Association of Blood Pressure Responses to Submaximal Exercise in Midlife With the Incidence of Cardiovascular Outcomes and All-Cause Mortality: The Framingham Heart Study

Multiethnic norms for blood pressure response to submaximal exercise testing in young-to-middle adulthood and associations with hypertension: The NHANES dataset

The blood pressure (BP) response during exercise testing is a robust correlate of hypertension in middle-to-older White people, but whether this extends to a healthy, young-to-middle-aged multiethnic population is unknown. Moreover, it is unclear what constitutes an exaggerated BP to submaximal exercise, which is a more reliable and stronger correlate of hypertension than maximal testing. The NHANES dataset was used to interrogate the association of submaximal exercise BP with current hypertension and to provide multiethnic norms for BP responses in young-to-middle-aged adults. The analyses combined NHANES cycles wherein treadmill exercise testing was conducted with an analytic sample of 2544 participants aged 12-49 years (Female: White = 467; Black = 324; Hispanic = 439; Male: White = 493, Black = 351; Hispanic = 470). Weighted logistic models were fitted to test associations between exercise BP and hypertension. Age, sex, and race-specific percentiles were estimated. Exaggerated systolic BP (SBP) responses to exercise testing were defined as readings ≥90th percentile, and ≥ROC-derived cutoff. Regardless of race, sex, exercise workload, clinical and socioeconomic characteristics, a 5-mmHg increase in SBP and diastolic BP during stage 1 of exercise testing was associated with a 15% (aOR: 1.15, 95% CI: 1.08-1.21), and 31% (aOR: 1.31, 95% CI: 1.22-1.40) higher odds for hypertension, respectively. Black males had the highest proportion of exaggerated SBP responses (44%, 95% CI: 36-53%) when defined only via ROC-derived cutoffs. BP responses during submaximal exercise were associated with hypertension, irrespective of race in young-to-middle adulthood. Still, the exaggerated SBP response to exercise of Black males suggests uncontrolled high BP not detected at rest.

Sleep-related breathing disorder in a Japanese occupational population and its association with exercise-induced blood pressure elevation

Sleep-related breathing disorder (SRBD) and exercise-induced blood pressure (BP) elevation are known risk factors for hypertension. However, the relation between them remains unknown. This cross-sectional study examined the relationship between SRBD and exercise-induced BP elevation in a Japanese occupational population. Using the 3% oxygen desaturation index (3%ODI) obtained by a portable monitor for overnight saturation of percutaneous oxygen (SpO2), participants were classified into low (0 ≤ 3%ODI < 5), medium (5 ≤ 3%ODI < 15), and high (15 ≤ 3%ODI) 3%ODI groups. We included employees who had undergone an exercise electrocardiogram test after monitoring for overnight SpO2. In total, 928 employees were included. The median age of the participants was 50 years, 96% were male, the mean body mass index was 23.9 ± 3.1 kg/m2, and the median 3%ODI was 4.9 (interquartile range: 1.6-6.5). Among them, 30% and 5% were categorized into the medium and high 3%ODI groups, respectively. At a median exercise intensity of 10.1 METs, BP changed from 124 ± 16/76 ± 12 mmHg before to 183 ± 26/85 ± 14 mmHg after exercise, with a mean systolic BP change of +59 ± 23 mmHg (-20 to +128 mmHg). When we defined systolic BP change of +60 mmHg or more as exercise-induced BP elevation, the odds ratio for exercise-induced BP elevation increased significantly with higher 3%ODI levels after multivariate adjustment for parameters including current use of antihypertensive medication and maximal exercise intensity (p for trend = 0.01). Higher 3%ODI was significantly associated with higher prevalence of exercise-induced BP elevation, suggesting sympathetic hyperactivity occurs in SRBD patients. Our results suggest the potential presence of SRBD should be considered in individuals with exercise-induced BP elevation.

Daytime actisensitivity predicts nocturnal dipping patterns and morning surge in blood pressure: the Home-Activity ICT-based Japan Ambulatory Blood Pressure Monitoring Prospective study

BACKGROUND

Ambulatory blood pressure (BP) is influenced by physical activity and the BP response to physical activity (actisensitivity) differs between individuals. This study investigated associations between daytime actisensitivity and nighttime BP dipping status and morning BP surge.

