Fabrication and evaluation of conductive elastomer electrodes for neural stimulation

Flexible, Transparent, and Cytocompatible Nanostructured Indium Tin Oxide Thin Films for Bio-optoelectronic Applications

Electrical stimulation has been used successfully for several decades for the treatment of neurodegenerative disorders, including motor disorders, pain, and psychiatric disorders. These technologies typically rely on the modulation of neural activity through the focused delivery of electrical pulses. Recent research, however, has shown that electrically triggered neuromodulation can be further enhanced when coupled with optical stimulation, an approach that can benefit from the development of novel electrode materials that combine transparency with excellent electrochemical and biological performance. In this study, we describe an electrochemically modified, nanostructured indium tin oxide/poly(ethylene terephthalate) (ITO/PET) surface as a flexible, transparent, and cytocompatible electrode material. Electrochemical oxidation and reduction of ITO/PET electrodes in the presence of an ionic liquid based on d-glucopyranoside and bistriflamide units were performed, and the electrochemical behavior, conductivity, capacitance, charge transport processes, surface morphology, optical properties, and cytocompatibility were assessed in vitro. It has been shown that under selected conditions, electrochemically modified ITO/PET films remained transparent and highly conductive and were able to enhance neural cell survival and neurite outgrowth. Consequently, electrochemical modification of ITO/PET electrodes in the presence of an ionic liquid is introduced as an effective approach for tailoring the properties of ITO for advanced bio-optoelectronic applications.

In Vivo Organic Bioelectronics for Neuromodulation

The nervous system poses a grand challenge for integration with modern electronics and the subsequent advances in neurobiology, neuroprosthetics, and therapy which would become possible upon such integration. Due to its extreme complexity, multifaceted signaling pathways, and ∼1 kHz operating frequency, modern complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) based electronics appear to be the only technology platform at hand for such integration. However, conventional CMOS-based electronics rely exclusively on electronic signaling and therefore require an additional technology platform to translate electronic signals into the language of neurobiology. Organic electronics are just such a technology platform, capable of converting electronic addressing into a variety of signals matching the endogenous signaling of the nervous system while simultaneously possessing favorable material similarities with nervous tissue. In this review, we introduce a variety of organic material platforms and signaling modalities specifically designed for this role as "translator", focusing especially on recent implementation in in vivo neuromodulation. We hope that this review serves both as an informational resource and as an encouragement and challenge to the field.

Integrated Computational Material Design for PMC Manufacturing with Trapped Rubber

As the use of continuous fiber polymer matrix composites expands into new fields, there is a growing need for more sustainable manufacturing processes. An integrated computational material design framework has been developed, which enables the design of tailored manufacturing systems for polymer matrix composite materials as a sustainable alternative to achieving high-quality components in high-rate production. Trapped rubber processing achieves high pressures during polymer matrix composite processing, utilizing the thermally induced volume change of a nearly incompressible material inside a closed cavity mold. In this interdisciplinary study, the structural analysis, material science and manufacturing engineering perspectives are all combined to determine the mold mechanics, and the manufacturing process in a cohesive and iterative design loop. This study performs the coupled thermo-mechanical analysis required to simulate the transients involved in composite manufacturing and the results are compared with a previously developed test method. The internal surface pressure and temperatures are computed, compared with the experimental results, and the resulting design process is simulated. Overall, this approach maintains high-quality consolidation during curing while allowing for the possibility for custom distributions of pressures and temperatures. This can lead to more sustainable manufacturing by reducing energy consumption and improving throughput.

Elastomer Characterization Method for Trapped Rubber Processing

The increasing high-volume demand for polymer matrix composites (PMCs) brings into focus the need for autoclave alternative processing. Trapped rubber processing (TRP) of PMCs is a method capable of achieving high pressures during polymer matrix composite processing by utilizing thermally induced volume change of a nearly incompressible material inside a closed cavity mold. Recent advances in rubber materials and computational technology have made this processing technique more attractive. Elastomers can be doped with nanoparticles to increase thermal conductivity and this can be further tailored for local variations in thermal conductivity for TRP. In addition, recent advances in computer processing allow for simulation of coupled thermomechanical processes for full part modeling. This study presents a method of experimentally characterizing prospective rubber materials. The experiments are designed to characterize the dynamic in situ change in temperature, the dynamic change in volume, and the resulting real-time change in surface pressure. The material characterization is specifically designed to minimize the number and difficulty of experimental tests while fully capturing the rubber behavior for the TRP scenario. The experimental characterization was developed to provide the necessary data for accurate thermomechanical material models of nearly incompressible elastomeric polymers for use in TRP virtual design and optimization.

