we investigate the doping action of IGF-1 by means of a differential proteomic approach and specific protein arrays, revealing an active cytoskeletal reorganization mediated by Stat-1; moreover, IGF-1 stimulation produces a sustained activation of different signaling pathways as well as an overproduction of cytokines positively related to immune response and inflammation. In conclusion, these data indicate that, following IGF-1 hyperdosage, circulating peripheral blood lymphocytes could be more prone to transendothelial migration.

Targeting the STAT3 signaling pathway in cancer: role of synthetic and natural inhibitors

Signal transducers and activators of transcription (STATs) comprise a family of cytoplasmic transcription factors that mediate intracellular signaling that is usually generated at cell surface receptors and thereby transmit it to the nucleus. Numerous studies have demonstrated constitutive activation of STAT3 in a wide variety of human tumors, including hematological malignancies (leukemias, lymphomas, and multiple myeloma) as well as diverse solid tumors (such as head and neck, breast, lung, gastric, hepatocellular, colorectal and prostate cancers). There is strong evidence to suggest that aberrant STAT3 signaling promotes initiation and progression of human cancers by either inhibiting apoptosis or inducing cell proliferation, angiogenesis, invasion, and metastasis. Suppression of STAT3 activation results in the induction of apoptosis in tumor cells, and accordingly its pharmacological modulation by tyrosine kinase inhibitors, antisense oligonucleotides, decoy nucleotides, dominant negative proteins, RNA interference and chemopreventive agents have been employed to suppress the proliferation of various human cancer cells in culture and tumorigenicity in vivo. However, the identification and development of novel drugs that can target deregulated STAT3 activation effectively remains an important scientific and clinical challenge. This review presents the evidence for critical roles of STAT3 in oncogenesis and discusses the potential for development of novel cancer therapies based on mechanistic understanding of STAT3 signaling cascade.

Characterization and regulation of mechanical loading-induced compensatory muscle hypertrophy

In mammalian systems, skeletal muscle exists in a dynamic state that monitors and regulates the physiological investment in muscle size to meet the current level of functional demand. This review attempts to consolidate current knowledge concerning development of the compensatory hypertrophy that occurs in response to a sustained increase in the mechanical loading of skeletal muscle. Topics covered include: defining and measuring compensatory hypertrophy, experimental models, loading stimulus parameters, acute responses to increased loading, hyperplasia, myofiber-type adaptations, the involvement of satellite cells, mRNA translational control, mechanotransduction, and endocrinology. The authors conclude with their impressions of current knowledge gaps in the field that are ripe for future study.

Induction of epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) in breast cancer cells is calcium signal dependent

Signals from the tumor microenvironment trigger cancer cells to adopt an invasive phenotype through epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT). Relatively little is known regarding key signal transduction pathways that serve as cytosolic bridges between cell surface receptors and nuclear transcription factors to induce EMT. A better understanding of these early EMT events may identify potential targets for the control of metastasis. One rapid intracellular signaling pathway that has not yet been explored during EMT induction is calcium. Here we show that stimuli used to induce EMT produce a transient increase in cytosolic calcium levels in human breast cancer cells. Attenuation of the calcium signal by intracellular calcium chelation significantly reduced epidermal growth factor (EGF)- and hypoxia-induced EMT. Intracellular calcium chelation also inhibited EGF-induced activation of signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3), while preserving other signal transduction pathways such as Akt and extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2) phosphorylation. To identify calcium-permeable channels that may regulate EMT induction in breast cancer cells, we performed a targeted siRNA-based screen. We found that transient receptor potential-melastatin-like 7 (TRPM7) channel expression regulated EGF-induced STAT3 phosphorylation and expression of the EMT marker vimentin. Although intracellular calcium chelation almost completely blocked the induction of many EMT markers, including vimentin, Twist and N-cadherin, the effect of TRPM7 silencing was specific for vimentin protein expression and STAT3 phosphorylation. These results indicate that TRPM7 is a partial regulator of EMT in breast cancer cells, and that other calcium-permeable ion channels are also involved in calcium-dependent EMT induction. In summary, this work establishes an important role for the intracellular calcium signal in the induction of EMT in human breast cancer cells. Manipulation of calcium-signaling pathways controlling EMT induction in cancer cells may therefore be an important therapeutic strategy for preventing metastases.

PAD4 mediated histone hypercitrullination induces heterochromatin decondensation and chromatin unfolding to form neutrophil extracellular trap-like structures

NETosis, the process wherein neutrophils release highly decondensed chromatin called neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs), has gained much attention as an alternative means of killing bacteria. In vivo, NETs are induced by bacteria and pro-inflammatory cytokines. We have reported that peptidylarginine deiminase 4 (PAD4), an enzyme that converts Arg or monomethyl-Arg to citrulline in histones, is essential for NET formation. The areas of extensive chromatin decondensation along the NETs were rich in histone citrullination. Here, upon investigating the effect of global citrullination in cultured cells, we discovered that PAD4 overexpression in osteosarcoma U2OS cells induces extensive chromatin decondensation independent of apoptosis. The highly decondensed chromatin is released to the extracellular space and stained strongly by a histone citrulline-specific antibody. The structure of the decondensed chromatin is reminiscent of NETs but is unique in that it occurs without stimulation of cells with pro-inflammatory cytokines and bacteria. Furthermore, histone citrullination during chromatin decondensation can dissociate heterochromatin protein 1 beta (HP1β) thereby offering a new molecular mechanism for understanding how citrullination regulates chromatin function. Taken together, our study suggests that PAD4 mediated citrullination induces chromatin decondensation, implicating its essential role in NET formation under physiological conditions in neutrophils.

