Genetic Discovery of ATP-Sensitive K+ Channels in Cardiovascular Diseases

miRNA Expression Profiles in Isolated Ventricular Cardiomyocytes: Insights into Doxorubicin-Induced Cardiotoxicity

Doxorubicin (DOX), widely used as a chemotherapeutic agent for various cancers, is limited in its clinical utility by its cardiotoxic effects. Despite its widespread use, the precise mechanisms underlying DOX-induced cardiotoxicity at the cellular and molecular levels remain unclear, hindering the development of preventive and early detection strategies. To characterize the cytotoxic effects of DOX on isolated ventricular cardiomyocytes, focusing on the expression of specific microRNAs (miRNAs) and their molecular targets associated with endogenous cardioprotective mechanisms such as the ATP-sensitive potassium channel (KATP), Sirtuin 1 (SIRT1), FOXO1, and GSK3β. We isolated Guinea pig ventricular cardiomyocytes by retrograde perfusion and enzymatic dissociation. We assessed cell morphology, Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) levels, intracellular calcium, and mitochondrial membrane potential using light microscopy and specific probes. We determined the miRNA expression profile using small RNAseq and validated it using stem-loop qRT-PCR. We quantified mRNA levels of some predicted and validated molecular targets using qRT-PCR and analyzed protein expression using Western blot. Exposure to 10 µM DOX resulted in cardiomyocyte shortening, increased ROS and intracellular calcium levels, mitochondrial membrane potential depolarization, and changes in specific miRNA expression. Additionally, we observed the differential expression of KATP subunits (ABCC9, KCNJ8, and KCNJ11), FOXO1, SIRT1, and GSK3β molecules associated with endogenous cardioprotective mechanisms. Supported by miRNA gene regulatory networks and functional enrichment analysis, these findings suggest that DOX-induced cardiotoxicity disrupts biological processes associated with cardioprotective mechanisms. Further research must clarify their specific molecular changes in DOX-induced cardiac dysfunction and investigate their diagnostic biomarkers and therapeutic potential.

Cardiomyocyte Adaptation to Exercise: K+ Channels, Contractility and Ischemic Injury

Cardiovascular disease is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality, and exercise-training (TRN) is known to reduce risk factors and protect the heart from ischemia and reperfusion injury. Though the cardioprotective effects of exercise are well-documented, underlying mechanisms are not well understood. This review highlights recent findings and focuses on cardiac factors with emphasis on K+ channel control of the action potential duration (APD), β-adrenergic and adenosine regulation of cardiomyocyte function, and mitochondrial Ca2+ regulation. TRN-induced prolongation and shortening of the APD at low and high activation rates, respectively, is discussed in the context of a reduced response of the sarcolemma delayed rectifier potassium channel (IK) and increased content and activation of the sarcolemma KATP channel. A proposed mechanism underlying the latter is presented, including the phosphatidylinositol-3kinase/protein kinase B pathway. TRN induced increases in cardiomyocyte contractility and the response to adrenergic agonists are discussed. The TRN-induced protection from reperfusion injury is highlighted by the increased content and activation of the sarcolemma KATP channel and the increased phosphorylated glycogen synthase kinase-3β, which aid in preventing mitochondrial Ca2+ overload and mitochondria-triggered apoptosis. Finally, a brief section is presented on the increased incidences of atrial fibrillation associated with age and in life-long exercisers.

Molecular Dynamics Simulation of Kir6.2 Variants Reveals Potential Association with Diabetes Mellitus

