Canagliflozin Improves Myocardial Perfusion, Fibrosis, and Function in a Swine Model of Chronic Myocardial Ischemia

Canagliflozin alleviates pulmonary hypertension by activating PPARγ and inhibiting its S225 phosphorylation

Pulmonary hypertension (PH) is a progressive fatal disease with no cure. Canagliflozin (CANA), a novel medication for diabetes, has been found to have remarkable cardiovascular benefits. However, few studies have addressed the effect and pharmacological mechanism of CANA in the treatment of PH. Therefore, our study aimed to investigate the effect and pharmacological mechanism of CANA in treating PH. First, CANA suppressed increased pulmonary artery pressure, right ventricular hypertrophy, and vascular remodeling in both mouse and rat PH models. Network pharmacology, transcriptomics, and biological results suggested that CANA could ameliorate PH by suppressing excessive oxidative stress and pulmonary artery smooth muscle cell proliferation partially through the activation of PPARγ. Further studies demonstrated that CANA inhibited phosphorylation of PPARγ at Ser225 (a novel serine phosphorylation site in PPARγ), thereby promoting the nuclear translocation of PPARγ and increasing its ability to resist oxidative stress and proliferation. Taken together, our study not only highlighted the potential pharmacological effect of CANA on PH but also revealed that CANA-induced inhibition of PPARγ Ser225 phosphorylation increases its capacity to counteract oxidative stress and inhibits proliferation. These findings may stimulate further research and encourage future clinical trials exploring the therapeutic potential of CANA in PH treatment.

Dipeptidyl peptidase 4 inhibitor sitagliptin decreases myocardial fibrosis and modulates myocardial insulin signaling in a swine model of chronic myocardial ischemia

Although both clinical data and animal models suggest cardiovascular benefits following administration of Dipeptidyl Peptidase 4 (DPP-4) inhibitors, the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. We therefore sought to evaluate the effect of the DPP-4 inhibitor sitagliptin on myocardial fibrosis, and insulin signaling in chronic myocardial ischemia using a swine model. An ameroid constrictor placement on the left coronary circumflex artery of thirteen Yorkshire swine to model chronic myocardial ischemia. After two weeks of recovery, swine were assigned to one of two groups: control (CON, n = 8), or sitagliptin 100mg daily (SIT, n = 5). After 5 weeks of treatment, the swine underwent terminal harvest with collection of myocardial tissue. Fibrosis was quantified using Masson's trichrome. Protein expression was quantified by Immunoblotting. Trichrome stain demonstrated a significant decrease in perivascular and interstitial fibrosis in the SIT group relative to CON (all p<0.05). Immunoblot showed a reduction in Jak2, the pSTAT3 to STAT 3 Ratio, pSMAD 2/3, and SMAD 2/3, and an increase in STAT 3 in the SIT group relative to CON (all p<0.05). SIT treatment was associated with increased expression of insulin receptor one and decreased expression of makers for insulin resistance, including phospho-PKC- alpha, RBP-4, SIRT1, and PI3K (p<0.05). Sitagliptin results in a reduction in perivascular and interstitial fibrosis and increased insulin sensitivity in chronically ischemic swine myocardium. This likely contributes to the improved cardiovascular outcomes seen with DPP-4 inhibitors.

The Off-Target Cardioprotective Mechanisms of Sodium-Glucose Cotransporter 2 Inhibitors: An Overview

Sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors (SGLT2i), a novel class of glucose-lowering drugs, have revolutionized the management of heart failure with reduced and preserved ejection fraction, regardless of the presence of diabetes, and are currently incorporated in the heart failure guidelines. While these drugs have consistently demonstrated their ability to decrease heart failure hospitalizations in several landmark clinical trials, their cardioprotective effects are far from having been completely elucidated. In the past decade, a growing body of experimental research has sought to address the molecular and cellular mechanisms of SGLT2i in order to provide a better understanding of the off-target acute and chronic cardiac benefits, beyond the on-target renal effect responsible for blood glucose reduction. The present narrative review addresses the direct cardioprotective effects of SGLT2i, delving into the off-target mechanisms of the drugs currently approved for heart failure therapy, and provides insights into future perspectives.

