Safety and tolerability of conditioning chemotherapy followed by CD19-targeted CAR T cells for relapsed/refractory CLL

Inconsistent Reporting and Definitions of Time-to-Event Endpoints in CAR T Clinical Trials: A Review

Clinical trials evaluating chimeric antigen receptor T-cell therapy (CAR T) commonly report time-to-event (TTE) endpoints. However, definitions are not necessarily comparable across studies and variability can lead to misinterpretation of results or inappropriate comparisons across products and studies. Amid the rapidly increasing number of published CAR T trials-many of which were used for regulatory approval-this study aims to summarize the variation in the use and reporting of TTE endpoints in CAR T trials. We include CAR T trials published January 2008 to January 2023 on PubMed that reported at least one of these TTE endpoints: overall survival (OS), progression-free survival (PFS), duration of response/remission (DOR), disease-free survival, event-free survival (EFS), relapse-free survival (RFS), time to relapse, time to progression, or time to treatment failure. We abstracted and summarized endpoint definitions, including the time origin, events, competing events, and censoring. We assessed the completeness of endpoint reporting, overall and by subgroups such as study phase, publication year, and the journal's impact factor. We included 116 publications in the analysis. The most frequently reported TTEs were OS (83%,), PFS (56%), DOR (55%), and EFS (23%). Complete reporting of endpoints was poor overall: 32%, 24%, 25%, and 56% for OS, PFS, DOR, and EFS respectively. Complete reporting was lower in articles published before 2018, in lower impact factor journals, and in phase I trials. There was also a large variability in TTE definitions among those reported. For example, among 64 studies reporting DOR, 48% used the date of response as the time origin while 20% used the date of infusion, and 31% did not report a time origin. There is substantial heterogeneity and incompleteness of TTE endpoint definitions in CAR T trials that could impact the interpretation of the study results. Improving TTE reporting, by stating the time origin, event(s) of interest, competing event(s) if any, and censoring, is required to ensure valid assessment of clinical benefit and cross-trial comparison.

Lymphodepletion chemotherapy in chimeric antigen receptor-engineered T (CAR-T) cell therapy in lymphoma

The development of chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T-cells, engineered from peripheral T-lymphocytes of a patient with lymphoma, in order to specifically target tumor cells, has been a revolution in adoptive cell therapy (ACT). As outlined in this review, ACT was initiated by hematopoietic cell transplantation (HSCT) and re-injection of interleukin-boosted tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TIL). The innovative venture of genetically modifying autologous peripheral T-cells to target them to cell-surface tumoral antigens through an antibody-derived structure (i.e. independent of major histocompatibility antigen presentation, physiologically necessary for T-cell activation), and intracytoplasmic T-cell costimulatory peptides, via a novel membrane CAR, has been an outstanding breakthrough. Here, focusing on B-cell hematological malignancies and mostly non-Hodgkin lymphoma, attention is brought to the importance of providing an optimal microenvironment for such therapeutic cells to proliferate and positively develop anti-tumoral cytotoxicity. This, perhaps paradoxically, implies a pre-infusion step of deep lymphopenia and deregulation of immunosuppressive mechanisms enhanced by tumoral cells. Fludarabine and cyclophosphamide appear to be the most efficient lymphodepletive drugs in this context, dosage being of importance, as will be illustrated by a thorough literature review.

Leveraging the Immunomodulatory Potential of Ibrutinib for Improved Outcomes of T Cell-Mediated Therapies of B Cell Malignancies: A Narrative Review

Standard treatment options for B cell malignancies include immunochemotherapies and/or targeted therapies, which often provide temporary disease remission. However, many patients do not achieve complete remission with these treatments, develop resistance, and eventually experience disease relapse. New immunomodulatory treatments, such as T cell-based therapies, show promise in treating various types of blood cancers, including B cell malignancies. However, their effectiveness is often limited by the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment and altered function of patient-derived T cells. Ibrutinib, a Bruton tyrosine kinase inhibitor, has been shown to restore immune balance and function in patients with chronic lymphocytic leukemia. Ibrutinib is being studied as adjuvant or combinatorial therapy with chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cells or T cell-engaging bispecific antibodies for the treatment of B cell malignancies. Current evidence suggests that ibrutinib could be beneficial when used before, during, or after CAR T cell administration, potentially providing higher complete response rates and reduced toxicity. In conclusion, existing evidence strongly supports the combined use of ibrutinib and T cell therapies. However, additional clinical trials are needed to further validate the effectiveness of this treatment strategy in patients with various B cell malignancies.

Bruton's tyrosine kinase inhibitor zanubrutinib-based regimens in relapsed/refractory primary diffuse large B-cell lymphoma of the central nervous system

Patients with relapsed/refractory primary central nervous system lymphoma (R/R PCNSL) usually have a poor prognosis and limited treatment options. We respectively reviewed 38 patients with R/R PCNSL treated with zanubrutinib-based regimens in our center. The overall response rate, complete response rate and disease control rate were 76.3%, 47.4% and 92.1%, respectively. The median progression-free survival (PFS) was 31.0 months, the median overall survival (OS) was not reached. Unitivariate analysis by Cox's proportional hazards model revealed that overall response (vs. no response, HR = 0.18, 95%CI:0.07,0.48, p = 0.001), long duration of zanubrutinib (≥6months vs 2-5 months, HR = 0.20, 95%CI:0.06,0.63, p = 0.006) were independent factors for prolonged PFS. The log-rank analysis indicated a prolongation of PFS among patients exhibiting a higher Tumor mutational burden (TMB, ≥14.75muts/Mb) following zanubrutinib-based treatment (p = 0.016). Our data showed promising efficacy with tolerable safety of zanubrutinib-based therapies in patients with R/R PCNSL. Long duration of zanubrutinib may be associated with prolonged PFS.

Chimeric Antigen Receptor-T Cells in the Modern Era of Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia Treatment

Pathway inhibitors targeting Bruton tyrosine kinase (BTK) and B-cell lymphoma-2 (BCL-2) have dramatically changed the treatment landscape for both treatment-naïve and relapsed/refractory chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL). However, with increased utilization, a growing number of patients will experience progressive disease on both agents. This subgroup of "double refractory" patients has limited treatment options and poor prognosis. Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR)-T cells have transformed the treatment of relapsed/refractory B-cell malignancies. Although the earliest success of CAR-T cell therapy was in CLL, the clinical application of this modality has lagged until the recent approval of the first CAR-T cell product for CLL. In this review, we describe the current treatment options for upfront and subsequent therapies and the unmet need for novel agents highlighted by the burgeoning role and challenges of CAR-T cell therapy.

CAR T Cells and T-Cell Therapies for Cancer: A Translational Science Review

Importance

Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cells are T lymphocytes that are genetically engineered to express a synthetic receptor that recognizes a tumor cell surface antigen and causes the T cell to kill the tumor cell. CAR T treatments improve overall survival for patients with large B-cell lymphoma and progression-free survival for patients with multiple myeloma.