Inhibitory effects of IL-6 on IGF-1 activity in skeletal myoblasts could be mediated by the activation of SOCS-3

In elderly people, low and high levels of insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) and interleukin-6 (IL-6), respectively, are well documented and may contribute to reduced muscle mass and poor muscle function of ageing and suggesting a biological interactions between IGF-1 and IL-6. However, the dual effect of IGF-1/IL-6 on skeletal muscle differentiation and proliferation has not been fully investigated. We therefore hypothesised that IL-6 impairs the biological activity of IGF-1 in skeletal muscle through inhibiting its signalling pathways, ERK1/2 and Akt. Our aim was to examine the combined effects of these factors on models of muscle wasting, with objectives to examine skeletal muscle differentiation and proliferation using the murine C2 skeletal muscle cell line. Cells were cultured with DM, IGF-1 and IL-6 alone (control treatments), or co-cultured with IGF-1/IL-6. Co-incubation of C2 cells in IGF-1 plus IL-6 resulted in maximal cell death (22 ± 4%; P < 0.005) compared with control treatments (14 ± 2.9%). This was also confirmed by cyclin D1 expression levels in co-incubation treatments (7 ± 3.5%; P < 0.05) compared with control treatments (≈ 23%). The expression levels of myogenic-specific transcriptional factor mRNAs (myoD and myogenin) were also significantly (P < 0.005) reduced by 70% and 90%, respectively, under the co-incubation regimes, compared with control treatments. Signalling investigations showed significant phosphorylation reduction by 20%, (P < 0.05) of ERK1/2 and Akt in co-incubation treatments relative to either treatment alone. Expression studies for SOCS-3 (1.6-fold ± 0.08, P < 0.05) and IRS-1 (0.65-fold ± 0.13 P < 0.005) mRNAs showed significant elevation and reduction for both genes, respectively, in co-treatments relative to control treatments. These data may suggest that IL-6 exerts its inhibitory effects on IGF-1 signalling pathways (ERK1/2 and Akt) through blocking its receptor substrate IRS-1 by SOCS-3.

Molecular basis of signaling specificity of insulin and IGF receptors: neglected corners and recent advances

Insulin and insulin-like growth factor (IGF) receptors utilize common phosphoinositide 3-kinase/Akt and Ras/extracellular signal-regulated kinase signaling pathways to mediate a broad spectrum of "metabolic" and "mitogenic" responses. Specificity of insulin and IGF action in vivo must in part reflect expression of receptors and responsive pathways in different tissues but it is widely assumed that it is also determined by the ligand binding and signaling mechanisms of the receptors. This review focuses on receptor-proximal events in insulin/IGF signaling and examines their contribution to specificity of downstream responses. Insulin and IGF receptors may differ subtly in the efficiency with which they recruit their major substrates (IRS-1 and IRS-2 and Shc) and this could influence effectiveness of signaling to "metabolic" and "mitogenic" responses. Other substrates (Grb2-associated binder, downstream of kinases, SH2Bs, Crk), scaffolds (RACK1, β-arrestins, cytohesins), and pathways (non-receptor tyrosine kinases, phosphoinositide kinases, reactive oxygen species) have been less widely studied. Some of these components appear to be specifically involved in "metabolic" or "mitogenic" signaling but it has not been shown that this reflects receptor-preferential interaction. Very few receptor-specific interactions have been characterized, and their roles in signaling are unclear. Signaling specificity might also be imparted by differences in intracellular trafficking or feedback regulation of receptors, but few studies have directly addressed this possibility. Although published data are not wholly conclusive, no evidence has yet emerged for signaling mechanisms that are specifically engaged by insulin receptors but not IGF receptors or vice versa, and there is only limited evidence for differential activation of signaling mechanisms that are common to both receptors. Cellular context, rather than intrinsic receptor activity, therefore appears to be the major determinant of whether responses to insulin and IGFs are perceived as "metabolic" or "mitogenic."

Over-expression of CKS1B activates both MEK/ERK and JAK/STAT3 signaling pathways and promotes myeloma cell drug-resistance

Here we demonstrate the crucial role of CKS1B in multiple myeloma (MM) progression and define CKS1B-mediated SKP2/p27^Kip1-independent down-stream signaling pathways. Forced-expression of CKS1B in MM cells increased cell multidrug-resistance. CKS1B activates STAT3 and MEK/ERK pathways. In contrast, SKP2 knockdown or p27^Kip1 over-expression resulted in activation of the STAT3 and MEK/ERK pathways. Further investigations showed that BCL2 is a downstream target of MEK/ERK signaling. Stimulation of STAT3 and MEK/ERK signaling pathways partially abrogated CKS1B knockdown induced MM cell death and growth inhibition. Targeting STAT3 and MEK/ ERK signaling pathways by specific inhibitors induced significant MM cell death and growth inhibition in CKS1B-overexpressing MM cells and their combinations resulted in synergy. Thus, our findings provide a rationale for targeting STAT3 and MEK/ERK/ BCL2 signaling in aggressive CKS1B-overexpressing MM.