Effects of diet-induced metabolic syndrome on cardiac function and angiogenesis in response to the sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitor canagliflozin

INTRODUCTION

Sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitors are antidiabetic medications that have been shown to decrease cardiovascular events and heart failure-related mortality in clinical studies. We attempt to examine the complex interplay between metabolic syndrome and the sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitor canagliflozin (CAN) in a clinically relevant model of chronic myocardial ischemia.

METHODS

Twenty-one Yorkshire swine were fed a high-fat diet starting at 6 weeks of age to induce metabolic syndrome. At 11 weeks, all underwent placement of an ameroid constrictor around the left circumflex coronary artery to induce chronic myocardial ischemia. After 2 weeks, swine received either control (CON) (n = 11) or CAN 300 mg by mouth daily (n = 10) for 5 weeks, whereupon all underwent terminal harvest.

RESULTS

There was a significant increase in cardiac output and heart rate with a decrease in pulse pressure in the CAN group compared with CON (all P values < .05). The CAN group had a significant increase in capillary density (P = .02). There was no change in myocardial perfusion or arteriolar density. CAN induced a significant increase in markers of angiogenesis, including Phospho-endothelial nitric oxide synthase, Endothelial nitric oxide synthase, vascular endothelial growth factor receptor-1, heat shock protein 70, and extracellular signal-regulated kinases (all P values < .05), plausibly resulting in capillary angiogenesis.

CONCLUSIONS

CAN treatment leads to a significant increase in capillary density and augmented cardiac function in a swine model of chronic myocardial ischemia in the setting of metabolic syndrome. This work further elucidates the mechanism of sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitors in patients with cardiac disease; however, more studies are needed to determine if this increase in capillary density plays a role in the improvements seen in clinical studies.

Proteomic Analysis and Sex-Specific Changes in Chronically Ischemic Swine Myocardium Treated with Sodium-Glucose Cotransporter-2 Inhibitor Canagliflozin

BACKGROUND

Although sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitors have been shown to improve cardiovascular outcomes in general, little is presently known about any sex-specific changes that may result from this therapy. We sought to investigate and quantify potential sex-specific changes seen with the sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitor canagliflozin (CAN) in a swine model of chronic myocardial ischemia.

STUDY DESIGN

Eighteen Yorkshire swine underwent left thoracotomy with placement of an ameroid constrictor. Two weeks postop, swine were assigned to receive either control (F = 5 and M = 5) or CAN 300 mg daily (F = 4 and M = 4). After 5 weeks of therapy, swine underwent myocardial functional measurements, and myocardial tissue was sent for proteomic analysis.

RESULTS

Functional measurements showed increased cardiac output, stroke volume, ejection fraction, and ischemic myocardial flow at rest in male swine treated with CAN compared with control male swine (all p < 0.05). The female swine treated with CAN had no change in cardiac function as compared with control female swine. Proteomic analysis demonstrated 6 upregulated and 97 downregulated proteins in the CAN female group compared with the control female group. Pathway analysis showed decreases in proteins in the tricarboxylic acidic cycle. The CAN male group had 639 upregulated and 172 downregulated proteins compared with control male group. Pathway analysis showed increases in pathways related to cellular metabolism and decreases in pathways relevant to the development of cardiomyopathy and to oxidative phosphorylation.

CONCLUSIONS

Male swine treated with CAN had significant improvements in cardiac function that were not observed in female swine treated with CAN. Moreover, CAN treatment in male swine was associated with significantly more changes in protein expression than in female swine treated with CAN. The increased proteomic changes seen in the CAN male group likely contributed to the more robust changes in cardiac function seen in male swine treated with CAN.

Protective Mechanisms of SGLTi in Ischemic Heart Disease

Ischemic heart disease (IHD) is a common clinical cardiovascular disease with high morbidity and mortality. Sodium glucose cotransporter protein inhibitor (SGLTi) is a novel hypoglycemic drug. To date, both clinical trials and animal experiments have shown that SGLTi play a protective role in IHD, including myocardial infarction (MI) and ischemia/reperfusion (I/R). The protective effects may be involved in mechanisms of energy metabolic conversion, anti-inflammation, anti-fibrosis, ionic homeostasis improvement, immune cell development, angiogenesis and functional regulation, gut microbiota regulation, and epicardial lipids. Thus, this review summarizes the above mechanisms and aims to provide theoretical evidence for therapeutic strategies for IHD.