Observations

Six CAR T-cell products are approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for 6 hematologic malignancies: B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia, large B-cell lymphoma, follicular lymphoma, mantle cell lymphoma, chronic lymphocytic leukemia, and multiple myeloma. Compared with standard chemotherapy followed by stem cell transplant, CAR T cells improved 4-year overall survival in patients with large B-cell lymphoma (54.6% vs 46.0%). Patients with pediatric acute lymphoblastic leukemia achieved durable remission after CAR T-cell therapy. At 3-year follow-up, 48% of patients were alive and relapse free. In people with multiple myeloma treated previously with 1 to 4 types of non-CAR T-cell therapy, CAR T-cell therapy prolonged treatment-free remissions compared with standard treatments (in 1 trial, CAR T-cell therapy was associated with progression-free survival of 13.3 months compared with 4.4 months with standard therapy). CAR T-cell therapy is associated with reversible acute toxicities, such as cytokine release syndrome in approximately 40% to 95% of patients, and neurologic disorders in approximately 15% to 65%. New CAR T-cell therapies in development aim to increase efficacy, decrease adverse effects, and treat other types of cancer. No CAR T-cell therapies are FDA approved for solid tumors, but recently, 2 other T lymphocyte-based treatments gained approvals: 1 for melanoma and 1 for synovial cell sarcoma. Additional cellular therapies have attained responses for certain solid tumors, including pediatric neuroblastoma, synovial cell sarcoma, melanoma, and human papillomavirus-associated cancers. A common adverse effect occurring with these T lymphocyte-based therapies is capillary leak syndrome, which is characterized by fluid retention, pulmonary edema, and kidney dysfunction.

Conclusions and Relevance

CAR T-cell therapy is an FDA-approved therapy that has improved progression-free survival for multiple myeloma, improved overall survival for large B-cell lymphoma, and attained high rates of cancer remission for other hematologic malignancies such as acute lymphoblastic leukemia, follicular lymphoma, and mantle cell lymphoma. Recently approved T lymphocyte-based therapies demonstrated the potential for improved outcomes in solid tumor malignancies.

Chimeric antigen receptor T-cell therapy for haematological malignancies: Insights from fundamental and translational research to bedside practice

Autologous chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T-cell therapy has revolutionized the treatment of lymphoid malignancies, leading to the approval of CD19-CAR T cells for B-cell lymphomas and acute leukaemia, and more recently, B-cell maturation antigen-CAR T cells for multiple myeloma. The long-term follow-up of patients treated in the early clinical trials demonstrates the possibility for long-term remission, suggesting a cure. This is associated with a low incidence of significant long-term side effects and a rapid improvement in the quality of life for responders. In contrast, other types of immunotherapies require prolonged treatments or carry the risk of long-term side effects impairing the quality of life. Despite impressive results, some patients still experience treatment failure or ultimately relapse, underscoring the imperative to improve CAR T-cell therapies and gain a better understanding of their determinants of efficacy to maximize positive outcomes. While the next-generation of CAR T cells will undoubtingly be more potent, there are already opportunities for optimization when utilizing the currently available CAR T cells. This review article aims to summarize the current evidence from clinical, translational and fundamental research, providing clinicians with insights to enhance their understanding and use of CAR T cells.

Cancer immunotherapy and its facilitation by nanomedicine

Cancer immunotherapy has sparked a wave of cancer research, driven by recent successful proof-of-concept clinical trials. However, barriers are emerging during its rapid development, including broad adverse effects, a lack of reliable biomarkers, tumor relapses, and drug resistance. Integration of nanomedicine may ameliorate current cancer immunotherapy. Ultra-large surface-to-volume ratio, extremely small size, and easy modification surface of nanoparticles enable them to selectively detect cells and kill cancer cells in vivo. Exciting synergistic applications of the two approaches have emerged in treating various cancers at the intersection of cancer immunotherapy and cancer nanomedicine, indicating the potential that the combination of these two therapeutic modalities can lead to new paradigms in the treatment of cancer. This review discusses the status of current immunotherapy and explores the possible opportunities that the nanomedicine platform can make cancer immunotherapy more powerful and precise by synergizing the two approaches.

Bendamustine is a safe and effective lymphodepletion agent for axicabtagene ciloleucel in patients with refractory or relapsed large B-cell lymphoma

BACKGROUND

Fludarabine in combination with cyclophosphamide (FC) is the standard lymphodepletion regimen for CAR T-cell therapy (CAR T). A national fludarabine shortage in 2022 necessitated the exploration of alternative regimens with many centers employing single-agent bendamustine as lymphodepletion despite a lack of clinical safety and efficacy data. To fill this gap in the literature, we evaluated the safety, efficacy, and expansion kinetics of bendamustine as lymphodepletion prior to axicabtagene ciloleucel (axi-cel) therapy.

METHODS

84 consecutive patients with relapsed or refractory large B-cell lymphoma treated with axi-cel and managed with a uniform toxicity management plan at Stanford University were studied. 27 patients received alternative lymphodepletion with bendamustine while 57 received FC.

RESULTS

Best complete response rates were similar (73.7% for FC and 74% for bendamustine, p=0.28) and there was no significant difference in 12-month progression-free survival or overall survival estimates (p=0.17 and p=0.62, respectively). The frequency of high-grade cytokine release syndrome and immune effector cell-associated neurotoxicity syndrome was similar in both the cohorts. Bendamustine cohort experienced lower proportions of hematological toxicities and antibiotic use for neutropenic fever. Immune reconstitution, as measured by quantitative assessment of cellular immunity, was better in bendamustine cohort as compared with FC cohort. CAR T expansion as measured by peak expansion and area under the curve for expansion was comparable between cohorts.

CONCLUSIONS

Bendamustine is a safe and effective alternative lymphodepletion conditioning for axi-cel with lower early hematological toxicity and favorable immune reconstitution.

B cell lineage reconstitution underlies CAR-T cell therapeutic efficacy in patients with refractory myasthenia gravis

B-cell maturation antigen (BCMA), expressed in plasmablasts and plasma cells, could serve as a promising therapeutic target for autoimmune diseases. We reported here chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cells targeting BCMA in two patients with highly relapsed and refractory myasthenia gravis (one with AChR-IgG, and one with MuSk-IgG). Both patients exhibited favorable safety profiles and persistent clinical improvements over 18 months. Reconstitution of B-cell lineages with sustained reduced pathogenic autoantibodies might underlie the therapeutic efficacy. To identify the possible mechanisms underlying the therapeutic efficacy of CAR-T cells in these patients, longitudinal single-cell RNA and TCR sequencing was conducted on serial blood samples post infusion as well as their matching infusion products. By tracking the temporal evolution of CAR-T phenotypes, we demonstrated that proliferating cytotoxic-like CD8 clones were the main effectors in autoimmunity, whereas compromised cytotoxic and proliferation signature and profound mitochondrial dysfunction in CD8+ Te cells before infusion and subsequently defect CAR-T cells after manufacture might explain their characteristics in these patients. Our findings may guide future studies to improve CAR T-cell immunotherapy in autoimmune diseases.

Treatment of Double-Refractory Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia-An Unmet Clinical Need

Recent years have seen significant improvement in chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) management. Targeting B-cell lymphoma (BCL-2) and Bruton's kinase (BTK) have become the main strategies to restrain CLL activity. These agents are generally well tolerated, but the discontinuation of these therapies happens due to resistance, adverse effects, and Richter's transformation. A growing population of patients who have previously used both BTK inhibitors and BCL2 suffer from the constriction of the following regimens. This review explores the resistance mechanisms for both ibrutinib and venetoclax. Moreover, we present innovative approaches evaluated for treating double-refractory CLL.

CAR-T treatment for cancer: prospects and challenges

Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR-T) cell therapy has been widely used in hematological malignancies and has achieved remarkable results, but its long-term efficacy in solid tumors is greatly limited by factors such as the tumor microenvironment (TME). In this paper, we discuss the latest research and future views on CAR-T cell cancer immunotherapy, compare the different characteristics of traditional immunotherapy and CAR-T cell therapy, introduce the latest progress in CAR-T cell immunotherapy, and analyze the obstacles that hinder the efficacy of CAR-T cell therapy, including immunosuppressive factors, metabolic energy deficiency, and physical barriers. We then further discuss the latest therapeutic strategies to overcome these barriers, as well as management decisions regarding the possible safety issues of CAR-T cell therapy, to facilitate solutions to the limited use of CAR-T immunotherapy.

