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Liu Y, Wang S, Zhang J, Sun Q, Xiao Y, Chen J, Yao M, Zhang G, Huang Q, Zhao T, Huang Q, Shi X, Feng C, Ai K, Bai Y. Reprogramming the myocardial infarction microenvironment with melanin-based composite nanomedicines in mice. Nat Commun 2024; 15:6651. [PMID: 39103330 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-50854-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2023] [Accepted: 07/24/2024] [Indexed: 08/07/2024] Open
Abstract
Myocardial infarction (MI) has a 5-year mortality rate of more than 50% due to the lack of effective treatments. Interactions between cardiomyocytes and the MI microenvironment (MIM) can determine the progression and fate of infarcted myocardial tissue. Here, a specially designed Melanin-based composite nanomedicines (MCN) is developed to effectively treat MI by reprogramming the MIM. MCN is a nanocomposite composed of polydopamine (P), Prussian blue (PB) and cerium oxide (CexOy) with a Mayuan-like structure, which reprogramming the MIM by the efficient conversion of detrimental substances (H+, reactive oxygen species, and hypoxia) into beneficial status (O2 and H2O). In coronary artery ligation and ischemia reperfusion models of male mice, intravenously injecting MCN specifically targets the damaged area, resulting in restoration of cardiac function. With its promising therapeutic effects, MCN constitutes a new agent for MI treatment and demonstrates potential for clinical application.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yamei Liu
- Department of Geriatric Medicine, Coronary Circulation Center, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, P.R. China
- National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, P.R. China
| | - Shuya Wang
- Xiangya School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, P.R. China
- Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular Research, Xiangya School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, P.R. China
| | - Jiaxiong Zhang
- Department of Geriatric Medicine, Coronary Circulation Center, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, P.R. China
- National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, P.R. China
| | - Quan Sun
- Department of Geriatric Medicine, Coronary Circulation Center, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, P.R. China
- National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, P.R. China
| | - Yi Xiao
- Department of Geriatric Medicine, Coronary Circulation Center, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, P.R. China
- National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, P.R. China
| | - Jing Chen
- Department of Geriatric Medicine, Coronary Circulation Center, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, P.R. China
| | - Meilian Yao
- Department of Geriatric Medicine, Coronary Circulation Center, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, P.R. China
| | - Guogang Zhang
- Department of Geriatric Medicine, Coronary Circulation Center, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, P.R. China
- National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, P.R. China
- Department of Cardiology, The Third Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, P.R. China
| | - Qun Huang
- Department of Child Health Care, Hunan Provincial Maternal and Child Health Care Hospital, Changsha, 410008, Hunan, P.R. China
| | - Tianjiao Zhao
- Xiangya School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, P.R. China
- Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular Research, Xiangya School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, P.R. China
| | - Qiong Huang
- National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, P.R. China
- Department of Pharmacy, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, P.R. China
| | - Xiaojing Shi
- National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, P.R. China
- Department of Pharmacy, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, P.R. China
| | - Can Feng
- Xiangya School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, P.R. China
| | - Kelong Ai
- Xiangya School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, P.R. China.
- Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular Research, Xiangya School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, P.R. China.
| | - Yongping Bai
- Department of Geriatric Medicine, Coronary Circulation Center, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, P.R. China.
- National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, P.R. China.
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Abstract
ABSTRACT The incidence of abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA) in the elderly is increasing year by year with high mortality. Current treatment is mainly through surgery or endovascular intervention, which is not sufficient to reduce future risk. Therefore, we still need to find an effective conservative measure as an adjunct therapy or early intervention to prevent AAA progression. Traditional therapeutic agents, such as β-receptor blockers, calcium channel blockers, and statins, have been shown to have limited effects on the growth of AAA. Recently, sodium-glucose cotransport proteins inhibitors (SGLT2is), a new class hypoglycemic drug, have shown outstanding beneficiary effects on cardiovascular diseases by plasma volume reduction, vascular tone regulation, and various unidentified mechanisms. It has been demonstrated that SGLT2i is abundantly expressed in the aorta, and some studies also showed promising results of SGLT2i in treating animal AAA models. This article aims to summarize the recent progress of AAA studies and look forward to the application of SGLT2i in AAA treatment for early intervention or adjunct therapy after surgical repair or stent graft.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhongtiao Jin
- Master of Medicine, Department of Endocrinology, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, 430060, China; and
| | - Hongping Deng
- Department of Vascular Surgery, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, 430060, China.