Role and molecular mechanisms of SGLT2 inhibitors in pathological cardiac remodeling (Review)

Cardiovascular diseases are caused by pathological cardiac remodeling, which involves fibrosis, inflammation and cell dysfunction. This includes autophagy, apoptosis, oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, changes in energy metabolism, angiogenesis and dysregulation of signaling pathways. These changes in heart structure and/or function ultimately result in heart failure. In an effort to prevent this, multiple cardiovascular outcome trials have demonstrated the cardiac benefits of sodium‑glucose cotransporter type 2 inhibitors (SGLT2is), hypoglycemic drugs initially designed to treat type 2 diabetes mellitus. SGLT2is include empagliflozin and dapagliflozin, which are listed as guideline drugs in the 2021 European Guidelines for Heart Failure and the 2022 American Heart Association/American College of Cardiology/Heart Failure Society of America Guidelines for Heart Failure Management. In recent years, multiple studies using animal models have explored the mechanisms by which SGLT2is prevent cardiac remodeling. This article reviews the role of SGLT2is in cardiac remodeling induced by different etiologies to provide a guideline for further evaluation of the mechanisms underlying the inhibition of pathological cardiac remodeling by SGLT2is, as well as the development of novel drug targets.

Systemic and organ-specific anti-inflammatory effects of sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitors

Inflammation plays an essential role and is a common feature in the pathogenesis of many chronic diseases. The exact mechanisms through which sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 (SGLT2) inhibitors achieve their much-acclaimed clinical benefits largely remain unknown. In this review, we detail the systemic and tissue- or organ-specific anti-inflammatory effects of SGLT2 inhibitors using evidence from animal and human studies. We discuss the potential pathways through which SGLT2 inhibitors exert their anti-inflammatory effects, including oxidative stress, mitochondrial, and inflammasome pathways. Finally, we highlight the need for further investigation of the extent of the contribution of the anti-inflammatory effects of SGLT2 inhibition to improvements in cardiometabolic and renal outcomes in clinical studies.

SGLT-2 inhibitors as novel treatments of multiple organ fibrosis

Fibrosis, a significant health issue linked to chronic inflammatory diseases, affects various organs and can lead to serious damage and loss of function. Despite the availability of some treatments, their limitations necessitate the development of new therapeutic options. Sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors (SGLT2i), known for their glucose-lowering ability, have shown promise in offering protective effects against fibrosis in multiple organs through glucose-independent mechanisms. This review explores the anti-fibrotic potential of SGLT2i across different tissues, providing insights into their underlying mechanisms and highlighting recent research advancements. The evidence positions SGLT2i as a potential future treatments for fibrotic diseases.

DPP-4 inhibitor sitagliptin treatment results in altered myocardial metabolic proteome and oxidative phosphorylation in a swine model of chronic myocardial ischemia

Small animal models have shown improved cardiac function with DPP-4 inhibition, but many human studies have shown worse outcomes or no benefit. We seek to bridge the gap by studying the DPP-4 inhibitor sitagliptin in a swine model of chronic myocardial ischemia using proteomic analysis. Thirteen Yorkshire swine underwent the placement of an ameroid constrictor on the left coronary circumflex artery to model chronic myocardial ischemia. Two weeks post-op, swine received either sitagliptin 100 mg daily (SIT, n = 5) or no drug (CON, n = 8). After 5 weeks of treatment, swine underwent functional measurements and tissue harvest. In the SIT group compared to CON, there was a trend towards decreased cardiac index (p = 0.06). The non-ischemic and ischemic myocardium had 396 and 166 significantly decreased proteins, respectively, in the SIT group compared to CON (all p < 0.01). This included proteins involved in fatty acid oxidation (FAO), myocardial contraction, and oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS). Sitagliptin treatment resulted in a trend towards decreased cardiac index and decreased expression of proteins involved in OXPHOS, FAO, and myocardial contraction in both ischemic and non-ischemic swine myocardium. These metabolic and functional changes may provide some mechanistic evidence for outcomes seen in clinical studies.