Insulin-like growth factor I signaling in skeletal muscle and the potential for cytokine interactions

Recent research has demonstrated that intracellular signaling components associated with several proinflammatory cytokines have the potential to interact with signaling pathways that regulate anabolic processes in skeletal muscle. This presentation and the ensuing brief review are intended to present a selection of the potential interactions between these two critical processes.

Insulin-like growth factor-I receptor signal transduction and the Janus Kinase/Signal Transducer and Activator of Transcription (JAK-STAT) pathway

The insulin-like growth factor IGF-I is an important fetal and postnatal growth factor, which is also involved in tissue homeostasis via regulation of proliferation, differentiation, and cell survival. To understand the role of IGF-I in the pathophysiology of a variety of disorders, including growth disorders, cancer, and neurodegenerative diseases, a detailed knowledge of IGF-I signal transduction is required. This knowledge may also contribute to the development of new therapies directed at the IGF-I receptor or other signaling molecules. In this review, we will address IGF-I receptor signaling through the JAK/STAT pathway in IGF-I signaling and the role of cytokine-induced inhibitors of signaling (CIS) and suppressors of cytokine signaling (SOCS). It appears that, in addition to the canonical IGF-I signaling pathways through extracellular-regulated kinase (ERK) and phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase (PI3K)-Akt, IGF-I also signals through the JAK/STAT pathway. Activation of this pathway may lead to induction of SOCS molecules, well-known feedback inhibitors of the JAK/STAT pathway, which also suppress of IGF-I-induced JAK/STAT signaling. Furthermore, other IGF-I-induced signaling pathways may also be modulated by SOCS. It is conceivable that the effect of these classical inhibitors of cytokine signaling directly affect IGF-I receptor signaling, because they are able to associate to the intracellular part of the IGF-I receptor. These observations indicate that CIS and SOCS molecules are key to cross-talk between IGF-I receptor signaling and signaling through receptors belonging to the hematopoietic/cytokine receptor superfamily. Theoretically, dysregulation of CIS or SOCS may affect IGF-I-mediated effects on body growth, cell differentiation, proliferation, and cell survival.

Ethanol inhibition of angiotensin II-stimulated Tyr705 and Ser727 STAT3 phosphorylation in cultured rat hepatocytes: relevance to activation of p42/44 mitogen-activated protein kinase

Angiotensin (Ang) II-stimulated phosphorylation of signal transducer and activator transcription (STAT) 3 in rat hepatocytes and the effects of ethanol on this activation were investigated. Angiotensin II (100 nM) stimulated Tyr705 and Ser727 phosphorylation of STAT3 and formation of sis-inducing factor complexes. In the presence of U-0126 (10microM), a p42/44 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) kinase inhibitor, Ang II further increased Tyr705 phosphorylation of STAT3 but completely abrogated Ser727 phosphorylation of STAT3. Inhibition of p42/44MAPK also increased STAT3 DNA-binding activity. Pretreatment with ethanol (100mM) for 24h resulted in decrease in Tyr705 phosphorylation of STAT3 by ethanol alone and inhibition of Tyr705 phosphorylation of STAT3 stimulated by Ang II. Although ethanol potentiates Ang II stimulated p42/44 MAPK activation in hepatocytes, ethanol inhibited Ser727 phosphorylation of STAT3 stimulated by Ang II. Angiotensin II-stimulated STAT3-binding activity was not significantly affected by ethanol treatment. These results suggest a negative regulation of Ang II-stimulated STAT3 tyrosine phosphorylation and STAT3-binding activity through p42/44 MAPK activation in hepatocytes. However, ethanol modulation of Ang II-stimulated STAT3 phosphorylation occurs by MAPK independent mechanisms. Ethanol potentiation of MAPK signaling without suppression of STAT3 function may modulate the course of alcoholic liver injury.

Expression profiling of a high-fertility mouse line by microarray analysis and qPCR

Background

In a recent study it was demonstrated that a largely increased ovulation number is responsible for high prolificacy in two mouse lines selected for fertility performance. The objective of the present study was to identify genes that are involved in increasing the ovulation number in one of these lines, FL1. For differential expression profiling, ovaries of FL1 and of a non-selected control line, DUKsi, both lines derived from the same genetic pool, were analyzed with microarray analysis and quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR). Ovaries from 30 animals of each line were collected at the metestrous stage, combined to 6 pools each, and processed for microarray analysis.