Diabetes mellitus (DM) represents a problem for the healthcare system worldwide. DM has very serious complications such as blindness, kidney failure, and cardiovascular disease. In addition to the very bad socioeconomic impacts, it influences patients and their families and communities. The global costs of DM and its complications are huge and expected to rise by the year 2030. DM is caused by genetic and environmental risk factors. Genetic testing will aid in early diagnosis and identification of susceptible individuals or populations using ATP-sensitive potassium (KATP) channels present in different tissues such as the pancreas, myocardium, myocytes, and nervous tissues. The channels respond to different concentrations of blood sugar, stimulation by hormones, or ischemic conditions. In pancreatic cells, they regulate the secretion of insulin and glucagon. Mutations in the KCNJ11 gene that encodes the Kir6.2 protein (a major constituent of KATP channels) were reported to be associated with Type 2 DM, neonatal diabetes mellitus (NDM), and maturity-onset diabetes of the young (MODY). Kir6.2 harbors binding sites for ATP and phosphatidylinositol 4,5-diphosphate (PIP2). The ATP inhibits the KATP channel, while the (PIP2) activates it. A Kir6.2 mutation at tyrosine330 (Y330) was demonstrated to reduce ATP inhibition and predisposes to NDM. In this study, we examined the effect of mutations on the Kir6.2 structure using bioinformatics tools and molecular dynamic simulations (SIFT, PolyPhen, SNAP2, PANTHER, PhD&SNP, SNP&Go, I-Mutant, MuPro, MutPred, ConSurf, HOPE, and GROMACS). Our results indicated that M199R, R201H, R206H, and Y330H mutations influence Kir6.2 structure and function and therefore may cause DM. We conclude that MD simulations are useful techniques to predict the effects of mutations on protein structure. In addition, the M199R, R201H, R206H, and Y330H variant in the Kir6.2 protein may be associated with DM. These results require further verification in protein-protein interactions, Kir6.2 function, and case-control studies.

Electro-metabolic signaling

Precise matching of energy substrate delivery to local metabolic needs is essential for the health and function of all tissues. Here, we outline a mechanistic framework for understanding this critical process, which we refer to as electro-metabolic signaling (EMS). All tissues exhibit changes in metabolism over varying spatiotemporal scales and have widely varying energetic needs and reserves. We propose that across tissues, common signatures of elevated metabolism or increases in energy substrate usage that exceed key local thresholds rapidly engage mechanisms that generate hyperpolarizing electrical signals in capillaries that then relax contractile elements throughout the vasculature to quickly adjust blood flow to meet changing needs. The attendant increase in energy substrate delivery serves to meet local metabolic requirements and thus avoids a mismatch in supply and demand and prevents metabolic stress. We discuss in detail key examples of EMS that our laboratories have discovered in the brain and the heart, and we outline potential further EMS mechanisms operating in tissues such as skeletal muscle, pancreas, and kidney. We suggest that the energy imbalance evoked by EMS uncoupling may be central to cellular dysfunction from which the hallmarks of aging and metabolic diseases emerge and may lead to generalized organ failure states-such as diverse flavors of heart failure and dementia. Understanding and manipulating EMS may be key to preventing or reversing these dysfunctions.

Pathophysiology and pathogenic mechanisms of pulmonary hypertension: role of membrane receptors, ion channels, and Ca2+ signaling

The pulmonary circulation is a low-resistance, low-pressure, and high-compliance system that allows the lungs to receive the entire cardiac output. Pulmonary arterial pressure is a function of cardiac output and pulmonary vascular resistance, and pulmonary vascular resistance is inversely proportional to the fourth power of the intraluminal radius of the pulmonary artery. Therefore, a very small decrease of the pulmonary vascular lumen diameter results in a significant increase in pulmonary vascular resistance and pulmonary arterial pressure. Pulmonary arterial hypertension is a fatal and progressive disease with poor prognosis. Regardless of the initial pathogenic triggers, sustained pulmonary vasoconstriction, concentric vascular remodeling, occlusive intimal lesions, in situ thrombosis, and vascular wall stiffening are the major and direct causes for elevated pulmonary vascular resistance in patients with pulmonary arterial hypertension and other forms of precapillary pulmonary hypertension. In this review, we aim to discuss the basic principles and physiological mechanisms involved in the regulation of lung vascular hemodynamics and pulmonary vascular function, the changes in the pulmonary vasculature that contribute to the increased vascular resistance and arterial pressure, and the pathogenic mechanisms involved in the development and progression of pulmonary hypertension. We focus on reviewing the pathogenic roles of membrane receptors, ion channels, and intracellular Ca2+ signaling in pulmonary vascular smooth muscle cells in the development and progression of pulmonary hypertension.