Crafting a Rigorous, Clinically Relevant Large Animal Model of Chronic Myocardial Ischemia: What Have We Learned in 20 Years?

The past several decades have borne witness to several breakthroughs and paradigm shifts within the field of cardiovascular medicine, but one component that has remained constant throughout this time is the need for accurate animal models for the refinement and elaboration of the hypotheses and therapies crucial to our capacity to combat human disease. Numerous sophisticated and high-throughput molecular strategies have emerged, including rational drug design and the multi-omics approaches that allow extensive characterization of the host response to disease states and their prospective resolutions, but these technologies all require grounding within a faithful representation of their clinical context. Over this period, our lab has exhaustively tested, progressively refined, and extensively contributed to cardiovascular discovery on the basis of one such faithful representation. It is the purpose of this paper to review our porcine model of chronic myocardial ischemia using ameroid constriction and the subsequent myriad of physiological and molecular-biological insights it has allowed our lab to attain and describe. We hope that, by depicting our methods and the insight they have yielded clearly and completely-drawing for this purpose on comprehensive videographic illustration-other research teams will be empowered to carry our work forward, drawing on our experience to refine their own investigations into the pathogenesis and eradication of cardiovascular disease.

Effects of canagliflozin on myocardial microvascular density, oxidative stress, and proteomic profile☆

Introduction

Sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitors (SGLT2i) are cardioprotective, and canagliflozin (CANA), an SGLT2i, has been shown to improve perfusion, AMPK signaling, and oxidative stress in chronically ischemic myocardium. The aim of this study is to determine the effects of CANA in nonischemic myocardium on coronary collateralization, oxidative stress, and other molecular pathways determined by proteomic profiling.

Methods

Yorkshire swine underwent placement of an ameroid constrictor to the left circumflex artery. Two weeks later, pigs received no drug (CON, n = 8) or 300 mg CANA daily (n = 8). Treatment continued for five weeks, followed by tissue harvest of nonischemic myocardium.

Results

CANA was associated with decreased capillary density (p = 0.05) compared to CON, without changes in arteriolar density. Reduced capillary density did not correlate with reduced perfusion. Oxidative stress was reduced with CANA (22 % decrease). In the CANA group, there was a trend towards increased p-eNOS and eNOS, without a change in p-eNOS/eNOS ratio, p-Akt, Akt, and p-Akt/Akt ratio. There was no change in p-ERK1/2, but a decrease in total ERK1/2 and increase in p-ERK1/2/ERK1/2 ratio. There were no changes in expression of p-AMPK, AMPK, with a trend towards increased ratio of p-AMPK/AMPK. Proteomics analysis identified 2819 common proteins, of which 120 were upregulated and 425 were downregulated with CANA. Pathway analysis demonstrated wide regulation of metabolic proteins.

Conclusions

The effects of CANA on myocardial perfusion and AMPK signaling in chronically ischemic myocardium are not found in nonischemic territory, despite attenuation of oxidative stress. Metabolic proteins are widely regulated in nonischemic myocardium with CANA.

Ischemic myocardial inflammatory signaling in starvation versus hypoxia-derived extracellular vesicles: A comparative analysis

Background

Coronary artery disease remains a leading cause of death worldwide. Bone mesenchymal stem cell-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) have shown promise in the setting of myocardial ischemia. Furthermore, the properties of the EVs can be modified via preconditioning of progenitor cells. Previous research from our lab demonstrated a significant decrease in proinflammatory signaling following treatment with EVs derived from starvation preconditioning of human bone mesenchymal stem cells (MVM EVs) in a porcine model of chronic myocardial ischemia. However, rodent models have demonstrated that the use of EVs derived from hypoxia preconditioning of bone mesenchymal stem cells (HYP EVs) may have extended benefits compared to MVM EVs. This study evaluated the effect of HYP EVs on inflammation in a swine model of chronic myocardial ischemia. We hypothesized that HYP EVs would have a greater anti-inflammatory effect than MVM EVs or saline (CON).