METHODS

Twenty-four-hour ambulatory BP monitoring (ABPM) with simultaneously monitored physical activity using a multisensor all-in-one device (TM-2441; A&D Company) was performed at baseline in HI-JAMP study participants. Those with complete BP measurements and complete physical activity monitoring data were included in this analysis. Actisensitivity was calculated as the slope of the regression line between daytime SBP and log-transformed physical activity over a 5 min period before each BP reading. Hyper and negative reactivity were defined as actisensitivity greater than 90th and less than 10th percentile, respectively.

RESULTS

Data from 2692 individuals (mean age 69.9 ± 11.9 years; mean BMI 24.8 ± 4.1 kg/m 2 , 53.6% men) were analyzed. Those with hyper reactivity had a high prevalence of the extreme dipper pattern of nighttime BP and exaggerated morning BP surge; those with negative reactivity had higher nighttime BP and a riser pattern of nighttime BP. Results remained significant after adjusting for 24-h physical activity. Differences in diurnal BP variability based on actisensitivity were augmented in individuals aged at least 75 years.

CONCLUSION

This study is the first to investigate associations between actisensitivity and 24-h ambulatory BP profiles using an all-in-one multisensor device in a large real-world population. The associations seen between either hyper or negative actisensitivity and abnormal diurnal BP variability, especially in the elderly, could contribute to increased cardiovascular event risk.

CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION

University Hospital Medical Information Network Clinical Trials Registry, UMIN000029151 (HI-JAMP study).

Blood pressure response during exercise testing in individuals with and without hypertension: The value of the recovery phase

BACKGROUND

Hypertension and exercise testing are essential for cardiovascular risk assessment. However, an exact description of blood pressure (BP) in patients with a hypertensive response during exercise (HRE), especially in the recovery phase is lacking. Herein, we aimed to analyse BP and heart rate during exercise testing and recovery in patients with an HRE.

METHODS

800 patients aged 17-90 with an HRE during a standardized bicycle ergometry test were recruited. The BP behaviour during exercise testing was correlated with clinical data. Furthermore, data were analysed according to the presence of pre-existent hypertension.

RESULTS

Of the 800 patients included in this study 497 (62%) were previously diagnosed with hypertension. Analysis of covariance showed a significantly faster systolic (β [95% CI] 8.0 [4.9-11.1]) and diastolic (2.4 [0.4-4.4]) BP recovery 3 min after maximal exercise in patients without hypertension in univariable models. These results remained robust in fully adjusted models taking into account age, sex, body mass index, cardiovascular disease, and antihypertensive treatment for systolic (5.3 [1.2-9.4]) and diastolic BP (4.5 [1.9-7.0]). Furthermore, patients with hypertension displayed higher systolic BP during maximal exercise in univariable (3.8 [0.1-7.5]) and fully adjusted (5.5 [1.1-10.0]) models. There was no difference in maximum diastolic BP between groups.

CONCLUSION

In this large cohort study, patients without hypertension showed a faster systolic and diastolic BP recovery and lower maximal systolic BP compared to patients with hypertension. Overall, this study provides new insights into cardiovascular health during recovery phase.

Correlation of exercise blood pressure levels with concomitant cardiovascular disease

Hypertension is a fatal but preventable risk factor for cardiovascular disease and an important cause of death from cardiovascular disease. Exercise training has a definite clinical effect on blood pressure control. However, inappropriate exercise is ineffective and may also cause disease. The aim of this study was to evaluate the possible factors influencing blood pressure level in an exercise treadmill test and its relationship with accompanying clinical diseases. Five hundred sixty-four patients who underwent exercise treadmill test were selected and divided into the abnormal exercise blood pressure group (n = 156, age 60.46 ± 9.2 years) and normal exercise blood pressure group (n = 408, age 56.57 ± 8.8 years) according to whether the peak exercise systolic blood pressure was more than or equal to 180 mm Hg. General clinical data and associated clinical diseases were collected from both groups. The prevalence of hypertension and coronary atherosclerotic heart disease in the abnormal exercise blood pressure group was significantly higher than that in the normal exercise blood pressure group (all P < .05). At the same time, the smoking rate and glycohemoglobin level of the patients with abnormal exercise blood pressure were significantly increased (all P < .05), but there was no statistically significant difference in age, sex, body mass index, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, and other indicators between the 2 groups (all P > .05). Patients with abnormal exercise blood pressure response have a higher prevalence of hypertension and coronary heart disease. Exercise blood pressure level may be an important factor affecting patients' cardiovascular prognosis.

Plasma Proteomics of Exercise Blood Pressure and Incident Hypertension

Importance

Blood pressure response during acute exercise (exercise blood pressure [EBP]) is associated with the future risk of hypertension and cardiovascular disease (CVD). Biochemical characterization of EBP could inform disease biology and identify novel biomarkers of future hypertension.