Polyhydroxyalkanoate/carbon nanotube nanocomposites: flexible electrically conducting elastomers for neural applications

Aim: Medium chain length-polyhydroxyalkanoate/multi-walled carbon nanotube (MWCNTs) nanocomposites with a range of mechanical and electrochemical properties were fabricated via assisted dispersion and solvent casting, and their suitability as neural interface biomaterials was investigated. Materials & methods: Mechanical and electrical properties of medium chain length-polyhydroxyalkanoate/MWCNTs nanocomposite films were evaluated by tensile test and electrical impedance spectroscopy, respectively. Primary rat mesencephalic cells were seeded on the composites and quantitative immunostaining of relevant neural biomarkers, and electrical stimulation studies were performed. Results: Incorporation of MWCNTs to the polymeric matrix modulated the mechanical and electrical properties of resulting composites, and promoted differential cell viability, morphology and function as a function of MWCNT concentration. Conclusion: This study demonstrates the feasibility of a green thermoplastic MWCNTs nanocomposite for potential use in neural interfacing applications.

Layer-by-layer assembly for biomedical applications in the last decade

In the past two decades, the design and manufacture of nanostructured materials has been of tremendous interest to the scientific community for their application in the biomedical field. Among the available techniques, layer-by-layer (LBL) assembly has attracted considerable attention as a convenient method to fabricate functional coatings. Nowadays, more than 1000 scientific papers are published every year, tens of patents have been deposited and some commercial products based on LBL technology have become commercially available. LBL presents several advantages, such as (1): a precise control of the coating properties; (2) environmentally friendly, mild conditions and low-cost manufacturing; (3) versatility for coating all available surfaces; (4) obtainment of homogeneous film with controlled thickness; and (5) incorporation and controlled release of biomolecules/drugs. This paper critically reviews the scientific challenge of the last 10 years--functionalizing biomaterials by LBL to obtain appropriate properties for biomedical applications, in particular in tissue engineering (TE). The analysis of the state-of-the-art highlights the current techniques and the innovative materials for scaffold and medical device preparation that are opening the way for the preparation of LBL-functionalized substrates capable of modifying their surface properties for modulating cell interaction to improve substitution, repair or enhancement of tissue function.

Materials analyses and electrochemical impedance of implantable metal electrodes

Implantable electrodes with high flexibility, high mechanical fixation and low electrochemical impedance are desirable for neuromuscular activation because they provide safe, effective and stable stimulation. In this paper, we report on detailed materials and electrical analyses of three metal implantable electrodes - gold (Au), platinum (Pt) and titanium (Ti) - using X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), scanning acoustic microscopy, drop shape analysis and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. We investigated the cause of changes in electrochemical impedance of long-term immersed Au, Pt and Ti electrodes on liquid crystal polymers (LCPs) in phosphate buffered saline (PBS). We analyzed the surface wettability, surface and interface defects and the elemental depth profile of the electrode-adhesion layers on the LCP. The impedance of the electrodes decreased at lower frequencies, but increased at higher frequencies compared with that of the short-term immersion. The increase of impedances was influenced by the oxidation of the electrode/adhesion-layers that affected the double layer capacitance behavior of the electrode/PBS. The oxidation of the adhesion layer for all the electrodes was confirmed by XPS. Alkali ions (sodium) were adsorbed on the Au and Pt surfaces, but diffused into the Ti electrode and LCPs. The Pt electrode showed a higher sensitivity to surface and interface defects than that of Ti and Au electrodes. These findings may be useful when designing electrodes for long-term implantable devices.

Stretchable polymeric multielectrode array for conformal neural interfacing

A highly stretchable neural interface of concurrent robust electrical and mechanical properties is developed with a conducting polymer film as the sole conductor for both the electrodes and the leads. This neural interface offers the benefits of conducting polymer electrodes in a demanding stretchable format, including low electrode impedance and high chargeinjection capacity, due to the large electroactive surface area of the electrode.