Methods

Yorkshire swine fed a standard diet underwent placement of an ameroid constrictor to the left circumflex artery. Two weeks later, the animals received intramyocardial injection of saline (CON; n = 6), starvation-derived EVs (MVM; n = 10), or hypoxia-derived EVs (HYP; n = 7). After 5 weeks, myocardial perfusion was assessed, and left ventricular myocardial tissue was harvested. Protein expression was measured using immunoblotting. Data were analyzed via the Kruskal-Wallis test or one-way analysis of variance based on the results of a Shapiro-Wilk test. Coronary perfusion was plotted against relative cytokine concentration and analyzed with the Spearman rank-sum test.

Results

HYP EV treatment was associated with decreased expression of proinflammatory markers interleukin (IL)-6 (P = .03), Pro-IL-1ß (P = .01), IL-17 (P < .01), and NOD-like receptor protein 3 (NLRP3; P < .01) compared to CON. Ischemic tissue from the MVM group showed significantly decreased expression of pro-inflammatory markers NLRP3 (P < .01), IL-17 (P < .01), and HLA class II histocompatibility antigen (P < .01) compared to CON. The MVM group also had decreased expression of anti-inflammatory IL-10 (P = .01) compared to CON counterparts. There were no significant differences in expression of tumor necrosis factor-α, interferon-γ, IL-12, Toll-like receptor-2, and nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells in either group . There was no correlation between coronary perfusion and cytokine concentration in the MVM or HYP groups, either at rest or with pacing.

Conclusions

HYP EVs and MVM EVs appear to result in relative decreases in the degree of inflammation in chronically ischemic swine myocardium, independent of coronary perfusion. It is possible that this observed decrease may partially explain the myocardial benefits seen with both HYP and MVM EV treatment.

Canagliflozin improves coronary microvascular vasodilation and increases absolute blood flow to the myocardium independent of angiogenesis

OBJECTIVES

Sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitor, canagliflozin, improves myocardial perfusion to ischemic territory without accompanying changes in vascular density. We aimed to (1) characterize effects on angiogenic pathways, (2) use multiomics to identify gene expression and metabolite profiles relevant to regulation of myocardial blood flow, and (3) investigate drug effect on coronary microvascular reactivity.

METHODS

A nondiabetic swine model of chronic myocardial ischemia and nondiabetic rat model were used to study functional and molecular effects of canagliflozin on myocardium and in vitro microvascular reactivity.

RESULTS

Canagliflozin resulted in increased coronary microvascular vasodilation and decreased vasoconstriction (P < .05) without changes in microvascular density (P > .3). Expression of the angiogenic modulator, endostatin, increased (P = .008), along with its precursor, collagen 18 (P < .001), and factors that increase its production, including cathepsin L (P = .004). Endostatin and collagen 18 levels trended toward an inverse correlation with blood flow to ischemic territory at rest. Proangiogenic fibroblast growth factor receptor was increased (P = .03) and matrix metalloproteinase-9 was decreased (P < .001) with canagliflozin treatment. Proangiogenic vascular endothelial growth factor A (P = .13), Tie-2 (P = .10), and Ras (P = .18) were not significantly altered. Gene expression related to the cardiac renin-angiotensin system was significantly decreased.

CONCLUSIONS

In chronic myocardial ischemia, canagliflozin increased absolute blood flow to the myocardium without robustly increasing vascular density or proangiogenic signaling. Canagliflozin resulted in altered coronary microvascular reactivity to favor vasodilation, likely through direct effect on vascular smooth muscle. Downregulation of cardiac renin-angiotensin system demonstrated local regulation of perfusion. VIDEO ABSTRACT.