Objective

To identify protein markers associated with EBP and test their association with incident hypertension.

Design, Setting, and Participants

This study assayed 4977 plasma proteins in 681 healthy participants (from 763 assessed) of the Health, Risk Factors, Exercise Training and Genetics (HERITAGE; data collection from January 1993 to December 1997 and plasma proteomics from January 2019 to January 2020) Family Study at rest who underwent 2 cardiopulmonary exercise tests. Individuals were free of CVD at the time of recruitment. Individuals with resting SBP ≥160 mm Hg or DBP ≥100 mm Hg or taking antihypertensive drug therapy were excluded from the study. The association between resting plasma protein levels to both resting BP and EBP was evaluated. Proteins associated with EBP were analyzed for their association with incident hypertension in the Framingham Heart Study (FHS; n = 1177) and validated in the Jackson Heart Study (JHS; n = 772) and Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis (MESA; n = 1367). Proteins associated with incident hypertension were tested for putative causal links in approximately 700 000 individuals using cis-protein quantitative loci mendelian randomization (cis-MR). Data were analyzed from January 2023 to January 2024.

Exposures

Plasma proteins.

Main Outcomes and Measures

EBP was defined as the BP response during a fixed workload (50 W) on a cycle ergometer. Hypertension was defined as BP ≥140/90 mm Hg or taking antihypertensive medication.

Results

Among the 681 participants in the HERITAGE Family Study, the mean (SD) age was 34 (13) years; 366 participants (54%) were female; 238 (35%) were self-reported Black and 443 (65%) were self-reported White. Proteomic profiling of EBP revealed 34 proteins that would not have otherwise been identified through profiling of resting BP alone. Transforming growth factor β receptor 3 (TGFBR3) and prostaglandin D2 synthase (PTGDS) had the strongest association with exercise systolic BP (SBP) and diastolic BP (DBP), respectively (TGFBR3: exercise SBP, β estimate, -3.39; 95% CI, -4.79 to -2.00; P = 2.33 × 10-6; PTGDS: exercise DBP β estimate, -2.50; 95% CI, -3.29 to -1.70; P = 1.18 × 10-9). In fully adjusted models, TGFBR3 was inversely associated with incident hypertension in FHS, JHS, and MESA (hazard ratio [HR]: FHS, 0.86; 95% CI, 0.75-0.97; P = .01; JHS, 0.87; 95% CI, 0.77-0.97; P = .02; MESA, 0.84; 95% CI, 0.71-0.98; P = .03; pooled cohort, 0.86; 95% CI, 0.79-0.92; P = 6 × 10-5). Using cis-MR, genetically predicted levels of TGFBR3 were associated with SBP, hypertension, and CVD events (SBP: β, -0.38; 95% CI, -0.64 to -0.11; P = .006; hypertension: odds ratio [OR], 0.99; 95% CI, 0.98-0.99; P < .001; heart failure with hypertension: OR, 0.86; 95% CI, 0.77-0.97; P = .01; CVD: OR, 0.84; 95% CI, 0.77-0.92; P = 8 × 10-5; cerebrovascular events: OR, 0.77; 95% CI, 0.70-0.85; P = 5 × 10-7).

Conclusions and Relevance

Plasma proteomic profiling of EBP identified a novel protein, TGFBR3, which may protect against elevated BP and long-term CVD outcomes.

Association of postexercise blood pressure with cardiovascular outcomes and mortality: The CARDIA study

Postexercise blood pressure (BP) may be a better predictor of cardiovascular risk than office BP, but there is a lack of data supporting this claim. We hypothesized that postexercise BP may be an important prognostic marker. Our aim was to evaluate the association of postexercise BP with major adverse cardiovascular events (MACE) and all-cause mortality. A total of 2581 participants (median age, 46 years; 55.9% women) from the Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults study at year 20 (2005-2006) who underwent a graded exercise treadmill test using a modified Balke graded protocol were included. Postexercise BP was measured at baseline. Cox models were used to estimate the associations of postexercise BP with MACE and all-cause mortality. Participants were followed up until December 31, 2021. In the entire population, postexercise systolic BP showed no significant association with MACE or all-cause mortality, while postexercise diastolic BP was associated with MACE (hazard ratios [HR], 1.27 [95% CI, 1.06-1.52], per 10 mmHg increase) and all-cause mortality (HR, 1.26 [95% CI, 1.05-1.51], per 10 mmHg increase). In the normal BP group, postexercise systolic BP was not significantly associated with MACE or all-cause mortality, and postexercise diastolic BP was strongly associated with MACE (HR, 1.57 [95% CI, 1.18-2.09], per 10 mmHg increase). In this population-based cohort study, postexercise diastolic BP was significantly associated with the risk of MACE and all-cause mortality. Among individuals with normal BP, postexercise diastolic BP could identify those at a higher risk of cardiovascular events.