Results

The actual number of ova shed in FL1 exceeded that of the DUKsi control line more than twofold (26.6 vs. 12.9). 148 differentially expressed ovarian transcripts could be identified, 74 of them up- and 74 down-regulated. Of these, 47 significantly mapped to specific Gene Ontology (GO) terms representing different biological processes as steroid metabolism, folliculogenesis, immune response, intracellular signal transduction (particularly of the G protein signaling cascade), regulation of transcription and translation, cell cycle and others. qPCR was used to re-evaluate selected transcripts and to estimate inter-individual variation of expression levels. These data significantly correlated with microarray data in 12 out of 15 selected transcripts but revealed partly large variations of expression levels between individuals.

Conclusion

(1) The abundance of numerous ovarian transcripts was significantly different in FL1 compared to the non-selected control line DUKsi thus suggesting that at least some of the respective genes and corresponding biological processes are involved in improving reproductive traits, particularly by increasing the number of ovulation. (2) Selective qPCR re-evaluation largely confirmed the microarray data and in addition demonstrated that sample pooling can be beneficial to find out group-specific expression profiles despite of large inter-individual variation. (3) The present data will substantially help ongoing genetic association studies to identify candidate genes and causative mutations responsible for increased fertility performance in mice.

A novel cardiac hypertrophic factor, neurotrophin-3, is paradoxically downregulated in cardiac hypertrophy

The neurotrophin family plays pivotal roles in the development of the nervous system. Recently, the role of the neurotrophin in non-neural tissue has been extensively investigated. Among them, neurotrophin-3 and its receptor TrkC are critical for embryonic heart development, though little is known about neurotrophin-3/TrkC function in adult heart. Moreover, the expressions of other neurotrophin and Trk families in the cardiovascular system have not been fully determined. In adult and neonatal rats, only TrkC mRNA was expressed more abundantly in heart than aorta among the neurotrophin receptors, while all neurotrophins were equally expressed in the cardiovascular system. Immunohistochemistry confirmed the protein expressions of neurotrophin-3/TrkC in rat ventricles. In primary-cultured rat cardiomyocytes, neurotrophin-3 strongly activated p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase, extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2, and Jun N-terminal kinase pathways in Western blot analysis. In Northern blot analysis, neurotrophin-3 strongly increased mRNA expressions of cardiac hypertrophic markers (skeletal alpha-actin and atrial natriuretic peptide) in cardiomocytes. [(3)H]-phenylalanine uptake into cardiomyocytes, myofilament reorganization, and cardiomyocyte size were also augmented with neurotrophin-3 stimulation, indicating that neurotrophin-3 is a novel cardiac hypertrophic factor. Unexpectedly, neurotrophin-3 was downregulated in cardiac hypertrophy induced by pressure overload (in vivo), and in cardiomyocyte hypertrophy evoked by endothelin-1 stimulation (in vitro). Interestingly, the cell size and BNP mRNA expression level (markers of hypertrophy) were greater in cardiomyocytes treated with both neurotrophin-3 and endothelin-1 than in those stimulated with endothelin-1 alone. These findings demonstrate that neurotrophin-3 is a unique hypertrophic factor, which is paradoxically downregulated in cardiac hypertrophy and might counteract hypertrophic change.

Transgenic overexpression of IGF-IR disrupts mammary ductal morphogenesis and induces tumor formation

Overexpression and hyperactivation of the type I insulin-like growth factor receptor (IGF-IR) has been observed in human breast tumor biopsies. In addition, in vitro studies indicate that overexpression of IGF-IR is sufficient to transform cells such as mouse embryo fibroblasts and this receptor promotes proliferation and survival in breast cancer cell lines. To fully understand the function of the IGF-IR in tumor initiation and progression, transgenic mice containing human IGF-IR under a doxycycline-inducible MMTV promoter system were generated. Administration of 2 mg/ml doxycycline in the animals' water supply beginning at 21 days of age resulted in elevated levels of IGF-IR in mammary epithelial cells as detected by Western blotting and immunohistochemistry. Whole mount analysis of 55-day-old mouse mammary glands revealed that IGF-IR overexpression significantly impaired ductal elongation. Moreover, histological analyses revealed multiple hyperplasic lesions in the mammary glands of these 55-day-old mice. The formation of palpable mammary tumors was evident at approximately 2 months of age and was associated with increased levels of IGF-IR signaling molecules including phosphorylated Akt, Erk1/Erk2 and STAT3. Therefore, these transgenic mice provide evidence that IGF-IR overexpression is sufficient to induce mammary epithelial hyperplasia and tumor formation in vivo and provide a model to further understand the function of IGF-IR in mammary epithelial transformation.