Skeletal muscle delimited myopathy and verapamil toxicity in SUR2 mutant mouse models of AIMS

ABCC9-related intellectual disability and myopathy syndrome (AIMS) arises from loss-of-function (LoF) mutations in the ABCC9 gene, which encodes the SUR2 subunit of ATP-sensitive potassium (KATP ) channels. KATP channels are found throughout the cardiovascular system and skeletal muscle and couple cellular metabolism to excitability. AIMS individuals show fatigability, muscle spasms, and cardiac dysfunction. We found reduced exercise performance in mouse models of AIMS harboring premature stop codons in ABCC9. Given the roles of KATP channels in all muscles, we sought to determine how myopathy arises using tissue-selective suppression of KATP and found that LoF in skeletal muscle, specifically, underlies myopathy. In isolated muscle, SUR2 LoF results in abnormal generation of unstimulated forces, potentially explaining painful spasms in AIMS. We sought to determine whether excessive Ca2+ influx through CaV 1.1 channels was responsible for myopathology but found that the Ca2+ channel blocker verapamil unexpectedly resulted in premature death of AIMS mice and that rendering CaV 1.1 channels nonpermeable by mutation failed to reverse pathology; results which caution against the use of calcium channel blockers in AIMS.

Upregulation of ATP-Sensitive Potassium Channels as the Potential Mechanism of Cardioprotection and Vasorelaxation Under the Action of Pyridoxal-5-Phosphate in Old Rats

Background: The aging process is accompanied by the weakening of the protective systems of the organism, in particular by the decrease in the expression of ATP-sensitive potassium (KATP) channels and in the synthesis of H2S. The aim of our work was to investigate the role of KATP channels in the cardioprotection induced by pyridoxal-5-phosphate (PLP) in aging. Methods: Experiments were performed on adult and old (aged 24 months) male Wistar rats, which were divided into 3 groups: adults, old, and old PLP-treated rats. PLP was administered orally once a day for 14 days at a dose of 0.7 mg/kg. The levels of mRNA expression of subunits KATP channels were determined by reverse transcription and real-time polymerase chain reaction analysis. Protein expression levels were determined by the Western blot. Cardiac tissue morphology was determined using transverse 6 μm deparaffinized sections stained with picrosirius red staining. Vasorelaxation responses of isolated aortic rings and the function of Langendorff-perfused isolated hearts during ischemia-reperfusion, H2S levels, and markers of oxidative stress were also studied. Results: Administration of PLP to old rats reduces cardiac fibrosis and improves cardiac function during ischemia-reperfusion and vasorelaxation responses to KATP channels opening. At the same time, there was a significant increase in mRNA and protein expression of SUR2 and Kir6.1 subunits of KATP channels, H2S production, and reduced markers of oxidative stress. The specific KATP channel inhibitor-glibenclamide prevented the enhancement of vasodilator responses and anti-ischemic protection in PLP-treated animals. Conclusions: We suggest that this potential therapeutic effect of PLP in old animals may be a result of increased expression of KATP channels and H2S production.

Maturity-Onset Diabetes of the Young: Mutations, Physiological Consequences, and Treatment Options

Maturity-Onset Diabetes of the Young (MODY) is a rare form of diabetes which affects between 1% and 5% of diagnosed diabetes cases. Clinical characterizations of MODY include onset of diabetes at an early age (before the age of 30), autosomal dominant inheritance pattern, impaired glucose-induced secretion of insulin, and hyperglycemia. Presently, 14 MODY subtypes have been identified. Within these subtypes are several mutations which contribute to the different MODY phenotypes. Despite the identification of these 14 subtypes, MODY is often misdiagnosed as type 1 or type 2 diabetes mellitus due to an overlap in clinical features, high cost and limited availability of genetic testing, and unfamiliarity with MODY outside of the medical profession. The primary aim of this review is to investigate the genetic characterization of the MODY subtypes. Additionally, this review will elucidate the link between the genetics, function, and clinical manifestations of MODY in each of the 14 subtypes. In providing this knowledge, we hope to assist in the accurate diagnosis of MODY patients and, subsequently, in ensuring they receive appropriate treatment.

Kir6.1 and SUR2B in Cantú syndrome

Kir6.1 and SUR2 are subunits of ATP-sensitive potassium (KATP) channels expressed in a wide range of tissues. Extensive study has implicated roles of these channel subunits in diverse physiological functions. Together they generate the predominant KATP conductance in vascular smooth muscle and are the target of vasodilatory drugs. Roles for Kir6.1/SUR2 dysfunction in disease have been suggested based on studies of animal models and human genetic discoveries. In recent years, it has become clear that gain-of-function (GoF) mutations in both genes result in Cantú syndrome (CS)-a complex, multisystem disorder. There is currently no targeted therapy for CS, but studies of mouse models of the disease reveal that pharmacological reversibility of cardiovascular and gastrointestinal pathologies can be achieved by administration of the KATP channel inhibitor, glibenclamide. Here we review the function, structure, and physiological and pathological roles of Kir6.1/SUR2B channels, with a focus on CS. Recent studies have led to much improved understanding of the underlying pathologies and the potential for treatment, but important questions remain: Can the study of genetically defined CS reveal new insights into Kir6.1/SUR2 function? Do these reveal new pathophysiological mechanisms that may be important in more common diseases? And is our pharmacological armory adequately stocked?