Exercise testing unmasks exaggerated blood pressure independent of fibrinolytic response in Black but not White postmenopausal females

Exercise testing unmasks more exaggerated systolic blood pressure responses (SBP) in Black compared with White male adults. Such responses, if translatable to females, may detect racial disparities particularly relevant during menopause. Given the endothelial involvement in BP regulation and as a source of fibrinolytic markers, it follows that fibrinolytic and BP response to exercise could be linked. Thus, we examined BP and fibrinolytic responses to exercise testing in Black and White postmenopausal females. Postmenopausal females (Black = 40; White = 41; 51-70 yr) performed maximal treadmill exercise. BP and blood draws were conducted before and immediately after exercise. Plasma samples, using minimal stasis, were analyzed for tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) and plasminogen activator inhibitor 1 (PAI-1) activity and antigen, respectively. Resting SBP and fibrinolytic potential were similar between races. Black females exhibited greater increases in SBP during exercise [change (d)=75, 95% CI: 64-86 mmHg, P < 0.001] than White females (d = 60, 95% CI: 48-71 mmHg, P < 0.001). Black compared with White females had smaller changes in tPA (d = 3.27, 95% CI: 2.28-4.27 IU/mL, P < 0.001 vs. d = 5.55, 95% CI: 4.58-6.53, P < 0.001) and PAI-1 (d = -2.89, 95% CI: -4.39 to -1.40 IU/mL, P < 0.001 vs. d = -5.08, 95% CI: -6.59 to -3.61, P < 0.001) activities after exercise. SBP exercise-induced changes were not associated with tPA (r = -0.10, P = 0.42) or PAI-1 (r = 0.13, P = 0.30), without any influence of race (P > 0.05). Our findings show that maximal exercise unmasks risk factors for cardiovascular disease in Black postmenopausal females.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Exaggerated SBP responses to exercise testing are more frequent in Black than in White male adults. Such responses, if translatable to females, may detect early racial disparities arriving during menopause. Because the endothelium regulates BP and fibrinolytic responses, these could be linked during exercise. At peak exercise, Black but not White postmenopausal females had more exaggerated SPB responses regardless of reduced fibrinolytic potential. Maximal exercise unmasked risk factors for cardiovascular disease in Black postmenopausal females.

Racial Differences in Blood Pressure and Autonomic Recovery Following Acute Supramaximal Exercise in Women

Despite the growing popularity of high-intensity anaerobic exercise, little is known about the acute effects of this form of exercise on cardiovascular hemodynamics or autonomic modulation, which might provide insight into the individual assessment of responses to training load. The purpose of this study was to compare blood pressure and autonomic recovery following repeated bouts of acute supramaximal exercise in Black and White women. A convenience sample of twelve White and eight Black young, healthy women were recruited for this study and completed two consecutive bouts of supramaximal exercise on the cycle ergometer with 30 min of recovery in between. Brachial and central aortic blood pressures were assessed by tonometry (SphygmoCor Xcel) at rest and 15-min and 30-min following each exercise bout. Central aortic blood pressure was estimated using brachial pressure waveforms and customized software. Autonomic modulation was measured in a subset of ten participants by heart-rate variability and baroreflex sensitivity. Brachial mean arterial pressure and diastolic blood pressure were significantly higher in Blacks compared to Whites across time (race effect, p = 0.043 and p = 0.049, respectively). Very-low-frequency and low-frequency bands of heart rate variability, which are associated with sympathovagal balance and vasomotor tone, were 22.5% and 24.9% lower, respectively, in Blacks compared to Whites (race effect, p = 0.045 and p = 0.006, respectively). In conclusion, the preliminary findings of racial differences in blood pressure and autonomic recovery following supramaximal exercise warrant further investigations of tailored exercise prescriptions for Blacks and Whites.

Correlation between impaired hemodynamic response and cardiopulmonary fitness in middle-aged type 2 diabetes mellitus patients: a case-control study

PURPOSE

Impaired cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) is a predictor of mortality in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). It is still not known how the exercise hemodynamic response correlates with CRF. The purpose was to assess the correlation between hemodynamic changes and CRF in middle-aged patients with T2DM.