The JAK/STAT pathway is essential for opioid-induced cardioprotection: JAK2 as a mediator of STAT3, Akt, and GSK-3β

We examined the role for the JAK/STAT signaling pathway in acute opioid-induced cardioprotection (OIC) and whether opioid-induced glycogen synthase kinase-3β (GSK-3β) inhibition is mediated by the JAK/STAT pathway. Rats underwent 30 min of ischemia and either 5 min or 2 h of reperfusion, followed by tissue isolation for molecular analysis or infarct size assessment, respectively. Rats were treated with vehicle, morphine (300 μg/kg), the δ-opioid agonist fentanyl isothiocynate (FIT, 10 μg/kg), or the GSK inhibitor SB-216763 (SB21, 600 μg/kg) 10 min before ischemia. Five minutes before opioid or SB21 treatment, some rats received the putative JAK2 inhibitor AG-490 (3 mg/kg) or the putative JAK3 inhibitor ZM-449829 (3 mg/kg). H9C2 cardiomyoblast cells were also used to investigate FIT-induced signaling (1 μM) in vitro via molecular analysis. Morphine induced the phosphorylation of JAK2, yet not JAK1, in the area at risk. Morphine, FIT, and SB21 also reduced infarct size compared with vehicle (water) when administered before ischemia [43.0 ± 2.8, 39.1 ± 3.1, and 42.1 ± 2.5 (* P < 0.001, respectively) vs. 58.1 ± 1.3%, respectively]. AG-490 abrogated OIC, whereas ZM-449829 had no effect on OIC. Cardioprotection was afforded by SB21 even in the presence of AG-490. Morphine phosphorylated STAT3, Akt, and GSK-3β, and phosphorylation was abrogated by AG-490. FIT stimulation of H9C2 cells also caused a time-dependent phosphorylation of STAT3, Akt, and GSK-3β, and this effect was abrogated by AG-490. STAT3 phosphorylation was also dependent on phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) activation in both tissue and H9C2 cells. These data suggest that OIC occurs via the JAK2 regulation of PI3K pathway-dependent STAT3, Akt, and GSK-3β, with GSK-3β contributing a central role in acute OIC.

Effects of insulin-like growth factor-I on the maturation of metabolism in neonatal rat cardiomyocytes

Myocardial metabolism shifts during the perinatal period from predominant utilization of glucose towards oxidation of fatty acids. Expression of enzymes of the fatty acid oxidation (FAO) pathway is under the control of the nuclear receptor/transcription factor peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha (PPARalpha). Insulin-like Growth Factor-I (IGF-I) plays an important role in the post-natal growth and differentiation of the heart. We determined the influence of IGF-I on the maturation of myocardial metabolism. In neonatal rat cardiac myocytes, expression of the FAO enzymes MCAD and M-CPT I was induced by treatment with the specific PPARalpha agonist WY-14643. Concomitant treatment with IGF-I enhanced the expression of both FAO enzymes. By comparison, treatment with FGF-2, which is required for myocyte differentiation of cardiac precursors, did not increase WY-14643-induced expression of FAO enzymes. Despite stimulation of FAO enzyme expression, IGF-I did not further enhance WY-14643-stimulated palmitate oxidation. In contrast, IGF-I relieved WY-14643-mediated inhibition of glucose uptake and promoted storage of fatty acids into cellular neutral lipids. In conclusion, IGF-I promotes a more mature pattern of FAO gene expression but, because of insulin-like metabolic effects, does not concomitantly enhance oxidation of fatty acids.

Single inner cell masses yield embryonic stem cell lines differing in lifr expression and their developmental potential

The unique differentiation potential of inner cell mass derived embryonic stem cells together with their outstanding self-renewal capacity makes them a desirable source for somatic cell therapy of human diseases. Somatic cells are gained by in vitro differentiation of embryonic stem cells, however, the differentiation potential of embryonic stem cells varied even between isogenic cell lines. Variable differentiation potentials may either be a consequence of an inherent inhomogeneity of gene expression in the inner cell mass or may have technical reasons. To understand variations in the differentiation potential, we generated pairs of isogenic, monozygotic twin, and single inner cell mass derived clonal embryonic stem cell lines, and demonstrate that they differentially express the leukaemia inhibitory factor receptor gene. Variations of leukaemia inhibitory factor receptor protein levels are already evident in the inner cell mass and predispose the cardiomyogenic potential of embryonic stem cell lines in a Janus activated kinase dependent manner. Thus, a single inner cell mass may give rise to embryonic stem cell lines with different developmental potentials.

Pasteurella multocida toxin activates human monocyte-derived and murine bone marrow-derived dendritic cells in vitro but suppresses antibody production in vivo

Pasteurella multocida toxin (PMT) is a potent mitogen for fibroblasts and osteoblastic cells. PMT activates phospholipase C-beta through G(q)alpha, and the activation of this pathway is responsible for its mitogenic activity. Here, we investigated the effects of PMT on human monocyte-derived dendritic cells (MDDC) in vitro and show a novel activity for PMT. In this regard, PMT activates MDDC to mature in a dose-dependent manner through the activation of phospholipase C and subsequent mobilization of calcium. This activation was accompanied by enhanced stimulation of naive alloreactive T cells and dominant inhibition of interleukin-12 production in the presence of saturating concentrations of lipopolysaccharide. Surprisingly, although PMT mimics the activating effects of cholera toxin on human MDDC and mouse bone marrow-derived dendritic cells, we found that PMT is not a mucosal adjuvant and that it suppresses the adjuvant effects of cholera toxin in mice. Together, these results indicate discordant effects for PMT in vitro compared to those in vivo.