Tissue-compliant neural implants from microfabricated carbon nanotube multilayer composite

Current neural prosthetic devices (NPDs) induce chronic inflammation due to complex mechanical and biological reactions related, in part, to staggering discrepancies of mechanical properties with neural tissue. Relatively large size of the implants and traumas to blood-brain barrier contribute to inflammation reactions, as well. Mitigation of these problems and the realization of long-term brain interface require a new generation of NPDs fabricated from flexible materials compliant with the brain tissue. However, such materials will need to display hard-to-combine mechanical and electrical properties which are not available in the toolbox of classical neurotechnology. Moreover, these new materials will concomitantly demand different methods of (a) device micromanufacturing and (b) surgical implantation in brains because currently used processes take advantage of high stiffness of the devices. Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) serve as a promising foundation for such materials because of their record mechanical and electrical properties, but CNT-based tissue-compliant devices have not been realized yet. In this study, we formalize the mechanical requirements to tissue-compliant implants based on critical rupture strength of brain tissue and demonstrate that miniature CNT-based devices can satisfy these requirements. We fabricated them using MEMS-like technology and miniaturized them so that at least two dimensions of the electrodes would be comparable to brain tissue cells. The nanocomposite-based flexible neural electrodes were implanted into the rat motor cortex using a surgical procedure specifically designed for soft tissue-compliant implants. The post-surgery implant localization in the motor cortex was successfully visualized with magnetic resonance and photoacoustic imaging. In vivo functionality was demonstrated by successful registration of the low-frequency neural recording in the live brain of anesthetized rats. Investigation of inflammation processes around these electrodes will be required to establish their prospects as long-term neural electrodes.

Layered nanocomposites from gold nanoparticles for neural prosthetic devices

Treatments of neurological diseases, diagnostics of brain malfunctions, and the realization of brain-computer interfaces require ultrasmall electrodes that are "invisible" to resident immune cells. Functional electrodes smaller than 50 μm are impossible to produce with traditional materials due to high interfacial impedance at the characteristic frequency of neural activity and insufficient charge storage capacity. The problem can be resolved by using gold nanoparticle nanocomposites. Careful comparison indicates that layer-by-layer assembled films from Au NPs provide more than 3-fold improvement in interfacial impedance and 1 order of magnitude increase in charge storage capacity. Prototypes of microelectrodes could be made using traditional photolithography. Integration of unique nanocomposite materials with microfabrication techniques opens the door for practical realization of the ultrasmall implantable electrodes. Further improvement of electrical properties is expected when using special shapes of gold nanoparticles.

A chemically polymerized electrically conducting composite of polypyrrole nanoparticles and polyurethane for tissue engineering

A variety of cell types respond to electrical stimuli; accordingly, many conducting polymers (CPs) have been used as tissue engineering (TE) scaffolds, and one such CP is polypyrrole (PPy). PPy is a well-studied biomaterial with potential TE applications because of its electrical conductivity and many other beneficial properties. Combining its characteristics with an elastomeric material, such as polyurethane (PU), may yield a hybrid scaffold with electrical activity and significant mechanical resilience. Pyrrole was in situ polymerized within a PU emulsion mixture in weight ratios of 1:100, 1:20, 1:10, and 1:5, respectively. Morphology, electrical conductivity, mechanical properties, and cytocompatibility with C2C12 myoblast cells were characterized. The polymerization resulted in a composite with a principle base of PU interspersed with an electrically percolating network of PPy nanoparticles. As the mass ratio of PPy to PU increased so did electrical conductivity of the composites. In addition, as the mass ratio of PPy to PU increased, stiffness of the composite increased while maximum elongation length decreased. Ultimate tensile strength was reduced by ~47% across all samples with the addition of PPy to the PU base. Cytocompatibility assay data indicated no significant cytotoxic effect from the composites. Static cellular seeding of C2C12 cells and subsequent differentiation showed myotube formation on the composite materials.

Biodegradable elastomers for tissue engineering and cell-biomaterial interactions

Synthetic biomaterials serve as a cornerstone in the development of clinically focused regenerative medicine therapies that aim to reduce suffering and prolong life. Recent improvements in biodegradable elastomeric materials utilize natural extracellular matrix proteins as inspiration to yield a new class of materials with superior degradation kinetics, desirable biocompatibility profiles, and mechanical properties that closely match those of soft tissues. This review describes several classes of synthetic biodegradable elastomers and associated fabrication techniques that are relevant to scaffold development. The application of these materials to select tissue engineering models is also discussed.

Development of bioactive conducting polymers for neural interfaces

Bioelectrodes for neural recording and neurostimulation are an integral component of a number of neuroprosthetic devices, including the commercially available cochlear implant, and developmental devices, such as the bionic eye and brain-machine interfaces. Current electrode designs limit the application of such devices owing to suboptimal material properties that lead to minimal interaction with the target neural tissue and the formation of fibrotic capsules. In designing an ideal bioelectrode, a number of design criteria must be considered with respect to physical, mechanical, electrical and biological properties. Conducting polymers have the potential to address the synergistic interaction of these properties and show promise as superior coatings for next-generation electrodes in implant devices.