Functional Regulation of KATP Channels and Mutant Insight Into Clinical Therapeutic Strategies in Cardiovascular Diseases

ATP-sensitive potassium channels (K_ATP channels) play pivotal roles in excitable cells and link cellular metabolism with membrane excitability. The action potential converts electricity into dynamics by ion channel-mediated ion exchange to generate systole, involved in every heartbeat. Activation of the K_ATP channel repolarizes the membrane potential and decreases early afterdepolarization (EAD)-mediated arrhythmias. K_ATP channels in cardiomyocytes have less function under physiological conditions but they open during severe and prolonged anoxia due to a reduced ATP/ADP ratio, lessening cellular excitability and thus preventing action potential generation and cell contraction. Small active molecules activate and enhance the opening of the K_ATP channel, which induces the repolarization of the membrane and decreases the occurrence of malignant arrhythmia. Accumulated evidence indicates that mutation of K_ATP channels deteriorates the regulatory roles in mutation-related diseases. However, patients with mutations in K_ATP channels still have no efficient treatment. Hence, in this study, we describe the role of K_ATP channels and subunits in angiocardiopathy, summarize the mutations of the K_ATP channels and the functional regulation of small active molecules in K_ATP channels, elucidate the potential mechanisms of mutant K_ATP channels and provide insight into clinical therapeutic strategies.

Subcellular trafficking and endocytic recycling of KATP channels

Sarcolemmal/plasmalemmal ATP-sensitive K+ (KATP) channels have key roles in many cell types and tissues. Hundreds of studies have described how the KATP channel activity and ATP sensitivity can be regulated by changes in the cellular metabolic state, by receptor signaling pathways and by pharmacological interventions. These alterations in channel activity directly translate to alterations in cell or tissue function, that can range from modulating secretory responses, such as insulin release from pancreatic β-cells or neurotransmitters from neurons, to modulating contractile behavior of smooth muscle or cardiac cells to elicit alterations in blood flow or cardiac contractility. It is increasingly becoming apparent, however, that KATP channels are regulated beyond changes in their activity. Recent studies have highlighted that KATP channel surface expression is a tightly regulated process with similar implications in health and disease. The surface expression of KATP channels is finely balanced by several trafficking steps including synthesis, assembly, anterograde trafficking, membrane anchoring, endocytosis, endocytic recycling, and degradation. This review aims to summarize the physiological and pathophysiological implications of KATP channel trafficking and mechanisms that regulate KATP channel trafficking. A better understanding of this topic has potential to identify new approaches to develop therapeutically useful drugs to treat KATP channel-related diseases.

KCNJ8/ABCC9-containing K-ATP channel modulates brain vascular smooth muscle development and neurovascular coupling

Loss- or gain-of-function mutations in ATP-sensitive potassium channel (K-ATP)-encoding genes, KCNJ8 and ABCC9, cause human central nervous system disorders with unknown pathogenesis. Here, using mice, zebrafish, and cell culture models, we investigated cellular and molecular causes of brain dysfunctions derived from altered K-ATP channel function. We show that genetic/chemical inhibition or activation of KCNJ8/ABCC9-containing K-ATP channel function leads to brain-selective suppression or promotion of arterial/arteriolar vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) differentiation, respectively. We further show that brain VSMCs develop from KCNJ8/ABCC9-containing K-ATP channel-expressing mural cell progenitor and that K-ATP channel cell autonomously regulates VSMC differentiation through modulation of intracellular Ca²⁺ oscillation via voltage-dependent calcium channels. Consistent with defective VSMC development, Kcnj8 knockout mice showed deficiency in vasoconstrictive capacity and neuronal-evoked vasodilation leading to local hyperemia. Our results demonstrate a role for KCNJ8/ABCC9-containing K-ATP channels in the differentiation of brain VSMC, which in turn is necessary for fine-tuning of cerebral blood flow.