IL-6-induced skeletal muscle atrophy

Chronic, low-level elevation of circulating interleukin (IL)-6 is observed in disease states as well as in many outwardly healthy elderly individuals. Increased plasma IL-6 is also observed after intense, prolonged exercise. In the context of skeletal muscle, IL-6 has variously been reported to regulate carbohydrate and lipid metabolism, increase satellite cell proliferation, or cause muscle wasting. In the present study, we used a rodent local infusion model to deliver modest levels of IL-6, comparable to that present after exercise or with chronic low-level inflammation in the elderly, directly into a single target muscle in vivo. The aim of this study was to examine the direct effects of IL-6 on skeletal muscle in the absence of systemic changes in this cytokine. Data included cellular and molecular markers of cytokine and growth factor signaling (phosphorylation and mRNA content) as well as measurements to detect muscle atrophy. IL-6 infusion resulted in muscle atrophy characterized by a preferential loss of myofibrillar protein (-17%). IL-6 induced a decrease in the phosphorylation of ribosomal S6 kinase (-60%) and STAT5 (-33%), whereas that of STAT3 was increased approximately twofold. The changes seen in the IL-6-infused muscles suggest alterations in the balance of growth factor-related signaling in favor of a more catabolic profile. This suggests that downregulation of growth factor-mediated intracellular signaling may be a mechanism contributing to the development of muscle atrophy induced by elevated IL-6.

CREG, a new regulator of ERK1/2 in cardiac hypertrophy

OBJECTIVES

The cellular repressor of E1A-stimulated genes (CREG), a mannose-6-phosphate-containing secreted glycoprotein, enhances differentiation and inhibits proliferation. In this study, our aim was to understand the role of CREG in cardiac hypertrophy.

METHODS

Two models of cardiac hypertrophy were used: the in vivo pressure-overloaded rat cardiac hypertrophy and the in vitro stretched neonatal rat cardiomyocyte hypertrophy. CREG's function in cardiac cells was investigated after over-expression or antisense inhibition of CREG.

RESULTS

We found reduced CREG expression in rat hearts after the in vivo overload, as shown by Northern blot analysis. CREG over-expression inhibited cardiac cell growth, as demonstrated by reduced protein content, cell area and ERK1/2 level in cultured neonatal rat cardiomyocytes, and by the reduced proliferation of cultured neonatal rat cardiac fibroblasts. Additionally, over-expression of CREG dampened the stretched cardiomyocyte hypertrophy through ERK1/2. On the other hand, the opposite effects were observed when CREG expression was decreased using antisense. This modulation of CREG expression resulted in no changes in the cardiomyocyte expressions of the hypertrophic or apoptotic signaling molecules such as protein kinase C (PKC) epsilon, PKC beta1, PKC alpha, PKC beta2, PKC delta, JNK1/2, p38, p53, Bax, Bcl2 and Fas.

CONCLUSIONS

CREG was found to inhibit cardiac cell growth as a novel regulator of ERK1/2 and might participate in the development of cardiac hypertrophy under pressure overload. The insight that CREG inhibited the growth in rat hearts in vivo and in cardiac cells in vitro provides new clues for further investigation of the mechanism of heart remodeling.

Calcium signaling through phospholipase C activates dendritic cells to mature and is necessary for the activation and maturation of dendritic cells induced by diverse agonists

Calcium is an important second messenger in the phospholipase C (PLC) signal transduction pathway. Calcium signaling is involved in many biological processes, including muscle contraction, cellular activation, and cellular proliferation. Dendritic cell (DC) maturation is induced by many different stimuli, including bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS), bacterial toxins, inflammatory cytokines, prostaglandins, as well as calcium mobilization. In the present study, we determined the role of the PLC signal transduction pathway in the activation and maturation of human monocyte-derived DCs (MDDCs) induced by diverse agonists. We found that signaling through PLC activates MDDCs to mature and is necessary for LPS, cholera toxin, dibutyryl-cyclic AMP, prostaglandin E2, and the calcium ionophore A23187 to induce MDDC maturation. The results of the present study along with the results of other studies indicate that multiple signaling pathways are involved in the activation of DCs and that inhibition of any of these pathways inhibits the maturation of DCs.

Insulin-like growth factor-1 induces an inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate-dependent increase in nuclear and cytosolic calcium in cultured rat cardiac myocytes