Protective effect of canagliflozin on post-resuscitation myocardial function in a rat model of cardiac arrest

BACKGROUND

Currently, most patients with cardiac arrest (CA) show reversible myocardial dysfunction, hemodynamic instability, systemic inflammation and other pathophysiological state in early stage of resuscitation, some patients may eventually progress to multiple organ failure. There is evidence that heart failure is the terminal stage in the development of various cardiovascular diseases. Although the cardio-protective effect of canagliflozin (CANA) has been confirmed in large clinical studies and recommended in domestic and international heart failure-related guidelines, the effectiveness of CANA after resuscitation remains unclear. In this study, we constructed a modified CA/CPR rat model to investigate whether CANA administered on post-resuscitation improves myocardial function.

METHODS

Twenty-fourth healthy male Sprague-Dawley rats were randomized into four groups: (1) Sham + placebo group, (2) Sham + CANA group, (3) CPR + placebo group, and (4) CPR + CANA group. Ventricular fibrillation was induced by transcutaneous electrical stimulation on epicardium. After 6 min untreated ventricular fibrillation, chest compressions was initiated. The rats were received an injection of placebo or canagliflozin (3 ug/kg) randomly 15 min after restore of spontaneous circulation (ROSC). Electrocardiogram (ECG) and blood pressure were continuously detected in each group throughout the experiment. The rats were killed 6 h after ROSC to collected the arterial serum and myocardial tissue. Myocardial injury was estimated with concentrations of inflammatory factors, oxidative stress indexes and, apoptosis index, myocardial injury markers, echocardiography and myocardial pathological slices.

RESULTS

After resuscitation, mean arterial pressure (MAP) were significantly increased after cardiopulmonary resuscitation in CANA group rats when compared with placebo group. Heart rate, body lactate returned and left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) to normal levels in a shorter time and the myocardial injury was obviously attenuated in CPR + CANA group. Inflammatory factors (IL-6, TNF-α) and oxidative stress indexes (MAD, SOD, CAT) were dramatically decreased with the administration of CANA. The expression of apoptosis index (BAX, caspase-3) were higher in CPR + placebo group and the expression of anti-apoptosis index (Bcl-2) was lower (P < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

The administration of CANA effectively reduces myocardial ischaemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury after cardiac arrest and cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR), and the underlying mechanism may be related to anti-inflammation, oxidative stress and apoptosis.

Intramyocardial injection of hypoxia-conditioned extracellular vesicles modulates apoptotic signaling in chronically ischemic myocardium

Objective

Limited treatments exist for nonoperative chronic coronary artery disease. Previously, our laboratory has investigated extracellular vesicle (EV) therapy as a potential treatment for chronic coronary artery disease using a swine model and demonstrated improved cardiac function in swine treated with intramyocardial EV injection. Here, we seek to investigate the potential cardiac benefits of EVs by using hypoxia-conditioned EVs (HEV). Specifically, this study aims to investigate the effect of HEV on apoptosis in chronically ischemic myocardium in swine.

Methods

Fourteen Yorkshire swine underwent placement of an ameroid constrictor on the left circumflex artery. Two weeks later, swine underwent redo left thoracotomy with injection of either saline (control, n = 7) or HEVs (n = 7). After 5 weeks, swine were euthanized for tissue collection. Terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labeling was used to quantify apoptosis. Immunoblotting was used for protein quantification.

Results

Terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labeling staining showed a decrease in apoptosis in the HEV group compared with the control (P = .049). The HEV group exhibited a significant increase in the anti-apoptotic signaling molecule phospho-BAD (P = .005), a significant decrease in B-cell lymphoma 2 (P = .006) and an increase in the phospho-B-cell lymphoma to B-cell lymphoma 2 ratio (P < .001). Furthermore, the HEV group exhibited increased levels of prosurvival signaling markers including phosphoinositide 3-kinase, phosphor-extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2, phospho-forkhead box protein O1, and phospho-protein kinase B to protein kinase B ratio (all P < .05).

Conclusions

In chronic myocardial ischemia, treatment with HEV results in a decrease in overall apoptosis, possibly through the activation of both pro-survival and anti-apoptotic signaling pathways.