CAR-modified Cellular Therapies in Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia: Is the Uphill Road Getting Less Steep?

The clinical development of chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T-cell therapy has been more challenging for chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) compared to other settings. One of the main reasons is the CLL-associated state of immune dysfunction that specifically involves patient-derived T cells. Here, we provide an overview of the clinical results obtained with CAR T-cell therapy in CLL, describing the identified immunologic reasons for the inferior efficacy. Novel CAR T-cell formulations, such as lisocabtagene maraleucel, administered alone or in combination with the Bruton tyrosine kinase inhibitor ibrutinib, are currently under investigation. These approaches are based on the rationale that improving the quality of the T-cell source and of the CAR T-cell product may deliver a more functional therapeutic weapon. Further strategies to boost the efficacy of CAR T cells should rely not only on the production of CAR T cells with an improved cellular composition but also on additional changes. Such alterations could include (1) the coadministration of immunomodulatory agents capable of counteracting CLL-related immunological alterations, (2) the design of improved CAR constructs (such as third- and fourth-generation CARs), (3) the incorporation into the manufacturing process of immunomodulatory compounds overcoming the T-cell defects, and (4) the use of allogeneic CAR T cells or alternative CAR-modified cellular vectors. These strategies may allow to develop more effective CAR-modified cellular therapies capable of counteracting the more aggressive and still incurable forms of CLL.

Factors associated with long-term outcomes of CD19 CAR T-cell therapy for relapsed/refractory CLL

High response rates have been reported after CD19-targeted chimeric antigen receptor-modified (CD19 CAR) T-cell therapy for relapsed/refractory (R/R) chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL), yet the factors associated with duration of response in this setting are poorly characterized. We analyzed long-term outcomes in 47 patients with R/R CLL and/or Richter transformation treated on our phase 1/2 clinical trial of CD19 CAR T-cell therapy with an updated median follow-up of 79.6 months. Median progression-free survival (PFS) was 8.9 months, and the 6-year PFS was 17.8%. Maximum standardized uptake value (hazard ratio [HR], 1.15; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.07-1.23; P < .001) and bulky disease (≥5 cm; HR, 2.12; 95% CI, 1.06-4.26; P = .034) before lymphodepletion were associated with shorter PFS. Day +28 complete response by positron emission tomography-computed tomography (HR, 0.13; 95% CI, 0.04-0.40; P < .001), day +28 measurable residual disease (MRD) negativity by multiparameter flow cytometry (HR, 0.08; 95% CI, 0.03-0.22; P < .001), day +28 MRD negativity by next-generation sequencing (HR, 0.21; 95% CI, 0.08-0.51; P < .001), higher peak CD8+ CAR T-cell expansion (HR, 0.49; 95% CI; 0.36-0.68; P < .001), higher peak CD4+ CAR T-cell expansion (HR, 0.47; 95% CI; 0.33-0.69; P < .001), and longer CAR T-cell persistence (HR, 0.56; 95% CI, 0.44-0.72; P < .001) were associated with longer PFS. The 6-year duration of response and overall survival were 26.4% and 31.2%, respectively. CD19 CAR T-cell therapy achieved durable responses with curative potential in a subset of patients with R/R CLL. This trial was registered at www.clinicaltrials.gov as #NCT01865617.

Has the shortage of fludarabine altered the current paradigm of lymphodepletion in favor of bendamustine?

The most common lymphodepletion regimen used prior to infusion of chimeric antigen receptor-T cells (CAR-T) is cyclophosphamide (CY) in combination with fludarabine (Flu) (CY-FLU). While cyclophosphamide (CY) possesses lymphotoxic effects, it concurrently preserves regulatory T cell activity, potentially affecting the efficacy of CAR-T cells. Moreover, the use of fludarabine (FLU) has been linked to neurotoxicity, which could complicate the early detection of immune effector cell-associated neurotoxicity syndrome (ICANS) observed in CAR-T cell therapy. Given the ongoing shortage of FLU, alternative lymphodepleting agents have become necessary. To date, only a limited number of studies have directly compared different lymphodepleting regimens, and most of these comparisons have been retrospective in nature. Herein, we review the current literature on lymphodepletion preceding CAR-T cell therapies for lymphoid hematologic malignancies, with a specific focus on the use of bendamustine (BEN). Recent evidence suggests that administering BEN before CAR-T cell infusion yields comparable efficacy, possibly with a more favorable toxicity profile when compared to CY-FLU. This warrants further investigation through randomized prospective studies.

Cellular Therapy in Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia: Have We Advanced in the Last Decade?

BACKGROUND

Chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) is a heterogeneous B-cell malignancy, affecting mainly older adults. Despite the recent introduction of multiple targeted agents, CLL remains an incurable disease. Cellular therapy is a promptly evolving area that has developed over the last decades from such standard of care as hematopoietic cell transplantation (HCT) to the novel treatment modalities employing genetically engineered immune cells.

SUMMARY

Tailoring the proper treatment for each patient is warranted and should take into account the disease biology, patient characteristics, and the available treatment modalities. Nowadays, the most broadly applied cellular therapies for CLL management are HCT and chimeric antigen receptor-T (CAR-T) cells. However, CAR-T cell therapy is currently not yet approved in CLL, and the appropriate sequencing for the administration of these agents remains to be clarified.

KEY MESSAGES

The current review will discuss various available cellular treatment options, their advances and limitations, as well as the optimal timing for the employment of such therapies in CLL patients.

CAR-modified immune cells as a rapidly evolving approach in the context of cancer immunotherapies

Nowadays, one of the main challenges clinicians face is malignancies. Through the progression of technology in recent years, tumor nature and tumor microenvironment (TME) can be better understood. Because of immune system involvement in tumorigenesis and immune cell dysfunction in the tumor microenvironment, clinicians encounter significant challenges in patient treatment and normal function recovery. The tumor microenvironment can stop the development of tumor antigen-specific helper and cytotoxic T cells in the tumor invasion process. Tumors stimulate the production of proinflammatory and immunosuppressive factors and cells that inhibit immune responses. Despite the more successful outcomes, the current cancer therapeutic approaches, including surgery, chemotherapy, and radiotherapy, have not been effective enough for tumor eradication. Hence, developing new treatment strategies such as monoclonal antibodies, adaptive cell therapies, cancer vaccines, checkpoint inhibitors, and cytokines helps improve cancer treatment. Among adoptive cell therapies, the interaction between the immune system and malignancies and using molecular biology led to the development of chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cell therapy. CAR-modified immune cells are one of the modern cancer therapeutic methods with encouraging outcomes in most hematological and solid cancers. The current study aimed to discuss the structure, formation, subtypes, and application of CAR immune cells in hematologic malignancies and solid tumors.

Long-term outcomes following CAR T cell therapy: what we know so far

Chimeric antigen receptors (CAR) are engineered fusion proteins designed to target T cells to antigens expressed on cancer cells. CAR T cells are now an established treatment for patients with relapsed and/or refractory B cell lymphomas, B cell acute lymphoblastic leukaemia and multiple myeloma. At the time of this writing, over a decade of follow-up data are available from the initial patients who received CD19-targeted CAR T cells for B cell malignancies. Data on the outcomes of patients who received B cell maturation antigen (BCMA)-targeted CAR T cells for multiple myeloma are more limited owing to the more recent development of these constructs. In this Review, we summarize long-term follow-up data on efficacy and toxicities from patients treated with CAR T cells targeting CD19 or BCMA. Overall, the data demonstrate that CD19-targeted CAR T cells can induce prolonged remissions in patients with B cell malignancies, often with minimal long-term toxicities, and are probably curative for a subset of patients. By contrast, remissions induced by BCMA-targeted CAR T cells are typically more short-lived but also generally have only limited long-term toxicities. We discuss factors associated with long-term remissions, including the depth of initial response, malignancy characteristics predictive of response, peak circulating CAR levels and the role of lymphodepleting chemotherapy. We also discuss ongoing investigational strategies designed to improve the length of remission following CAR T cell therapy.