In the heart, insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) is a pro-hypertrophic and anti-apoptotic peptide. In cultured rat cardiomyocytes, IGF-1 induced a fast and transient increase in Ca(2+)(i) levels apparent both in the nucleus and cytosol, releasing this ion from intracellular stores through an inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP(3))-dependent signaling pathway. Intracellular IP(3) levels increased after IGF-1 stimulation in both the presence and absence of extracellular Ca(2+). A different spatial distribution of IP(3) receptor isoforms in cardiomyocytes was found. Ryanodine did not prevent the IGF-1-induced increase of Ca(2+)(i) levels but inhibited the basal and spontaneous Ca(2+)(i) oscillations observed when cardiac myocytes were incubated in Ca(2+)-containing resting media. Spatial analysis of fluorescence images of IGF-1-stimulated cardiomyocytes incubated in Ca(2+)-containing resting media showed an early increase in Ca(2+)(i), initially localized in the nucleus. Calcium imaging suggested that part of the Ca(2+) released by stimulation with IGF-1 was initially contained in the perinuclear region. The IGF-1-induced increase on Ca(2+)(i) levels was prevented by 1,2-bis(2-aminophenoxy)ethane-N,N,N',N'-tetraacetic acid-AM, thapsigargin, xestospongin C, 2-aminoethoxy diphenyl borate, U-73122, pertussis toxin, and betaARKct (a peptide inhibitor of Gbetagamma signaling). Pertussis toxin also prevented the IGF-1-dependent IP(3) mass increase. Genistein treatment largely decreased the IGF-1-induced changes in both Ca(2+)(i) and IP(3). LY29402 (but not PD98059) also prevented the IGF-1-dependent Ca(2+)(i) increase. Both pertussis toxin and U73122 prevented the IGF-1-dependent induction of both ERKs and protein kinase B. We conclude that IGF-1 increases Ca(2+)(i) levels in cultured cardiac myocytes through a Gbetagamma subunit of a pertussis toxin-sensitive G protein-PI3K-phospholipase C signaling pathway that involves participation of IP(3).

Activation of Stat3 by receptor tyrosine kinases and cytokines regulates survival in human non-small cell carcinoma cells

Overexpression of receptor tyrosine kinases including the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGF-R) as well as nonreceptor tyrosine kinases, such as Src, have been implicated in the formation of human lung cancers. In addition, cytokines like interleukin-6 (IL-6) have been demonstrated to modulate lung cancer cell growth and elevated levels of IL-6 have been shown to be an adverse prognostic factor for patients with lung cancer. Despite a large body of evidence pointing to their potential importance, few direct studies into the role of signal transducers and activators of transcription (STAT) pathways in human lung cancer have been undertaken. Here we demonstrate that multiple nonsmall cell lung cancer cell lines demonstrate constitutive Stat3 DNA-binding activity. Stat3 DNA-binding activity is specifically upregulated by the addition of epidermal growth factor (EGF), IL-6, and hepatocyte-derived growth factor (HGF). Furthermore, the stimulation of Stat3 DNA-binding activity by EGF requires the activity of EGF-R tyrosine kinase as well as Src-kinase, while the upregulation of Stat3 activity by IL-6 or HGF requires only Src-kinase activity. Treatment of A549 lung cancer cells with PD180970 or SU6656, both pharmacological inhibitors of Src-kinase, resulted in reduced Src and Stat3 activity, cell cycle arrest in G2, and reduced viability of cells accompanied by induction of apoptosis. Treatment of Stat3-positive A549 and H358 cells with antisense Stat3 oligonucleotides results in complete loss of Stat3 DNA-binding activity and apoptosis, while Stat3-positive H1299 cells remained healthy. Finally, an adenoviral vector expressing a dominant-negative Stat3 isoform results in loss of Stat3 DNA-binding activity, apoptosis, and reduced cellular viability. These results demonstrate a role of Stat3 in transducing survival signals downstream of tyrosine kinases such as Src, EGF-R, and c-Met, as well as cytokines such as IL-6, in human nonsmall cell lung cancers.

Autocrine and/or paracrine insulin-like growth factor-I activity in skeletal muscle

Similar to bone, skeletal muscle responds and adapts to changes in loading state via mechanisms that appear to be intrinsic to the muscle. One of the mechanisms modulating skeletal muscle adaptation it thought to involve the autocrine and/or paracrine production of insulinlike growth factor-I. This brief review outlines components of the insulinlike growth factor-I system as it relates to skeletal muscle and provides the rationale for the theory that insulinlike growth factor-I is involved with muscle adaptation.

Invited Review: Autocrine/paracrine IGF-I and skeletal muscle adaptation

This brief review presents the basic premises suggesting that insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-I), functioning in an autocrine/paracrine mode, is an important mediator of skeletal muscle adaptation. Key intracellular signaling mechanisms associated with ligation of the primary IGF-I receptor are highlighted to illustrate the mechanisms by which IGF-I may promote muscle hypertrophy. In addition, a number of recent findings are presented that highlight the potential for interactions between IGF-I-related signaling pathways and intracellular signaling mechanisms activated by cytokines or hormonal systems.