| | - Sizheng Xiong
- Department of Vascular Surgery, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, 430060, China.
| | - Ling Gao
- Master of Medicine, Department of Endocrinology, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, 430060, China; and
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Cumhur Cure M, Cure E. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 may cause liver injury via Na +/H + exchanger. World J Virol 2023; 12:12-21. [PMID: 36743661 PMCID: PMC9896593 DOI: 10.5501/wjv.v12.i1.12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2022] [Revised: 10/03/2022] [Accepted: 11/22/2022] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
The liver has many significant functions, such as detoxification, the urea cycle, gluconeogenesis, and protein synthesis. Systemic diseases, hypoxia, infections, drugs, and toxins can easily affect the liver, which is extremely sensitive to injury. Systemic infection of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 can cause liver damage. The primary regulator of intracellular pH in the liver is the Na+/H+ exchanger (NHE). Physiologically, NHE protects hepatocytes from apoptosis by making the intracellular pH alkaline. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 increases local angiotensin II levels by binding to angiotensin-converting enzyme 2. In severe cases of coronavirus disease 2019, high angi-otensin II levels may cause NHE overstimulation and lipid accumulation in the liver. NHE overstimulation can lead to hepatocyte death. NHE overstimulation may trigger a cytokine storm by increasing proinflammatory cytokines in the liver. Since the release of proinflammatory cytokines such as interleukin-6 increases with NHE activation, the virus may indirectly cause an increase in fibrinogen and D-dimer levels. NHE overstimulation may cause thrombotic events and systemic damage by increasing fibrinogen levels and cytokine release. Also, NHE overstimulation causes an increase in the urea cycle while inhibiting vitamin D synthesis and gluconeogenesis in the liver. Increasing NHE3 activity leads to Na+ loading, which impairs the containment and fluidity of bile acid. NHE overstimulation can change the gut microbiota composition by disrupting the structure and fluidity of bile acid, thus triggering systemic damage. Unlike other tissues, tumor necrosis factor-alpha and angiotensin II decrease NHE3 activity in the intestine. Thus, increased luminal Na+ leads to diarrhea and cytokine release. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2-induced local and systemic damage can be improved by preventing virus-induced NHE overstimulation in the liver.
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Affiliation(s)
- Medine Cumhur Cure
- Department of Biochemistry, Private Tanfer Hospital, Istanbul 34394, Turkey
| | - Erkan Cure
- Department of Internal Medicine, Bagcilar Medilife Hospital, Istanbul 34200, Turkey
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Sanders E, Alcaide P. Red light-green light: T-cell trafficking in cardiac and vascular inflammation. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 2023; 324:C58-C66. [PMID: 36409175 PMCID: PMC9762958 DOI: 10.1152/ajpcell.00421.2022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2022] [Revised: 10/31/2022] [Accepted: 11/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Extravasation of T cells from the bloodstream into inflamed tissues requires interactions between T cells and vascular endothelial cells, a necessary step that allows T cells to exert their effector function during the immune response to pathogens and to sterile insults. This cellular cross talk involves adhesion molecules on both the vascular endothelium and the T cells themselves that function as receptor-ligand pairs to slow down circulating T cells. These will eventually extravasate into sites of inflammation when they receive the correct chemokine signals. Accumulation of T cells within the vascular wall can lead to vessel thickening and vascular disease, whereas T-cell extravasation into the myocardium often leads to cardiac chronic inflammation and adverse cardiac remodeling, hallmarks of heart failure. On the flip side, T-cell trafficking is required for pathogen clearance and to promote tissue repair after injury resulting from cardiac ischemia. Thus, a better understanding of the central players mediating these interactions may help develop novel therapeutics to modulate vascular and cardiac inflammation. Here, we review the most recent literature on pathways that regulate T-cell transendothelial migration, the last step leading to T-cell infiltration into tissues and organs in the context of vascular and cardiac inflammation. We discuss new potential avenues to therapeutically modulate these pathways to enhance or prevent immune cell infiltration in cardiovascular disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erin Sanders