Challenges and opportunities of CAR T cell therapies for CLL

Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T-cell therapies have transformed the treatment landscape of blood cancers. These engineered receptors which endow T cells with antibody-like target cell recognition combined with the typical T cell target cell lysis abilities. Introduced into the clinic in the 2010s, CAR T-cells have shown efficacy in chronic B lymphocytic leukemia (CLL), but a majority of patients do not achieve sustained remission. Here we discuss the current treatment landscape in CLL using small molecules and allogeneic stem cell transplantation, the niche CAR T-cells filled in this context, and what we have learned from biomarker and mechanistic studies. Several product parameters and improvements are introduced as examples of how the bedside-to-bench is translated into improved CAR T-cells for CLL. We hope to convey to our readers the crucial role translational medicine plays in transforming the treatment outcomes for patients with CLL and how this line of research is an essential component of modern medicine.

Dose fractionation of CAR-T cells. A systematic review of clinical outcomes

CAR-T cells are widely recognized for their potential to successfully treat hematologic cancers and provide durable response. However, severe adverse events such as cytokine release syndrome (CRS) and neurotoxicity are concerning. Our goal is to assess CAR-T cell clinical trial publications to address the question of whether administration of CAR-T cells as dose fractions reduces toxicity without adversely affecting efficacy. Systematic literature review of studies published between January 2010 and May 2022 was performed on PubMed and Embase to search clinical studies that evaluated CAR-T cells for hematologic cancers. Studies published in English were considered. Studies in children (age < 18), solid tumors, bispecific CAR-T cells, and CAR-T cell cocktails were excluded. Data was extracted from the studies that met inclusion and exclusion criteria. Review identified a total of 18 studies that used dose fractionation. Six studies used 2-day dosing schemes and 12 studies used 3-day schemes to administer CAR-T cells. Three studies had both single dose and fractionated dose cohorts. Lower incidence of Grade ≥ 3 CRS and neurotoxicity was seen in fractionated dose cohorts in 2 studies, whereas 1 study reported no difference between single and fractionated dose cohorts. Dose fractionation was mainly recommended for high tumor burden patients. Efficacy of CAR-T cells in fractionated dose was comparable to single dose regimen within the same or historical trial of the same agent in all the studies. The findings suggest that administering dose fractions of CAR-T cells over 2-3 days instead of single dose infusion may mitigate the toxicity of CAR-T cell therapy including CRS and neurotoxicity, especially in patients with high tumor burden. However, controlled studies are likely needed to confirm the benefits of dose fractionation.

Cytokine conjugation to enhance T cell therapy

Adoptive T cell transfer (ACT) therapies suffer from a number of limitations (e.g., poor control of solid tumors), and while combining ACT with cytokine therapy can enhance effectiveness, this also results in significant side effects. Here, we describe a nanotechnology approach to improve the efficacy of ACT therapies by metabolically labeling T cells with unnatural sugar nanoparticles, allowing direct conjugation of antitumor cytokines onto the T cell surface during the manufacturing process. This allows local, concentrated activity of otherwise toxic cytokines. This approach increases T cell infiltration into solid tumors, activates the host immune system toward a Type 1 response, encourages antigen spreading, and improves control of aggressive solid tumors and achieves complete blood cancer regression with otherwise noncurative doses of CAR-T cells. Overall, this method provides an effective and easily integrated approach to the current ACT manufacturing process to increase efficacy in various settings.

Cytopenias following anti-CD19 chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cell therapy: a systematic analysis for contributing factors

BACKGROUND

Cytopenia is one of the most common adverse events following the CAR-T cell infusion, affecting the quality of life and potentially leading to life-threatening bleeding and infection. This study aimed to systematically review the cytopenias following anti-CD19 CAR-T therapy and further analyse the contributing factors.

METHODS

Databases including PubMed, MEDLINE, Embase and Cochrane were systematically searched on 8 May 2022. A random-effect meta-analysis was used to estimate the incidence of cytopenia, and subgroup analyses were applied to explore heterogeneity.

RESULTS

A total of 68 studies involving 2950 patients were included in this study. The overall incidence of all grade anaemia, thrombocytopenia, neutropenia, leukopoenia, lymphocytopenia and febrile neutropenia was 65%, 55%, 78%, 62%, 70% and 27%, respectively, and the corresponding cytopenias of grade 3 or worse were 33%, 31%, 61%, 45%, 46%, and 21%, respectively. Subgroup analysis showed increased incidence of cytopenias in subgroups with lower median age, proportion of males (<65%) and proportion of bridging therapy (<80%) and in the subgroup with a median line of prior therapy ≥3. In terms of disease and therapeutic target, cytopenias were more frequent in ALL patients and in dual-target CAR-T therapies (targeting CD19 in combination with other targets). Furthermore, CAR-T products manufactured by lentiviral vectors and those with the costimulatory domain of CD28 were more likely to cause haematological toxicity. No significant differences were observed in cytopenia between patients treated with CAR-T products with murine and humanized scFv.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, neutropenia is the most frequent cytopenia after CAR-T therapy, both in all grades or grade ≥3. The incidence of cytopenias following CAR-T therapy is influenced by the age, sex, disease and number of prior therapy lines of the patients, as well as the target and costimulatory domain of CAR-T cells, and viral vectors used for manufacturing.KEY MESSAGESNeutropenia is the most frequent cytopenia after CAR-T therapy.The clinical characteristics of the patients, the design of CAR-T cells and the protocol of CAR-T treatment can influence the occurrence of cytopenias following the CAR-T therapy.

Phase I CAR-T Clinical Trials Review

BACKGROUND/AIM

Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cells with tumor specificity are being increasingly investigated. Phase I trials are the first step of testing for safety of novel CAR-T therapy to determine the maximum tolerated dose (MTD). Several dose escalation methods have been developed over time including rule-based, model-based, and model-assisted designs. The goal of this project is to overview the phase I designs used in current CAR-T trials.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We searched PubMed for peer-reviewed literature published between January 1, 2015 and December 31, 2021. The search was limited to human studies in the English language using the keywords "CAR-T phase I", "clinical trials", and "full text".

RESULTS

One hundred nine papers with at least partial phase I components were included for analysis. 31.2% of the trials used the traditional 3+3 or a variation of said design, and 60.6% did not mention the dose escalation design. The majority of the manuscripts (59.6%) did not report cohort size while 19.3% did not specify the timing of evaluation. Although most of the studies were registered with CT.gov, only 33.9% had any results submitted or posted to CT.gov These trends persisted even in manuscripts published in journals with high impact factors.

CONCLUSION

Standardizing the publication criteria and providing basic elements of phase I clinical trials are critical to ensure high quality of manuscripts. With the quick development and high costs of CAR-T cell therapy, adoption of advanced designs such as model-based and model-assisted should increase to improve efficiency of clinical trials.