METHODS

After 1:1 matching by age and sex, 139 T2DM patients and 139 non-T2DM controls who completed the exercise treadmill test were included. Maximal aerobic capacity (VO_2max), exercise-induced changes in heart rate (ΔHR), systolic blood pressure (ΔSBP), diastolic blood pressure (ΔDBP), and rate-pressure product (ΔRPP) were measured. HRR₁ was calculated as the maximum heart rate minus the heart rate after 1 min of rest.

RESULTS

Compared to the control population, T2DM patients had decreased ΔHR (87 (77, 97) v 93 (84, 104) bpm, p < 0.05), ΔRPP (3833.64 ± 1670.34 v 4381.16 ± 1587.78 bpm∙mmHg, p < 0.05), HRR₁ (21 (14, 27) v 21 (17, 27) bpm, p < 0.05), and VO_2max (32.76 ± 5.63 v 34.68 ± 5.70 ml/kg/min, p < 0.05). Multiple linear regression analysis showed that ΔHR and HRR₁, yielded a positive correlation with VO_2max in T2DM patients (β = 0.325, P < 0.001; β = 0.173, P = 0.01).

CONCLUSION

The presence of impaired hemodynamic response and VO_2max in middle-aged T2DM patients and the association of impaired ΔHR, HRR₁, and VO_2max may indicate a physiological pathway of impaired CRF, and our results support the need for cardiorespiratory screening and individualized treatment of middle-aged T2DM patients.

The Identification and Management of High Blood Pressure Using Exercise Blood Pressure: Current Evidence and Practical Guidance

High blood pressure (BP) is a leading risk factor for cardiovascular disease (CVD). The identification of high BP is conventionally based on in-clinic (resting) BP measures, performed within primary health care settings. However, many cases of high BP go unrecognised or remain inadequately controlled. Thus, there is a need for complementary settings and methods for BP assessment to identify and control high BP more effectively. Exaggerated exercise BP is associated with increased CVD risk and may be a medium to improve identification and control of high BP because it is suggestive of high BP gone undetected on the basis of standard in-clinic BP measures at rest. This paper provides the evidence to support a pathway to aid identification and control of high BP in clinical exercise settings via the measurement of exercise BP. It is recommended that exercise professionals conducting exercise testing should measure BP at a fixed submaximal exercise workload at moderate intensity (e.g., ~70% age-predicted heart rate maximum, stage 1-2 of a standard Bruce treadmill protocol). If exercise systolic BP is raised (≥170 mmHg), uncontrolled high BP should be assumed and should trigger correspondence with a primary care physician to encourage follow-up care to ascertain true BP control (i.e., home, or ambulatory BP) alongside a hypertension-guided exercise and lifestyle intervention to lower CVD risk related to high BP.

Blood pressure response during treadmill exercise testing and the risk for future cardiovascular events and new-onset hypertension

OBJECTIVE

The physiologic response to exercise may provide valuable prognostic information. We investigated the association of blood pressure (BP) measurements during exercise stress testing (EST) with long-term risk of myocardial infarction, stroke or death (major adverse cardiovascular event, MACE), as well as the development of new-onset hypertension.

METHODS

A retrospective analysis of treadmill ESTs (years 2005-2019) performed by the Bruce protocol in patients aged 35-75 years without a history of cardiovascular disease (n = 14 792; 48% women). BP was documented at rest, submaximal exercise (Bruce stage-2), peak exercise and recovery (2 min). Association of SBP measures with study outcomes during median follow-up of 6.5 years was investigated.

RESULTS

Highest vs. lowest SBP quartile at rest (≥140 vs. <120 mmHg), submaximal-exercise (≥170 vs. <130 mmHg), peak-exercise (≥180 vs. ≤145 mmHg) and recovery (≥160 vs. <130 mmHg) was associated with an increase in the adjusted hazard ratio and 95% confidence interval (CI) for MACE: 1.53 (1.23-1.88), 1.33 (1.01-1.76), 1.30 (1.05-1.61), 1.35 (1.09-1.68), respectively. The association between SBP at submaximal exercise and recovery with MACE displayed a J-shaped pattern. Among nonhypertensive patients (n = 8529), excessive SBP response to peak exercise (≥190 mmHg in women and ≥210 mmHg in men) was an independent predictor of hypertension [hazard ratio (95% CI)]: 1.87 (1.41-2.48), as were SBPs during submaximal exercise [>160 vs. ≤130 mmHg: 2.44 (1.97-3.03)] and recovery [≥140 vs. ≤120 mmHg: 1.65 (1.37-1.98)].