Transcriptome-Guided Identification of Drugs for Repurposing to Treat Age-Related Hearing Loss

Age-related hearing loss (ARHL) or presbycusis is a prevalent condition associated with social isolation, cognitive impairment, and dementia. Age-related changes in the cochlea, the auditory portion of the inner ear, are the primary cause of ARHL. Unfortunately, there are currently no pharmaceutical approaches to treat ARHL. To examine the biological processes underlying age-related changes in the cochlea and identify candidate drugs for rapid repurposing to treat ARHL, we utilized bulk RNA sequencing to obtain transcriptomes from the functional substructures of the cochlea—the sensorineural structures, including the organ of Corti and spiral ganglion neurons (OC/SGN) and the stria vascularis and spiral ligament (SV/SL)—in young (6-week-old) and old (2-year-old) C57BL/6 mice. Transcriptomic analyses revealed both overlapping and unique patterns of gene expression and gene enrichment between substructures and with ageing. Based on these age-related transcriptional changes, we queried the protein products of genes differentially expressed with ageing in DrugBank and identified 27 FDA/EMA-approved drugs that are suitable to be repurposed to treat ARHL. These drugs target the protein products of genes that are differentially expressed with ageing uniquely in either the OC/SGN or SV/SL and that interrelate diverse biological processes. Further transcriptomic analyses revealed that most genes differentially expressed with ageing in both substructures encode protein products that are promising drug target candidates but are, nevertheless, not yet linked to approved drugs. Thus, with this study, we apply a novel approach to characterize the druggable genetic landscape for ARHL and propose a list of drugs to test in pre-clinical studies as potential treatment options for ARHL.

The short form of the SUR1 and its functional implications in the damaged brain

Sulfonylurea receptor (SUR) belongs to the adenosine 5′-triphosphate (ATP)-binding cassette (ABC) transporter family; however, SUR is associated with ion channels and acts as a regulatory subunit determining the opening or closing of the pore. Abcc8 and Abcc9 genes code for the proteins SUR1 and SUR2, respectively. The SUR1 transcript encodes a protein of 1582 amino acids with a mass around 140–177 kDa expressed in the pancreas, brain, heart, and other tissues. It is well known that SUR1 assembles with Kir6.2 and TRPM4 to establish K_ATP channels and non-selective cation channels, respectively. Abbc8 and 9 are alternatively spliced, and the resulting transcripts encode different isoforms of SUR1 and SUR2, which have been detected by different experimental strategies. Interestingly, the use of binding assays to sulfonylureas and Western blotting has allowed the detection of shorter forms of SUR (~65 kDa). Identity of the SUR1 variants has not been clarified, and some authors have suggested that the shorter forms are unspecific. However, immunoprecipitation assays have shown that SUR2 short forms are part of a functional channel even coexisting with the typical forms of the receptor in the heart. This evidence confirms that the structure of the short forms of the SURs is fully functional and does not lose the ability to interact with the channels. Since structural changes in short forms of SUR modify its affinity to ATP, regulation of its expression might represent an advantage in pathologies where ATP concentrations decrease and a therapeutic target to induce neuroprotection. Remarkably, the expression of SUR1 variants might be induced by conditions associated to the decrease of energetic substrates in the brain (e.g. during stroke and epilepsy). In this review, we want to contribute to the knowledge of SUR1 complexity by analyzing evidence that shows the existence of short SUR1 variants and its possible implications in brain function.

Vascular KATP channel structural dynamics reveal regulatory mechanism by Mg-nucleotides

Vascular K_ATP channels formed by the potassium channel Kir6.1 and its regulatory protein SUR2B maintain blood pressure in the physiological range. Overactivity of the channel due to genetic mutations in either Kir6.1 or SUR2B causes severe cardiovascular pathologies known as Cantú syndrome. The cryogenic electron microscopy structures of the vascular K_ATP channel reported here show multiple, dynamically related conformations of the regulatory subunit SUR2B. Molecular dynamics simulations reveal the negatively charged ED-domain in SUR2B, a stretch of 15 glutamate (E) and aspartate (D) residues not previously resolved, play a key MgADP-dependent role in mediating interactions at the interface between the SUR2B and Kir6.1 subunits. Our findings provide a mechanistic understanding of how channel activity is regulated by intracellular MgADP.