Anti-CD19 CAR T cells in combination with ibrutinib for the treatment of chronic lymphocytic leukemia

In chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) patients who achieve a complete remission (CR) to anti-CD19 chimeric antigen receptor T cells (CART-19), remissions are remarkably durable. Preclinical data suggesting synergy between CART-19 and the Bruton's tyrosine kinase (BTK) inhibitor ibrutinib prompted us to conduct a prospective single-center phase 2 trial in which we added autologous anti-CD19 humanized binding domain T cells (huCART-19) to ibrutinib in patients with CLL not in CR despite ≥6 months of ibrutinib. The primary endpoints were safety, feasibility, and achievement of a CR within 3 months. Of 20 enrolled patients, 19 received huCART-19. The median follow-up for all infused patients was 41 months (range, 0.25-58 months). Eighteen patients developed cytokine release syndrome (CRS; grade 1-2 in 15 of 18 subjects), and 5 developed neurotoxicity (grade 1-2 in 4 patients, grade 4 in 1 patient). While the 3-month CR rate among International Working Group on CLL (iwCLL)-evaluable patients was 44% (90% confidence interval [CI], 23-67%), at 12 months, 72% of patients tested had no measurable residual disease (MRD). The estimated overall and progression-free survival at 48 months were 84% and 70%, respectively. Of 15 patients with undetectable MRD at 3 or 6 months, 13 remain in ongoing CR at the last follow-up. In patients with CLL not achieving a CR despite ≥6 months of ibrutinib, adding huCART-19 mediated a high rate of deep and durable remissions. ClinicalTrials.gov number, NCT02640209.

Clinical utility of CAR T cell therapy in brain tumors: Lessons learned from the past, current evidence and the future stakes

The unprecedented clinical success of Chimeric Antigen Receptor (CAR) T cell therapy in hematological malignancies has led researchers to study its role in solid tumors. Although, its utility in solid tumors especially in neuroblastoma has begun to emerge, preclinical studies of its efficacy in other solid tumors like osteosarcomas or gliomas has caught the attention of oncologist to be tried in clinical trials. Malignant high-grade brain tumors like glioblastomas or midline gliomas in children represent some of the most difficult malignancies to be managed with conventionally available therapeutics, while relapsed gliomas continue to have the most dismal prognosis due to limited therapeutic options. Innovative therapies such as CAR T cells could give an additional leverage to the treating oncologists by potentially improving outcomes and ameliorating the toxicity of the currently available therapies. Moreover, CAR T cell therapy has the potential to be integrated into the therapeutic paradigm for aggressive gliomas in the near future. In this review we discuss the challenges in using CAR T cell therapy in brain tumors, enumerate the completed and ongoing clinical trials of different types of CAR T cell therapy for different brain tumors with special emphasis on glioblastoma and also discuss the future role of CAR T cells in Brain tumors.

Clinical Strategies for Enhancing the Efficacy of CAR T-Cell Therapy for Hematological Malignancies

Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cells have been successfully used for hematological malignancies, especially for relapsed/refractory B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia and non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma. Patients who have undergone conventional chemo-immunotherapy and have relapsed can achieve complete remission for several months with the infusion of CAR T-cells. However, side effects and short duration of response are still major barriers to further CAR T-cell therapy. To improve the efficacy, multiple targets, the discovery of new target antigens, and CAR T-cell optimization have been extensively studied. Nevertheless, the fact that the determination of the efficacy of CAR T-cell therapy is inseparable from the discussion of clinical application strategies has rarely been discussed. In this review, we will discuss some clinical application strategies, including lymphodepletion regimens, dosing strategies, combination treatment, and side effect management, which are closely related to augmenting and maximizing the efficacy of CAR T-cell therapy.

CAR T-Cell Therapy Predictive Response Markers in Diffuse Large B-Cell Lymphoma and Therapeutic Options After CART19 Failure

Immunotherapy with T cells genetically modified with chimeric antigen receptors (CARs) has shown significant clinical efficacy in patients with relapsed/refractory B-cell lymphoma. Nevertheless, more than 50% of treated patients do not benefit from such therapy due to either absence of response or further relapse. Elucidation of clinical and biological features that would predict clinical response to CART19 therapy is of paramount importance and eventually may allow for selection of those patients with greater chances of response. In the last 5 years, significant clinical experience has been obtained in the treatment of diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) patients with CAR19 T cells, and major advances have been made on the understanding of CART19 efficacy mechanisms. In this review, we discuss clinical and tumor features associated with response to CART19 in DLBCL patients as well as the impact of biological features of the infusion CART19 product on the clinical response. Prognosis of DLBCL patients that fail CART19 is poor and therapeutic approaches with new drugs are also discussed.

Interleukin Inhibitors in Cytokine Release Syndrome and Neurotoxicity Secondary to CAR-T Therapy

INTRODUCTION

Chimeric antigen receptor T-cell (CAR-T) therapy is an innovative therapeutic option for addressing certain recurrent or refractory hematological malignancies. However, CAR-T cells also cause the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines that lead to life-threatening cytokine release syndrome and neurotoxicity.

OBJECTIVE

To study the efficacy of interleukin inhibitors in addressing cytokine release syndrome (CRS) and neurotoxicity secondary to CAR-T therapy.

METHODOLOGY

The authors conducted a bibliographic review in which 10 articles were analyzed. These included cut-off studies, case reports, and clinical trials involving 11 cancer centers and up to 475 patients over 18 years of age.

RESULTS

Tocilizumab is the only interleukin inhibitor approved to address CRS secondary to CAR-T therapy due to its efficacy and safety. Other inhibitors, such as siltuximab and anakinra, could be useful in combination with tocilizumab for preventing severe cytokine release and neurotoxicity. In addition, the new specific inhibitors could be effective in mitigating CRS without affecting the cytotoxic efficacy of CAR-T therapy.

CONCLUSION

More lines of research should be opened to elucidate the true implications of these drugs in treating the side effects of CAR-T therapy.

Trial Watch: combination of tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) and immunotherapy

The past decades witnessed the clinical employment of targeted therapies including but not limited to tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) that restrain a broad variety of pro-tumorigenic signals. TKIs can be categorized into (i) agents that directly target cancer cells, (ii) normalize angiogenesis or (iii) affect cells of the hematologic lineage. However, a clear distinction of TKIs based on this definition is limited by the fact that many TKIs designed to inhibit cancer cells have also effects on immune cells that are being discovered. Additionally, TKIs originally designed to target hematological cancers exhibit bioactivities on healthy cells of the same hematological lineage. TKIs have been described to improve immune recognition and cancer immunosurveillance, providing the scientific basis to combine TKIs with immunotherapy. Indeed, combination of TKIs with immunotherapy showed synergistic effects in preclinical models and clinical trials and some combinations of TKIs normalizing angiogenesis with immune checkpoint blocking antibodies have already been approved by the FDA for cancer therapy. However, the identification of appropriate drug combinations as well as optimal dosing and scheduling needs to be improved in order to obtain tangible progress in cancer care. This Trial Watch summarizes active clinical trials combining TKIs with various immunotherapeutic strategies to treat cancer patients.

Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia: Chemotherapy Free and Other Novel Therapies Including CAR T

OPINION STATEMENT

Chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) is the most common leukemia in adults. Most individuals diagnosed with CLL will not need treatment immediately but over time the clonal B cells infiltrate the bone marrow, lymph nodes, liver, and spleen, causing anemia, thrombocytopenia, systemic symptoms, and increased risk for infections. When clonal B cells begin adversely affecting other organs, treatment is warranted. Therapy for CLL has undergone a paradigm shift away from chemotherapy-based regimens to targeted therapy with small-molecule inhibitors. B-cell receptor (BCR) signaling plays a key role in CLL. BCR signaling occurs via many factors including Bruton's tyrosine kinase (BTK), phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K), phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphonate phosphodiesterase gamma-2 (PLCγ2), and CD19. CLL cells also express high levels of B-cell lymphoma or leukemia 2 (BCL2). Drugs that interfere with these pathways, such as ibrutinib, venetoclax, and idelalisib, have improved clinical outcomes. For any CLL patient that meets criteria for treatment, after evaluating for prognostic cytogenetic abnormalities, oral BTK inhibitors or venetoclax in combination with anti-CD20 therapy are considered first-line therapy. It is important to note that these novel therapies are particularly preferred for patients with TP53 mutations or deletion of the small arm of chromosome 17 (del(17p)), as those patients usually are chemotherapy refractory or display short remissions to chemotherapy. Nevertheless, patients without high-risk features such as TP53 abnormalities also benefit from novel agents. Following relapse, depending on the primary oral agent used, BTK inhibitors, venetoclax in combination with anti-CD20 antibodies, or PI3K inhibitors are preferred.