- Department of Immunology, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts
- Cell, Molecular, and Developmental Biology Program, Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Pilar Alcaide
- Department of Immunology, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts
- Cell, Molecular, and Developmental Biology Program, Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts
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Liu X, Liu Y, Yang RX, Ding XJ, Liang ES. Loss of myeloid Tsc2 predisposes to angiotensin II-induced aortic aneurysm formation in mice. Cell Death Dis 2022; 13:972. [PMID: 36400753 PMCID: PMC9674579 DOI: 10.1038/s41419-022-05423-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2022] [Revised: 11/08/2022] [Accepted: 11/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Genetic studies have proved the involvement of Tuberous sclerosis complex subunit 2 (Tsc2) in aortic aneurysm. However, the exact role of macrophage Tsc2 in the vascular system remains unclear. Here, we examined the potential function of macrophage Tsc2 in the development of aortic remodeling and aortic aneurysms. METHODS AND RESULTS Conditional gene knockout strategy combined with histology and whole-transcriptomic analysis showed that Tsc2 deficiency in macrophages aggravated the progression of aortic aneurysms along with an upregulation of proinflammatory cytokines and matrix metallopeptidase-9 in the angiotensin II-induced mouse model. G protein-coupled receptor 68 (Gpr68), a proton-sensing receptor for detecting the extracellular acidic pH, was identified as the most up-regulated gene in Tsc2 deficient macrophages compared with control macrophages. Additionally, Tsc2 deficient macrophages displayed higher glycolysis and glycolytic inhibitor 2-deoxy-D-glucose treatment partially attenuated the level of Gpr68. We further demonstrated an Tsc2-Gpr68-CREB network in macrophages that regulates the inflammatory response, proteolytic degradation and vascular homeostasis. Gpr68 inhibition largely abrogated the progression of aortic aneurysms caused by Tsc2 deficiency in macrophages. CONCLUSIONS The findings reveal that Tsc2 deficiency in macrophages contributes to aortic aneurysm formation, at least in part, by upregulating Gpr68 expression, which subsequently drives proinflammatory processes and matrix metallopeptidase activation. The data also provide a novel therapeutic strategy to limit the progression of the aneurysm resulting from Tsc2 mutations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xue Liu
- grid.452402.50000 0004 1808 3430The Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular Remodeling and Function Research, Chinese Ministry of Education, Chinese National Health Commission and Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, The State and Shandong Province Joint Key Laboratory of Translational Cardiovascular Medicine, Department of Cardiology, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan, China
| | - Yan Liu
- grid.452402.50000 0004 1808 3430The Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular Remodeling and Function Research, Chinese Ministry of Education, Chinese National Health Commission and Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, The State and Shandong Province Joint Key Laboratory of Translational Cardiovascular Medicine, Department of Cardiology, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan, China
| | - Rui-xue Yang
- grid.452402.50000 0004 1808 3430The Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular Remodeling and Function Research, Chinese Ministry of Education, Chinese National Health Commission and Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, The State and Shandong Province Joint Key Laboratory of Translational Cardiovascular Medicine, Department of Cardiology, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan, China
| | - Xiang-jiu Ding
- grid.452402.50000 0004 1808 3430Department of Vascular Surgery, General Surgery, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan, China
| | - Er-shun Liang
- grid.452402.50000 0004 1808 3430The Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular Remodeling and Function Research, Chinese Ministry of Education, Chinese National Health Commission and Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, The State and Shandong Province Joint Key Laboratory of Translational Cardiovascular Medicine, Department of Cardiology, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan, China