Vascular tone is dependent on smooth muscle K_ATP channels comprising pore-forming Kir6.1 and regulatory SUR2B subunits, in which mutations cause Cantú syndrome. Unique among K_ATP isoforms, they lack spontaneous activity and require Mg-nucleotides for activation. Structural mechanisms underlying these properties are unknown. Here, we determined cryogenic electron microscopy structures of vascular K_ATP channels bound to inhibitory ATP and glibenclamide, which differ informatively from similarly determined pancreatic K_ATP channel isoform (Kir6.2/SUR1). Unlike SUR1, SUR2B subunits adopt distinct rotational “propeller” and “quatrefoil” geometries surrounding their Kir6.1 core. The glutamate/aspartate-rich linker connecting the two halves of the SUR-ABC core is observed in a quatrefoil-like conformation. Molecular dynamics simulations reveal MgADP-dependent dynamic tripartite interactions between this linker, SUR2B, and Kir6.1. The structures captured implicate a progression of intermediate states between MgADP-free inactivated, and MgADP-bound activated conformations wherein the glutamate/aspartate-rich linker participates as mobile autoinhibitory domain, suggesting a conformational pathway toward K_ATP channel activation.

The expression of ATP-sensitive potassium channels in human umbilical arteries with severe pre-eclampsia

The aim of this study is to establish the expression of ATP-sensitive potassium channels(KATP) in human umbilical arteries with severe pre-eclampsia. Real-time quantitative PCR and western blotting were used to detect the mRNA and protein expression levels of KATP channel subunits Kir6.1 and SUR2B in human umbilical arteries from normal pregnant and those with severe pre-eclampsia, early onset severe pre-eclampsia and late onset severe pre-eclampsia. The mRNA and protein levels of SUR2B in the severe pre-eclampsia group were lower than those in the normal group (P < 0.001), and the expression of Kir6.1 was not statistically significant between the two groups (P > 0.05). The mRNA and protein levels of SUR2B in early onset severe pre-eclampsia group were lower than those in late onset severe pre-eclampsia group (P < 0.001). There was no significant difference in expression of Kir6.1 between the two groups (P > 0.05). The mRNA and protein expression levels of SUR2B in pregnant women with severe pre-eclampsia were lower than those in normal pregnant women, suggesting that the expression of the SUR2B of the KATP channel may be related to the occurrence and development of severe pre-eclampsia. Compared with late onset severe pre-eclampsia, the mRNA and protein expression levels of SUR2B were lower in the umbilical arteries of women with early onset severe pre-eclampsia, suggesting that the occurrence time of severe pre-eclampsia may be related to the extent reduced expression of the SUR2B of the KATP channel.

Hydrogen sulfide induces Ca2+ release from the endoplasmic reticulum and suppresses ATP-induced Ca2+ signaling in rat spinal cord astrocytes

Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) has a variety of physiological functions. H2S reportedly increases intracellular Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]i) in astrocytes. However, the precise mechanism and functional role of this increase are not known. Here, we examined the effects of H2S on [Ca2+]i in astrocytes from the rat spinal cord and whether H2S affects ATP-induced Ca2+ signaling, which is known to be involved in synaptic function. Na2S (150 μM), an H2S donor, produced a nontoxic increase in [Ca2+]i. The [Ca2+]i increase by Na2S was inhibited by Ca2+ depletion in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) but not by removal of extracellular Ca2+, indicating that H2S releases Ca2+ from the ER. On the other hand, Na2S inhibited ATP-induced [Ca2+]i increase when Na2S clearly increased [Ca2+]i in the astrocytes, which was not suppressed by a reducing agent. In addition, Na2S had no effect on intracellular cyclic AMP (cAMP) level. These results indicate that oxidative post-translational modification of proteins and cAMP are not involved in the inhibitory effect of H2S on ATP-induced Ca2+ signaling. We conclude that H2S indirectly inhibits ATP-induced Ca2+ signaling by decreasing Ca2+ content in the ER in astrocytes. In this way, H2S may influence intercellular communication between astrocytes and neurons, thereby contributing to neuronal signaling in the nervous system.