PSMA-targeting TGFβ-insensitive armored CAR T cells in metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer: a phase 1 trial

Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cells have demonstrated promising efficacy, particularly in hematologic malignancies. One challenge regarding CAR T cells in solid tumors is the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME), characterized by high levels of multiple inhibitory factors, including transforming growth factor (TGF)-β. We report results from an in-human phase 1 trial of castration-resistant, prostate cancer-directed CAR T cells armored with a dominant-negative TGF-β receptor (NCT03089203). Primary endpoints were safety and feasibility, while secondary objectives included assessment of CAR T cell distribution, bioactivity and disease response. All prespecified endpoints were met. Eighteen patients enrolled, and 13 subjects received therapy across four dose levels. Five of the 13 patients developed grade ≥2 cytokine release syndrome (CRS), including one patient who experienced a marked clonal CAR T cell expansion, >98% reduction in prostate-specific antigen (PSA) and death following grade 4 CRS with concurrent sepsis. Acute increases in inflammatory cytokines correlated with manageable high-grade CRS events. Three additional patients achieved a PSA reduction of ≥30%, with CAR T cell failure accompanied by upregulation of multiple TME-localized inhibitory molecules following adoptive cell transfer. CAR T cell kinetics revealed expansion in blood and tumor trafficking. Thus, clinical application of TGF-β-resistant CAR T cells is feasible and generally safe. Future studies should use superior multipronged approaches against the TME to improve outcomes.

Phase 1 TRANSCEND CLL 004 study of lisocabtagene maraleucel in patients with relapsed/refractory CLL or SLL

Bruton tyrosine kinase inhibitors (BTKi) and venetoclax are currently used to treat newly diagnosed and relapsed/refractory chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL)/small lymphocytic lymphoma (SLL). However, most patients eventually develop resistance to these therapies, underscoring the need for effective new therapies. We report results of the phase 1 dose-escalation portion of the multicenter, open-label, phase 1/2 TRANSCEND CLL 004 (NCT03331198) study of lisocabtagene maraleucel (liso-cel), an autologous CD19-directed chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T-cell therapy, in patients with relapsed/refractory CLL/SLL. Patients with standard- or high-risk features treated with ≥3 or ≥2 prior therapies, respectively, including a BTKi, received liso-cel at 1 of 2 dose levels (50 × 106 or 100 × 106 CAR+ T cells). Primary objectives included safety and determining recommended dose; antitumor activity by 2018 International Workshop on CLL guidelines was exploratory. Minimal residual disease (MRD) was assessed in blood and marrow. Twenty-three of 25 enrolled patients received liso-cel and were evaluable for safety. Patients had a median of 4 (range, 2-11) prior therapies (100% had ibrutinib; 65% had venetoclax) and 83% had high-risk features including mutated TP53 and del(17p). Seventy-four percent of patients had cytokine release syndrome (9% grade 3) and 39% had neurological events (22% grade 3/4). Of 22 efficacy-evaluable patients, 82% and 45% achieved overall and complete responses, respectively. Of 20 MRD-evaluable patients, 75% and 65% achieved undetectable MRD in blood and marrow, respectively. Safety and efficacy were similar between dose levels. The phase 2 portion of the study is ongoing at 100 × 106 CAR+ T cells. This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT03331198.

CD19-directed chimeric antigen receptor T cell therapy in Waldenström macroglobulinemia: a preclinical model and initial clinical experience

Background

Waldenström macroglobulinemia (WM) is an incurable disease and, while treatable, can develop resistance to available therapies and be fatal. Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cell therapy directed against the CD19 antigen has demonstrated efficacy in relapsed or refractory B lymphoid malignancies, and is now approved for B cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia and certain B cell lymphomas. However, CAR T therapy has not been evaluated for use in WM.

Methods and results

We performed preclinical studies demonstrating CAR T cell activity against WM cells in vitro, and developed an in vivo murine model of WM which demonstrated prolonged survival with use of CAR T therapy. We then report the first three patients with multiply relapsed and refractory WM treated for their disease with CD19-directed CAR T cells on clinical trials. Treatment was well tolerated, and observed toxicities were consistent with those seen in CAR T treatment for other diseases, and no grade 3 or higher cytokine release syndrome or neurotoxicity events occurred. All three patients attained at least a clinical response to treatment, including one minimal residual disease-negative complete response, though all three eventually developed recurrent disease between 3 and 26 months after initial treatment.

Conclusions

This report summarizes preclinical and clinical activity of CD19-directed CAR T therapy in WM, demonstrating early tolerability and efficacy in patients with WM, and representing a possible treatment option in patients with heavily pretreated and relapsed or refractory WM. Larger studies evaluating CAR T therapy in WM are warranted, along with further evaluation into mechanisms of resistance to CAR T therapy.

Decade-long leukaemia remissions with persistence of CD4+ CAR T cells

The adoptive transfer of T lymphocytes reprogrammed to target tumour cells has demonstrated potential for treatment of various cancers1-7. However, little is known about the long-term potential and clonal stability of the infused cells. Here we studied long-lasting CD19-redirected chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cells in two patients with chronic lymphocytic leukaemia1-4 who achieved a complete remission in 2010. CAR T cells remained detectable more than ten years after infusion, with sustained remission in both patients. Notably, a highly activated CD4+ population emerged in both patients, dominating the CAR T cell population at the later time points. This transition was reflected in the stabilization of the clonal make-up of CAR T cells with a repertoire dominated by a small number of clones. Single-cell profiling demonstrated that these long-persisting CD4+ CAR T cells exhibited cytotoxic characteristics along with ongoing functional activation and proliferation. In addition, longitudinal profiling revealed a population of gamma delta CAR T cells that prominently expanded in one patient concomitant with CD8+ CAR T cells during the initial response phase. Our identification and characterization of these unexpected CAR T cell populations provide novel insight into the CAR T cell characteristics associated with anti-cancer response and long-term remission in leukaemia.

Results of ARI-0001 CART19 Cells in Patients With Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia and Richter’s Transformation

CART19 cells are emerging as an alternative therapy for patients with chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL). Here we report the outcome of nine consecutive patients with CLL treated with ARI-0001 CART19 cells, six of them with Richter’s transformation (RT). One patient with RT never received therapy. The cytokine release syndrome rate was 87.5% (12.5% grade ≥3). Neurotoxicity was not observed in any patient. All patients experienced absolute B-cell aplasia, and seven (87.5%) responded to therapy. With a median follow-up of 5.6 months, two patients with RT experienced a CD19-negative relapse. In conclusion, ARI-0001 cell therapy was feasible, safe, and effective in patients with high-risk CLL or RT.

Adverse effects in hematologic malignancies treated with chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cell therapy: a systematic review and Meta-analysis

Background

Recently, chimeric antigen receptor-modified (CAR) T cell therapy for hematological malignancies has shown clinical efficacy. Hundreds of clinical trials have been registered and lots of studies have shown hematologic toxic effects were very common. The main purpose of this review is to systematically analyze hematologic toxicity in hematologic malignancies treated with CAR-T cell therapy.

Methods

We searched databases including PubMed, Web of Science, Embase and Cochrane up to January 2021. For safety analysis of overall hematologic toxicity, the rate of neutrophil, thrombocytopenia and anemia were calculated. Subgroup analysis was performed for age, pathological type, target antigen, co-stimulatory molecule, history of hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) and prior therapy lines. The incidence rate of aspartate transferase (AST) increased, alanine transaminase (ALT) increased, serum creatine increased, APTT prolonged and fibrinogen decreased were also calculated.