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Hu J, Jiang Y, Wu X, Wu Z, Qin J, Zhao Z, Li B, Xu Z, Lu X, Wang X, Liu X. Exosomal miR-17-5p from adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells inhibits abdominal aortic aneurysm by suppressing TXNIP-NLRP3 inflammasome. Stem Cell Res Ther 2022; 13:349. [PMID: 35883151 PMCID: PMC9327292 DOI: 10.1186/s13287-022-03037-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2022] [Accepted: 07/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Preclinical studies have suggested that adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells (ADSCs) transplantation can suppress abdominal aortic inflammation and aneurysm expansion through paracrine factors. Yet, the mechanism of action is not fully understood. In the present study, we further examined the function and mechanism of ADSC-derived exosomes (ADSC-exos) and their microRNA-17-5p (miR-17-5p) on the abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA) progression. Methods ADSC-exos were isolated and identified. DiR and PKH67 staining were used to trace ADSC-exo in vivo and in vitro. Raw264.7 cells were applied to perform in vitro experiments, while a murine AAA model induced using angiotensin II (Ang II) was used for in vivo testing. The expression level of miR-17-5p in macrophages and Ang II-treated macrophages after ADSC-exos treatment was determined using reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR). The target relation between miR-17-5p and thioredoxin-interacting protein (TXNIP) was identified by a dual-luciferase reporter gene assay. Artificial activation and block of experiments of miR-17-5p and TXNIP were conducted to clarify their functions in inflammation during AAA progression. The severity of AAA between groups was assessed by maximal aorta diameter, AAA incidence, survival rate, and histological stainings. Besides, inflammasome-related proteins and macrophage pyroptosis were further evaluated using western blot, RT-qPCR, and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Results The ADSC-exos were isolated and identified. In vivo testing showed that ADSC-exos were mainly distributed in the liver. Meanwhile, in vitro experiments suggested that ADSC-derived exosomes were taken up by macrophages, while inside, ADSC-exos miR-17-5p decreased a TXNIP induced by Ang II by directly binding to its 3′-untranslated region (3’UTR). Furthermore, overexpression of miR-17-5p enhanced the therapeutic function of ADSC-exos on inflammation during AAA expansion in vivo, while its inhibition reversed this process. Finally, overexpressed TXNIP triggered macrophage pyroptosis and was alleviated by ADSC-derived exosomes in vitro. Conclusion ADSC-exos miR-17-5p regulated AAA progression and inflammation via the TXNIP-NLRP3 signaling pathway, thus providing a novel insight in AAA treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiateng Hu
- Department of Vascular Surgery, Shanghai Ninth People's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China.,Vascular Centre of Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yihong Jiang
- Department of Vascular Surgery, Shanghai Ninth People's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China.,Vascular Centre of Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Xiaoyu Wu
- Department of Vascular Surgery, Shanghai Ninth People's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China.,Vascular Centre of Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Zhaoyu Wu
- Department of Vascular Surgery, Shanghai Ninth People's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China.,Vascular Centre of Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Jinbao Qin
- Department of Vascular Surgery, Shanghai Ninth People's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China.,Vascular Centre of Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Zhen Zhao
- Department of Vascular Surgery, Shanghai Ninth People's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China.,Vascular Centre of Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Bo Li
- Department of Vascular Surgery, Shanghai Ninth People's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China.,Vascular Centre of Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Zhijue Xu
- Department of Vascular Surgery, Shanghai Ninth People's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China.,Vascular Centre of Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Xinwu Lu
- Department of Vascular Surgery, Shanghai Ninth People's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China. .,Vascular Centre of Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China.
| | - Xin Wang
- Department of Vascular Surgery, Shanghai Ninth People's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China. .,Vascular Centre of Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China.
| | - Xiaobing Liu
- Department of Vascular Surgery, Shanghai Ninth People's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China. .,Vascular Centre of Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China.