CONCLUSION

BP measurement during rest, exercise and recovery phases of EST provides incremental prognostic information regarding long-term risk for cardiovascular events and the probability for developing hypertension.

Association of Blood Pressure and Heart Rate Responses to Submaximal Exercise With Incident Heart Failure: The Framingham Heart Study

Background Exercise stress tests are conventionally performed to assess risk of coronary artery disease. Using the FHS (Framingham Heart Study) Offspring cohort, we related blood pressure (BP) and heart rate responses during and after submaximal exercise to the incidence of heart failure (HF). Methods and Results We evaluated Framingham Offspring Study participants (n=2066; mean age, 58 years; 53% women) who completed 2 stages of an exercise test (Bruce protocol) at their seventh examination (1998-2002). We measured pulse pressure, systolic BP, diastolic BP, and heart rate responses during stage 2 exercise (2.5 mph at 12% grade). We calculated the changes in systolic BP, diastolic BP, and heart rate from stage 2 to recovery 3 minutes after exercise. We used Cox proportional hazards regression to relate each standardized exercise variable (during stage 2, and at 3 minutes of recovery) individually to HF incidence, adjusting for standard risk factors. On follow-up (median, 16.8 years), 85 participants developed new-onset HF. Higher exercise diastolic BP was associated with higher HF with reduced ejection fraction (ejection fraction <50%) risk (hazard ratio [HR] per SD increment, 1.26; 95% CI, 1.01-1.59). Lower stage 2 pulse pressure and rapid postexercise recovery of heart rate and systolic BP were associated with higher HF with reduced ejection fraction risk (HR per SD increment, 0.73 [95% CI, 0.57-0.94]; 0.52 [95% CI, 0.35-0.76]; and 0.63 [95% CI, 0.47-0.84], respectively). BP and heart rate responses to submaximal exercise were not associated with risk of HF with preserved ejection fraction (ejection fraction ≥50%). Conclusions Accentuated diastolic BP during exercise with slower systolic BP and heart rate recovery after exercise are markers of HF with reduced ejection fraction risk.

Association of Blood Pressure Responses to Submaximal Exercise in Midlife With the Incidence of Cardiovascular Outcomes and All-Cause Mortality: The Framingham Heart Study

Background

Few studies examined the associations of midlife blood pressure (BP) responses to submaximal exercise with the risk of cardiovascular outcomes and mortality in later life.

Methods and Results

We evaluated 1993 Framingham Offspring Study participants (mean age, 58 years; 53.2% women) attending examination cycle 7. We related BP responses to submaximal exercise with prevalent subclinical cardiovascular disease (CVD) using multivariable linear regression models. We also related BP responses to submaximal exercise to the incidence of hypertension, CVD, and all‐cause mortality using Cox proportional hazards regression models. Each SD increment of exercise BP was associated with higher log‐transformed left ventricular mass (systolic blood pressure [SBP], β=0.02, P=<0.001; diastolic blood pressure [DBP], β=0.01, P=0.004) and carotid intima‐media thickness (SBP, β=0.08, P=<0.001). Rapid BP recovery (per 1 SD increment) was associated with lower log left ventricular mass (SBP_recovery; β=−0.03, P=<0.001) and carotid intima‐media thickness (SBP_recovery, β=−0.07, P=0.003; DBP_recovery, β=−0.09, P=0.003). Additionally, Each SD increment of exercise BP was associated with a higher risk of incident hypertension (SBP, hazard ratio [HR], 1.40; 95% CI, 1.20–1.62; DBP, HR, 1.24; 95% CI, 1.11–1.40) and CVD (DBP, HR, 1.15; 95% CI, 1.02–1.30). Finally, the multivariable‐adjusted HR for each 1‐SD increment of BP recovery was 0.46 (SBP_recovery, 95% CI, 0.38–0.54) and 0.55 (DBP_recovery, 95% CI, 0.45–0.67) for hypertension; 0.80 (SBP_recovery, 95% CI, 0.69–0.93) for CVD; and 0.76 (SBP_recovery, 95% CI, 0.65–0.88) for all‐cause mortality.

Conclusions

Higher submaximal exercise BP and impaired BP recovery after submaximal exercise in midlife may be markers of subclinical and clinical CVD and mortality in later life.