Double-stranded RNA decreases IGF-I gene expression in a protein kinase R-dependent, but type I interferon-independent, mechanism in C6 rat glioma cells

We previously demonstrated that Poly (IC) decreased the growth of C6 cultures in association with reduced IGF-I synthesis and secretion. In this study we characterized the mechanism(s) by which Poly (IC) decreased IGF-I mRNA in C6 cells. Both Poly (IC) and type I interferon (IFN) decreased IGF-I mRNA. Cycloheximide and a blocking antibody against IFN did not alter the Poly (IC)-mediated inhibition of IGF-I mRNA, but prevented IFN from reducing IGF-I mRNA. Poly (IC) did not alter the stability of IGF-I mRNA. Poly (IC) decreased the abundance of IGF-I pre-mRNA in C6 nuclei, but did not inhibit proximal IGF-I exon 1 promoter/luciferase fusion constructs in transient transfection assays. Poly (IC) activated double-stranded RNA-activated protein kinase (PKR) at 5 min and increased PKR protein levels at 48 and 72 h. Exogenous IGF-I did not prevent Poly (IC) from activating PKR, but inhibited the Poly (IC)-mediated increase in PKR protein levels. The PKR inhibitor 2-aminopurine prevented the Poly (IC) stimulation of eIF2-alpha phosphorylation and the Poly (IC)-mediated decrease in IGF-I mRNA. We conclude that Poly (IC) decreases IGF-I gene transcription in a mechanism that requires the activation of preexisting PKR, but not the induction of IFN or PKR proteins in C6 cells.

Differential gene expression in the rat soleus muscle during early work overload-induced hypertrophy

Delineating the molecular mechanisms that are responsive to work overload is crucial to understanding the adaptive processes controlling skeletal muscle mass. We have examined the molecular events associated with increased workload by using microarray analysis to begin to define the mechanotransduction responsive transcription programs in skeletal muscle. Microarray analysis identified 112 mRNAs that were expressed differentially in the soleus muscle of sham-operated vs. gastrocnemius-ablated rats. These genes can be classified into cell proliferation, autocrine/paracrine, extracellular matrix, immune response, intracellular signaling, metabolism, neural, protein synthesis/degradation, structural, and transcription. These findings dramatically increase the number of known, differentially expressed mRNA during early skeletal muscle hypertrophy. In toto, our findings indicate that work overload induced skeletal muscle hypertrophy alters autocrine/paracrine signaling, intracellular signaling, and transcription factor expression, which likely results in a dramatic change in cellular metabolism, cell proliferation, and muscle structure. These data enhance our understanding of the complex molecular mechanisms controlling skeletal muscle mass in response to increased physical activity.

Involvement of protein phosphatase 2A in the interleukin-3-stimulated Jak2-Stat5 signaling pathway

In this study, we report that the tyrosine kinase, Janus kinase 2 (Jak2), associates with the serine/threonine protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) in 32Dcl3 myeloid progenitor cells. The association between Jak2 and PP2A transiently increases following interleukin-3 (IL-3) stimulation and activation of Jak2. The catalytic subunit of PP2A is tyrosine phosphorylated by Jak2 in vitro and in vivo, resulting in inhibition of phosphatase activity. PP2A also associates with Stat5 in 32Dcl3 cells in an IL-3-dependent manner. Pretreatment of 32Dcl3 cells with okadaic acid (OA), an inhibitor of PP2A, resulted in increased tyrosine phosphorylation and nuclear translocation of Stat5. Our results suggest that PP2A plays a negative regulatory role in regulating the IL-3 signaling pathway via formation of complexes with Jak2 and Stat5.

Extracellular regulated kinase, but not protein kinase C, is an antiapoptotic signal of insulin-like growth factor-1 on cultured cardiac myocytes

This study aims to elucidate the signaling pathway for insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) in cultured neonatal rat cardiomyocytes and particularly the role of IGF-1 in cardiac apoptosis. IGF-1 stimulated polyphosphoinositide turnover, translocation of protein kinase C (PKC) isoforms (alpha, epsilon, and delta) from the soluble to the particulate fraction, activation of phospholipid-dependent and Ca(2+)-, phospholipid-dependent PKC, and activation of the extracellular-regulated kinase (ERK). IGF-1 attenuated sorbitol-induced cardiomyocyte viability and nuclear DNA fragmentation. These antiapoptotic effects of IGF-1 were blocked by PD-098059 (an MEK inhibitor) but not by bisindolylmaleimide I (BIM, a specific PKC inhibitor). The ERK pathway may therefore be an important component in the mechanism whereby IGF-1 exerts its antiapoptotic effect on the cardiomyocyte.

IGF-1 regulates apoptosis of cardiac myocyte induced by osmotic-stress

Insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) is a natural protectant of cardiac myocytes that has been shown to improve cardiac function. The role of IGF-1 in attenuating apoptosis induced by osmotic stress (sorbitol, SOR) or by other known apoptotic stimuli (doxorubicin, angiotensin II, and serum withdrawal) was determined in cultured cardiac myocytes. After 6 h of exposure to SOR, apoptosis was initiated, concomitant with a decrease in cell survival and increases in poly-[ADP-ribose] polymerase (PARP) degradation and DNA fragmentation. These effects were maximal after 24 h. IGF-1 partially attenuated apoptosis induced by sorbitol but not that induced by angiotensin II, doxorubicin, or serum withdrawal. In cells preincubated with IGF-1 before the addition of SOR, we detected an increase in the number of viable cells, a decrease in the generation of DNA fragments on agarose gel electrophoresis and in the percentage of positive TUNEL cells, and a reduction on PARP levels. These results suggest that IGF-1 prevents apoptosis induced by osmotic stress in cardiac myocytes but not apoptosis induced by doxorubicin and angiotensin II.