Results

Overall, 52 studies involving 2004 patients were included in this meta-analysis. The incidence of any grade neutropenia, thrombocytopenia and anemia was 80% (95% CI: 68–89%), 61% (95% CI: 49–73%), and 68% (95%CI: 54–80%) respectively. The incidences of grade ≥ 3 neutropenia, thrombocytopenia and anemia were 60% (95% CI: 49–70%), 33% (95% CI: 27–40%), and 32% (95%CI: 25–40%) respectively. According to subgroup analysis and the corresponding Z test, hematological toxicity was more frequent in younger patients, in patients with ≥4 median lines of prior therapy and in anti-CD19 cases. The subgroup analysis of CD19 CAR-T cell constructs showed that 41BB resulted in less hematological toxicity than CD28.

Conclusion

CAR-T cell therapy has dramatical efficacy in hematological malignancies, but the relevant adverse effects remain its obstacle. The most common ≥3 grade side effect is hematological toxicity, and some cases die from infections or severe hemorrhage in early period. In long-term follow-up, hematological toxicity is less life-threatening generally and most suffered patients recover to adequate levels after 3 months. To prevent life-threatening infections or bleeding events, clinicians should pay attention to intervention of hematological toxicity in the early process of CAR-T cell therapy.

Treatment Approaches to Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia With High-Risk Molecular Features

The clinical course of chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) is highly variable. Over the past decades, several cytogenetic, immunogenetic and molecular features have emerged that identify patients suffering from CLL with high-risk molecular features. These biomarkers can clearly aid prognostication, but may also be capable of predicting the efficacy of various treatment strategies in subgroups of patients. In this narrative review, we discuss treatment approaches to CLL with high-risk molecular features. Specifically, we review and provide a comprehensive overview of clinical trials evaluating the efficacy of chemotherapy, chemoimmunotherapy and novel agent-based treatments in CLL patients with TP53 aberrations, deletion of the long arm of chromosome 11, complex karyotype, unmutated IGHV, B cell receptor stereotypy, and mutations in NOTCH1 or BIRC3. Furthermore, we discuss future pharmaceutical and immunotherapeutic perspectives for CLL with high-risk molecular features, focusing on agents currently under investigation in clinical trials.

Cellular Therapy Advances in Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia and Richter's Syndrome

Over the past 10 years, there have been great treatment advances for chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) with the development of small molecule inhibitors. However, there remains an area of unmet need for patients who progress on novel therapies. The development of cellular therapies in CLL has been hindered by CLL induced immunosuppression. Fortunately, recent progress in various methods in immunomodulation may help overcome this limitation in CLL. These advances have spurred ongoing interest in the development of cellular therapies for CLL, including chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cell therapies, bi-specific antibodies, and use of natural killer cells. These novel treatment modalities may hold promise for patients with refractory, and potentially transformed disease. Here, we discuss the development of CAR-T cell therapy in CLL and the impact of combining CAR-T and small molecule inhibitors on treatment outcomes, the evolving role of bi-specific antibodies and natural killer cells, and comment on the use of cellular therapies for Richter's syndrome.

Depletion of high-content CD14+ cells from apheresis products is critical for successful transduction and expansion of CAR T cells during large-scale cGMP manufacturing

With the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approval of four CD19- and one BCMA-targeted chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) therapy for B cell malignancies, CAR T cell therapy has finally reached the status of a medicinal product. The successful manufacturing of autologous CAR T cell products is a key requirement for this promising treatment modality. By analyzing the composition of 214 apheresis products from 210 subjects across eight disease indications, we found that high CD14+ cell content poses a challenge for manufacturing CAR T cells, especially in patients with non-Hodgkin's lymphoma and multiple myeloma caused by the non-specific phagocytosis of the magnetic beads used to activate CD3+ T cells. We demonstrated that monocyte depletion via rapid plastic surface adhesion significantly reduces the CD14+ monocyte content in the apheresis products and simultaneously boosts the CD3+ content. We established a 40% CD14+ threshold for the stratification of apheresis products across nine clinical trials and demonstrated the effectiveness of this procedure by comparing manufacturing runs in two phase 1 clinical trials. Our study suggests that CD14+ content should be monitored in apheresis products, and that the manufacturing of CAR T cells should incorporate a step that lessens the CD14+ cell content in apheresis products containing more than 40% to maximize the production success.

CAR T-Cell Therapy in Hematological Malignancies

Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T-cells (CAR T-cells) are a promising therapeutic approach in treating hematological malignancies. CAR T-cells represent engineered autologous T-cells, expressing a synthetic CAR, targeting tumor-associated antigens (TAAs) independent of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) presentation. The most common target is CD19 on B-cells, predominantly used for the treatment of lymphoma and acute lymphocytic leukemia (ALL), leading to approval of five different CAR T-cell therapies for clinical application. Despite encouraging clinical results, treatment of other hematological malignancies such as acute myeloid leukemia (AML) remains difficult. In this review, we focus especially on CAR T-cell application in different hematological malignancies as well as strategies for overcoming CAR T-cell dysfunction and increasing their efficacy.

BET bromodomain protein inhibition reverses chimeric antigen receptor extinction and reinvigorates exhausted T cells in chronic lymphocytic leukemia

Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cells have induced remarkable antitumor responses in B cell malignancies. Some patients do not respond because of T cell deficiencies that hamper the expansion, persistence, and effector function of these cells. We used longitudinal immune profiling to identify phenotypic and pharmacodynamic changes in CD19-directed CAR T cells in patients with chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL). CAR expression maintenance was also investigated because this can affect response durability. CAR T cell failure was accompanied by preexisting T cell-intrinsic defects or dysfunction acquired after infusion. In a small subset of patients, CAR silencing was observed coincident with leukemia relapse. Using a small molecule inhibitor, we demonstrated that the bromodomain and extra-terminal (BET) family of chromatin adapters plays a role in downregulating CAR expression. BET protein blockade also ameliorated CAR T cell exhaustion as manifested by inhibitory receptor reduction, enhanced metabolic fitness, increased proliferative capacity, and enriched transcriptomic signatures of T cell reinvigoration. BET inhibition decreased levels of the TET2 methylcytosine dioxygenase, and forced expression of the TET2 catalytic domain eliminated the potency-enhancing effects of BET protein targeting in CAR T cells, providing a mechanism linking BET proteins and T cell dysfunction. Thus, modulating BET epigenetic readers may improve the efficacy of cell-based immunotherapies.

Treatment-Related Adverse Events of Chimeric Antigen Receptor T-Cell (CAR T) in Clinical Trials: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Simple Summary

Successful treatment of hematological malignancies with chimeric antigen receptors T (CAR-T) cells has led to much enthusiasm for the wide clinical usage and development of novel CAR-T therapies. However, it also challenges physicians and investigators to recognize and deal with treatment-associated toxicities. We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis from 84 eligible study and a total of 2592 patients to identify the comprehensive incidences and severity of CRS and neurological symptoms (NS) as well as the potential differences in AEs across a variety of cancer types, CAR-T targets, and other factors, thereby offering a significant implication on its future application and research.