Clinical Importance of the Human Umbilical Artery Potassium Channels

Potassium (K⁺) channels are usually predominant in the membranes of vascular smooth muscle cells (SMCs). These channels play an important role in regulating the membrane potential and vessel contractility-a role that depends on the vascular bed. Thus, the activity of K⁺ channels represents one of the main mechanisms regulating the vascular tone in physiological and pathophysiological conditions. Briefly, the activation of K⁺ channels in SMC leads to hyperpolarization and vasorelaxation, while its inhibition induces depolarization and consequent vascular contraction. Currently, there are four different types of K⁺ channels described in SMCs: voltage-dependent K⁺ (K_V) channels, calcium-activated K⁺ (K_Ca) channels, inward rectifier K⁺ (Kir) channels, and 2-pore domain K⁺ (K_2P) channels. Due to the fundamental role of K⁺ channels in excitable cells, these channels are promising therapeutic targets in clinical practice. Therefore, this review discusses the basic properties of the various types of K⁺ channels, including structure, cellular mechanisms that regulate their activity, and new advances in the development of activators and blockers of these channels. The vascular functions of these channels will be discussed with a focus on vascular SMCs of the human umbilical artery. Then, the clinical importance of K⁺ channels in the treatment and prevention of cardiovascular diseases during pregnancy, such as gestational hypertension and preeclampsia, will be explored.

'Resistance is futile?' - paradoxical inhibitory effects of KATP channel closure in glucagon-secreting α-cells

By secreting insulin and glucagon, the β- and α-cells of the pancreatic islets play a central role in the regulation of systemic metabolism. Both cells are equipped with ATP-regulated potassium (K_ATP ) channels that are regulated by the intracellular ATP/ADP ratio. In β-cells, K_ATP channels are active at low (non-insulin-releasing) glucose concentrations. An increase in glucose leads to K_ATP channel closure, membrane depolarization and electrical activity that culminates in elevation of [Ca²⁺ ]_i and initiation of exocytosis of the insulin-containing secretory granules. The α-cells are also equipped with K_ATP channels but they are under strong tonic inhibition at low glucose, explaining why α-cells are electrically active under hypoglycaemic conditions and generate large Na⁺ - and Ca²⁺ -dependent action potentials. Closure of residual K_ATP channel activity leads to membrane depolarization and an increase in action potential firing but this stimulation of electrical activity is associated with inhibition rather than acceleration of glucagon secretion. This paradox arises because membrane depolarization reduces the amplitude of the action potentials by voltage-dependent inactivation of the Na⁺ channels involved in action potential generation. Exocytosis in α-cells is tightly linked to the opening of voltage-gated P/Q-type Ca²⁺ channels, the activation of which is steeply voltage-dependent. Accordingly, the inhibitory effect of the reduced action potential amplitude exceeds the stimulatory effect resulting from the increased action potential frequency. These observations highlight a previously unrecognised role of the action potential amplitude as a key regulator of pancreatic islet hormone secretion.

A novel role of cardiac inwardly rectifying potassium channels explaining autonomic cardiovascular dysfunctions in a cuprizone-induced mouse model of multiple sclerosis

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic inflammatory demyelinating and neurodegenerative disease of the central nervous system (CNS), believed to have an autoimmune etiology. MS patients showed an increased cardiovascular (CV) risk probably related to an impairment in the autonomic control of CV functions, but the underlying molecular mechanisms are not completely elucidated. Inwardly-rectifying potassium (Kir) channels play a key role in cardiac excitability by contributing to the repolarization phase of action potential and were recently identified as target of the autoantibody response in MS patients. Therefore, we investigated the role of cardiac Kir channels in the CV dysfunctions occurring in MS. Cardiac functions were evaluated by electrocardiographic recordings (ECG) in cuprizone-fed C57BL/6 mice, a classic demyelination animal model. Gene expression profiling of cardiac Kir2.2, Kir4.1 and Kir6.2 channels was performed using real-time PCR in mice. Cuprizone-induced mouse model was confirmed by immunohistochemistry analysis showing demyelination in the corpus callosum. ECG recordings from mice showed a significant decreased duration of the P wave and RR interval as well as an increase of the heart rate in cuprizone-treated mice as compared with the controls. Significant increased relative expression levels of Kcnj11 and Kcnj12, encoding for Kir6.2 and Kir2.2 channels respectively, were observed in mouse heart tissue, whereas no differences were found in mRNA levels of Kir4.1 channel as compared with controls. For the first time, these findings provided valuable insights into the potential role of Kir channels in cardiac problems associated with MS.