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Sawada H, Lu HS, Cassis LA, Daugherty A. Twenty Years of Studying AngII (Angiotensin II)-Induced Abdominal Aortic Pathologies in Mice: Continuing Questions and Challenges to Provide Insight Into the Human Disease. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2022; 42:277-288. [PMID: 35045728 PMCID: PMC8866209 DOI: 10.1161/atvbaha.121.317058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
AngII (angiotensin II) infusion in mice has been used to provide mechanistic insight into human abdominal aortic aneurysms for over 2 decades. This is a technically facile animal model that recapitulates multiple facets of the human disease. Although numerous publications have reported abdominal aortic aneurysms with AngII infusion in mice, there remain many fundamental unanswered questions such as uniformity of describing the pathological characteristics and which cell type is stimulated by AngII to promote abdominal aortic aneurysms. Extrapolation of the findings to provide insight into the human disease has been hindered by the preponderance of studies designed to determine the effects on initiation of abdominal aortic aneurysms, rather than a more clinically relevant scenario of determining efficacy on the established disease. The purpose of this review is to enhance understanding of AngII-induced abdominal aortic pathologies in mice, thereby providing greater insight into the human disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hisashi Sawada
- Saha Cardiovascular Research Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY,Saha Aortic Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY,Department of Physiology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY
| | - Hong S. Lu
- Saha Cardiovascular Research Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY,Saha Aortic Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY,Department of Physiology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY
| | - Lisa A. Cassis
- Department of Pharmacology and Nutritional Sciences, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY
| | - Alan Daugherty
- Saha Cardiovascular Research Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY,Saha Aortic Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY,Department of Physiology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY
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Cao L, Huang T, Chen X, Li W, Yang X, Zhang W, Li M, Gao R. Uncovering the interplay between pH receptors and immune cells: Potential drug targets (Review). Oncol Rep 2021; 46:228. [PMID: 34476504 DOI: 10.3892/or.2021.8179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2020] [Accepted: 05/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Extracellular acidosis is associated with various immunopathological states. The microenvironment of numerous solid tumours and inflammatory responses during acute or chronic infection are all related to a pH range of 5.5‑7.0. The relationship between inflammation and immune escape, cancer metabolism, and immunologic suppression drives researchers to focus on the effects of low pH on diverse components of disease immune monitoring. The potential effect of low extracellular pH on the immune function reveals the importance of pH in inflammatory and immunoreactive processes. In this review, the mechanism of how pH receptors, including monocarboxylate transporters (MCTs), Na+/H+ exchanger 1, carbonic anhydrases (CAs), vacuolar‑ATPase, and proton‑sensing G‑protein coupled receptors (GPCRs), modulate the immune system in disease, especially in cancer, were studied. Their role in immunocyte growth and signal transduction as part of the immune response, as well as cytokine production, have been documented in great detail. Currently, immunotherapy strategies have positive therapeutic effects for patients. However, the acidic microenvironment may block the effect of immunotherapy through compensatory feedback mechanisms, leading to drug resistance. Therefore, we highlight promising therapeutic developments regarding pH manipulation and provide a framework for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lin Cao
- Department of The Institute of Laboratory Animal Science, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College (CAMS & PUMC), Beijing 100020, P.R. China
| | - Tianqiao Huang
- The Affiliated Hospital of Qingdao University, Qingdao, Shandong 266000, P.R. China
| | - Xiaohong Chen
- Department of Otolaryngology‑Head and Neck Surgery, Beijing Tongren Hospital, Beijing 100010, P.R. China
| | - Weisha Li
- Department of The Institute of Laboratory Animal Science, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College (CAMS & PUMC), Beijing 100020, P.R. China
| | - Xingjiu Yang
- Department of The Institute of Laboratory Animal Science, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College (CAMS & PUMC), Beijing 100020, P.R. China
| | - Wenlong Zhang
- Department of The Institute of Laboratory Animal Science, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College (CAMS & PUMC), Beijing 100020, P.R. China
| | - Mengyuan Li
- Department of The Institute of Laboratory Animal Science, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College (CAMS & PUMC), Beijing 100020, P.R. China
| | - Ran Gao
- Department of The Institute of Laboratory Animal Science, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College (CAMS & PUMC), Beijing 100020, P.R. China
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