Abstract

Chimeric antigen receptors T (CAR-T) cell therapy of cancer is a rapidly evolving field. It has been shown to be remarkably effective in cases of hematological malignancies, and its approval by the FDA has significantly increased the enthusiasm for wide clinical usage and development of novel CAR-T therapies. However, it has also challenged physicians and investigators to recognize and deal with treatment-associated toxicities. A total of 2592 patients were included from 84 eligible studies that were systematically searched and reviewed from the databases of PubMed, de, the American Society of Hematology and the Cochrane Library. The meta-analysis and subgroup analysis by a Bayesian logistic regression model were used to evaluate the incidences of therapy-related toxicities such as cytokine release syndrome (CRS) and neurological symptoms (NS), and the differences between different targets and cancer types were analyzed. The pooled all-grade CRS rate and grade ≥ 3 CRS rate was 77% and 29%, respectively, with a significantly higher incidence in the hematologic malignancies (all-grade: 81%; grade ≥ 3: 29%) than in solid tumors (all-grade: 37%; grade ≥ 3: 19%). The pooled estimate NS rate from the individual studies were 40% for all-grade and 28% for grade ≥ 3. It was also higher in the hematologic subgroup than in the solid tumors group. The subgroup analysis by cancer type showed that higher incidences of grade ≥ 3 CRS were observed in anti-CD19 CAR-T therapy for ALL and NHL, anti-BCMA CAR-T for MM, and anti-CEA CAR-T for solid tumors, which were between 24–36%, while higher incidences of grade ≥ 3 NS were mainly observed in CD19-ALL/NHL (23–37%) and BCMA-MM (12%). Importantly, subgroup analysis on anti-CD19 CAR-T studies showed that young patients (vs. adult patients), allologous T cell origin (vs. autologous origin), gamma retrovirus vector, and higher doses of CAR-T cells were associated with high-grade CRS. On the other hand, the patients with NHL (vs ALL), administered with higher dose of CAR-T, and adult patients (vs. young patients) had an increased incidence of grade ≥ 3 NS events. This study offers a comprehensive summary of treatment-related toxicity and will guide future clinical trials and therapeutic designs investigating CAR T cell therapy.

Current combinatorial CAR T cell strategies with Bruton tyrosine kinase inhibitors and immune checkpoint inhibitors

CD19-targeted chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cell therapy has shown high efficacy in patients with refractory B-cell malignancies such as non-Hodgkin lymphoma and acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Despite promising results, responses are not durable in most patients. In addition, patients receiving CD19 CAR T cell therapy are at risk of developing severe, potentially life-threatening, adverse events including cytokine release syndrome and immune effector-cell associated neurotoxicity syndrome. Many combinatorial approaches are currently being investigated to improve CAR T cell in vivo function, antitumor effects, and mitigate toxicities. In this review, we discuss the use of ibrutinib and immune checkpoint inhibitors in combination with CAR T cell therapy in patients with lymphoid B-cell malignancies.

The "Magic Bullet" Is Here? Cell-Based Immunotherapies for Hematological Malignancies in the Twilight of the Chemotherapy Era

Despite the introduction of a plethora of different anti-neoplastic approaches including standard chemotherapy, molecularly targeted small-molecule inhibitors, monoclonal antibodies, and finally hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT), there is still a need for novel therapeutic options with the potential to cure hematological malignancies. Although nowadays HSCT already offers a curative effect, its implementation is largely limited by the age and frailty of the patient. Moreover, its efficacy in combating the malignancy with graft-versus-tumor effect frequently coexists with undesirable graft-versus-host disease (GvHD). Therefore, it seems that cell-based adoptive immunotherapies may constitute optimal strategies to be successfully incorporated into the standard therapeutic protocols. Thus, modern cell-based immunotherapy may finally represent the long-awaited "magic bullet" against cancer. However, enhancing the safety and efficacy of this treatment regimen still presents many challenges. In this review, we summarize the up-to-date state of the art concerning the use of CAR-T cells and NK-cell-based immunotherapies in hemato-oncology, identify possible obstacles, and delineate further perspectives.

CAR T-Cell Therapy in Hematologic Malignancies: Clinical Role, Toxicity, and Unanswered Questions

At the time of writing, five anti-CD19 CAR T-cell products are approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration for seven different indications in lymphoid malignancies, including B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma, pediatric B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia, and multiple myeloma. CAR T cells for chronic lymphocytic leukemia, acute myeloid leukemia, and less common malignancies such as T-cell lymphomas and Hodgkin lymphoma are being tested in early-phase clinical trials worldwide. The purpose of this overview is to describe the current landscape of CAR T cells in hematologic malignancies, outline their outcomes and toxicities, and explain the outstanding questions that remain to be addressed.

Treatment of Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia After Discontinuation of Bruton's Tyrosine Kinase Inhibitors

The Bruton's tyrosine kinase inhibitors (BTKis) ibrutinib and acalabrutinib have led to durable responses for patients with both treatment-naïve and relapsed/refractory chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL). Many patients, however, ultimately discontinue BTKis due to toxicity or progressive CLL. This article reviews the two most common reasons for ibrutinib and acalabrutinib discontinuation, including adverse events as well as CLL progression. The data for specific CLL-directed therapies following BTKi discontinuation, including venetoclax, phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase inhibitors, cellular therapies, and ongoing clinical trials, are reviewed. An evidence-based sequencing algorithm for treatment of CLL following BTKi discontinuation is proposed.

Allogeneic stem cell transplantation for chronic lymphocytic leukemia in the era of novel agents

Although novel agents (NAs) have improved outcomes for patients with chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL), a subset will progress through all available NAs. Understanding outcomes for potentially curative modalities including allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (alloHCT) following NA therapy is critical while devising treatment sequences aimed at long-term disease control. In this multicenter, retrospective cohort study, we examined 65 patients with CLL who underwent alloHCT following exposure to ≥1 NA, including baseline disease and transplant characteristics, treatment preceding alloHCT, transplant outcomes, treatment following alloHCT, and survival outcomes. Univariable and multivariable analyses evaluated associations between pre-alloHCT factors and progression-free survival (PFS). Twenty-four-month PFS, overall survival (OS), nonrelapse mortality, and relapse incidence were 63%, 81%, 13%, and 27% among patients transplanted for CLL. Day +100 cumulative incidence of grade III-IV acute graft-vs-host disease (GVHD) was 24%; moderate-severe GVHD developed in 27%. Poor-risk disease characteristics, prior NA exposure, complete vs partial remission, and transplant characteristics were not independently associated with PFS. Hematopoietic cell transplantation-specific comorbidity index independently predicts PFS. PFS and OS were not impacted by having received NAs vs both NAs and chemoimmunotherapy, 1 vs ≥2 NAs, or ibrutinib vs venetoclax as the line of therapy immediately pre-alloHCT. AlloHCT remains a viable long-term disease control strategy that overcomes adverse CLL characteristics. Prior NAs do not appear to impact the safety of alloHCT, and survival outcomes are similar regardless of number of NAs received, prior chemoimmunotherapy exposure, or NA immediately preceding alloHCT. Decisions about proceeding to alloHCT should consider comorbidities and anticipated response to remaining therapeutic options.

Pharmacologic Control of CAR T Cells

Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) therapy is a promising modality for the treatment of advanced cancers that are otherwise incurable. During the last decade, different centers worldwide have tested the anti-CD19 CAR T cells and shown clinical benefits in the treatment of B cell tumors. However, despite these encouraging results, CAR treatment has also been found to lead to serious side effects and capricious response profiles in patients. In addition, the CD19 CAR success has been difficult to reproduce for other types of malignancy. The appearance of resistant tumor variants, the lack of antigen specificity, and the occurrence of severe adverse effects due to over-stimulation of the therapeutic cells have been identified as the major impediments. This has motivated a growing interest in developing strategies to overcome these hurdles through CAR control. Among them, the combination of small molecules and approved drugs with CAR T cells has been investigated. These have been exploited to induce a synergistic anti-cancer effect but also to control the presence of the CAR T cells or tune the therapeutic activity. In the present review, we discuss opportunistic and rational approaches involving drugs featuring anti-cancer efficacy and CAR-adjustable effect.