The Impact of Pharmacotherapy for Heart Failure on Oxidative Stress-Role of New Drugs, Flozins

Heart failure (HF) is a multifactorial clinical syndrome involving many complex processes. The causes may be related to abnormal heart structure and/or function. Changes in the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system, the sympathetic nervous system, and the natriuretic peptide system are important in the pathophysiology of HF. Dysregulation or overexpression of these processes leads to changes in cardiac preload and afterload, changes in the vascular system, peripheral vascular dysfunction and remodeling, and endothelial dysfunction. One of the important factors responsible for the development of heart failure at the cellular level is oxidative stress. This condition leads to deleterious cellular effects as increased levels of free radicals gradually disrupt the state of equilibrium, and, as a consequence, the internal antioxidant defense system is damaged. This review focuses on pharmacotherapy for chronic heart failure with regard to oxidation-reduction metabolism, with special attention paid to the latest group of drugs, SGLT2 inhibitors-an integral part of HF treatment. These drugs have been shown to have beneficial effects by protecting the antioxidant system at the cellular level.

Cardiovascular Diseases: Therapeutic Potential of SGLT-2 Inhibitors

Cardiovascular diseases (CVD) are a global health concern, affecting millions of patients worldwide and being the leading cause of global morbidity and mortality, thus creating a major public health concern. Sodium/glucose cotransporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitors have emerged as a promising class of medications for managing CVD. Initially developed as antihyperglycemic agents for treating type 2 diabetes, these drugs have demonstrated significant cardiovascular benefits beyond glycemic control. In our paper, we discuss the role of empagliflozin, dapagliflozin, canagliflozin, ertugliflozin, and the relatively recently approved bexagliflozin, the class of SGLT-2 inhibitors, as potential therapeutic targets for cardiovascular diseases. All mentioned SGLT-2 inhibitors have demonstrated significant cardiovascular benefits and renal protection in clinical trials, in patients with or without type 2 diabetes. These novel therapeutic approaches aim to develop more effective treatments that improve patient outcomes and reduce the burden of these conditions. However, the major scientific achievements of recent years and the many new discoveries and mechanisms still require careful attention and additional studies.

One Billion hiPSC-Cardiomyocytes: Upscaling Engineered Cardiac Tissues to Create High Cell Density Therapies for Clinical Translation in Heart Regeneration

Despite the overwhelming use of cellularized therapeutics in cardiac regenerative engineering, approaches to biomanufacture engineered cardiac tissues (ECTs) at clinical scale remain limited. This study aims to evaluate the impact of critical biomanufacturing decisions-namely cell dose, hydrogel composition, and size-on ECT formation and function-through the lens of clinical translation. ECTs were fabricated by mixing human induced pluripotent stem-cell-derived cardiomyocytes (hiPSC-CMs) and human cardiac fibroblasts into a collagen hydrogel to engineer meso-(3 × 9 mm), macro- (8 × 12 mm), and mega-ECTs (65 × 75 mm). Meso-ECTs exhibited a hiPSC-CM dose-dependent response in structure and mechanics, with high-density ECTs displaying reduced elastic modulus, collagen organization, prestrain development, and active stress generation. Scaling up, cell-dense macro-ECTs were able to follow point stimulation pacing without arrhythmogenesis. Finally, we successfully fabricated a mega-ECT at clinical scale containing 1 billion hiPSC-CMs for implantation in a swine model of chronic myocardial ischemia to demonstrate the technical feasibility of biomanufacturing, surgical implantation, and engraftment. Through this iterative process, we define the impact of manufacturing variables on ECT formation and function as well as identify challenges that must still be overcome to successfully accelerate ECT clinical translation.

Post-myocardial infarction fibrosis: Pathophysiology, examination, and intervention

Cardiac fibrosis plays an indispensable role in cardiac tissue homeostasis and repair after myocardial infarction (MI). The cardiac fibroblast-to-myofibroblast differentiation and extracellular matrix collagen deposition are the hallmarks of cardiac fibrosis, which are modulated by multiple signaling pathways and various types of cells in time-dependent manners. Our understanding of the development of cardiac fibrosis after MI has evolved in basic and clinical researches, and the regulation of fibrotic remodeling may facilitate novel diagnostic and therapeutic strategies, and finally improve outcomes. Here, we aim to elaborate pathophysiology, examination and intervention of cardiac fibrosis after MI.