Local expression of antiinflammatory cytokines in cancer

Tumor-Infiltrating T Cells in Skin Basal Cell Carcinomas and Squamous Cell Carcinomas: Global Th1 Preponderance with Th17 Enrichment-A Cross-Sectional Study

Basal cell carcinomas (BCCs) and squamous cell carcinomas (SCCs) are high-incidence, non-melanoma skin cancers (NMSCs). The success of immune-targeted therapies in advanced NMSCs led us to anticipate that NMSCs harbored significant populations of tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes with potential anti-tumor activity. The main aim of this study was to characterize T cells infiltrating NMSCs. Flow cytometry and immunohistochemistry were used to assess, respectively, the proportions and densities of T cell subpopulations in BCCs (n = 118), SCCs (n = 33), and normal skin (NS, n = 30). CD8+ T cells, CD4+ T cell subsets, namely, Th1, Th2, Th17, Th9, and regulatory T cells (Tregs), CD8+ and CD4+ memory T cells, and γδ T cells were compared between NMSCs and NS samples. Remarkably, both BCCs and SCCs featured a significantly higher Th1/Th2 ratio (~four-fold) and an enrichment for Th17 cells. NMSCs also showed a significant enrichment for IFN-γ-producing CD8+T cells, and a depletion of γδ T cells. Using immunohistochemistry, NMSCs featured denser T cell infiltrates (CD4+, CD8+, and Tregs) than NS. Overall, these data favor a Th1-predominant response in BCCs and SCCs, providing support for immune-based treatments in NMSCs. Th17-mediated inflammation may play a role in the progression of NMSCs and thus become a potential therapeutic target in NMSCs.

Review of the Tumor Microenvironment in Basal and Squamous Cell Carcinoma

It is widely known that tumor cells of basal and squamous cell carcinoma interact with the cellular and acellular components of the tumor microenvironment to promote tumor growth and progression. While this environment differs for basal and squamous cell carcinoma, the cellular players within both create an immunosuppressed environment by downregulating effector CD4+ and CD8+ T cells and promoting the release of pro-oncogenic Th2 cytokines. Understanding the crosstalk that occurs within the tumor microenvironment has led to the development of immunotherapeutic agents, including vismodegib and cemiplimab to treat BCC and SCC, respectively. However, further investigation of the TME will provide the opportunity to discover novel treatment options.

Mesenchymal stem cells can prevent or promote the progression of colon cancer based on their timing of administration

BACKGROUND

Mesenchymal stem cell (MSC) therapy has been shown to have some therapeutic effects in rodent models and patients with IBD; however, its role in colon tumor models is controversial. In this study, the potential role and mechanisms of bone marrow-derived MSCs (BM-MSCs) in colitis-associated colon cancer (CAC) were investigated.

METHODS

The CAC mouse model was established with azoxymethane (AOM) and dextran sulfate sodium (DSS). The mice were administered an intraperitoneal injection of MSCs once weekly for different periods. The progression of CAC and the cytokine expression in tissues was assessed. Immunofluorescence staining was used to detect MSCs localization. Levels of immune cells in the spleen and lamina propria of the colon were detected using flow cytometry. A co-culture of MSCs and naïve T cells was performed to determine the effect of MSCs on naïve T cell differentiation.

RESULTS

Early administration of MSCs inhibited the occurrence of CAC, while late administration promoted the progression of CAC. The inhibitory effect of early injection in mice was characterized by the expression of inflammatory cytokines in colon tissue was decreased, and induction of T regulatory cells (Tregs) infiltration via TGF-β. The promotive effect of late injection was characterized by a shift of T helper (Th) 1/Th2 immune balance toward a Th2 phenotype through IL-4 secretion. IL-12 can reverse this shift to Th2 accumulation in mice.

CONCLUSION

MSCs can curb the progression of colon cancer by inducing Treg accumulation via TGF-β at the early stage of inflammatory transformation but promote the progression of colon cancer by inducing a shift in Th1/Th2 immune balance to Th2 through IL-4 secretion at the late stage. And the immune balance of Th1/Th2 influenced by MSCs could be reversed by IL-12.

SLC26A4 correlates with homologous recombination deficiency and patient prognosis in prostate cancer

Background

Homologous recombination deficiency (HRD) is closely associated with patient prognosis and treatment options in prostate cancer (PCa). However, there is a lack of quantitative indicators related to HRD to predict the prognosis of PCa accurately.

Methods

We screened HRD-related genes based on the HRD scores and constructed an HRD cluster system to explore different clinicopathological, genomic, and immunogenomic patterns among the clusters. A risk signature, HRDscore, was established and evaluated by multivariate Cox regression analysis. We noticed that SLC26A4, a model gene, demonstrated unique potential to predict prognosis and HRD in PCa. Multi-omics analysis was conducted to explore its role in PCa, and the results were validated by qRT-PCR and immunohistochemistry.

Results

Three HRD clusters were identified with significant differences in patient prognosis, clinicopathological characteristics, biological pathways, immune infiltration characteristics, and regulation of immunomodulators. Further analyses revealed that the constructed HRDscore system was an independent prognostic factor of PCa patients with good stability. Finally, we identified a single gene, SLC26A4, which significantly correlated with prognosis in three independent cohorts. Importantly, SLC26A4 was confirmed to distinguish PCa (AUC for mRNA 0.845; AUC for immunohistochemistry score 0.769) and HRD (AUC for mRNA 0.911; AUC for immunohistochemistry score 0.689) at both RNA and protein levels in our cohort.

Conclusion

This study introduces HRDscore to quantify the HRD pattern of individual PCa patients. Meanwhile, SLC26A4 is a novel biomarker and can reasonably predict the prognosis and HRD in PCa.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12967-022-03513-5.

Enhanced antitumor immune response in melanoma tumor model by anti-PD-1 small interference RNA encapsulated in nanoliposomes

Programmed cell death protein-1 (PD-1), as an immune checkpoint molecule, attenuates T-cell activity and induces T-cell exhaustion. Although siRNA has a great potential in cancer immunotherapy, its delivery to target cells is the main limitation of using siRNA. This study aimed to prepare a liposomal formulation as a siRNA carrier to silence PD-1 expression in T cells and investigate it's in vivo antitumor efficacy. The liposomal siRNA was prepared and characterized by size, zeta potential, and biodistribution. Following that, the uptake assay and mRNA silencing were evaluated in vitro at mRNA and protein levels. siRNA-PD-1 (siPD-1)-loaded liposome nanoparticles were injected into B16F0 tumor-bearing mice to evaluate tumor growth, tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes, and survival rate. Liposomal siPD-1 efficiently silenced PD-1 mRNA expression in T cells (P < 0.0001), and siPD-1-loaded liposomal nanoparticles enhanced the infiltration of T-helper 1 (Th 1) and cytotoxic T lymphocytes into the tumor tissue (P < 0.0001). Liposome-PD-1 siRNA monotherapy and PD-1 siRNA-Doxil (liposomal doxorubicin) combination therapy improved the survival significantly, compared to the control treatment (P < 0.001). Overall, these findings suggest that immunotherapy with siPD-1-loaded liposomes by enhancing T-cell-mediated antitumor immune responses could be considered as a promising strategy for the treatment of melanoma cancer.

Postoperative comparison of laparoscopic radical resection and open abdominal radical hysterectomy for cervical cancer patient

PURPOSE

There are limited data regarding postoperative complications and autoimmune reactions caused by surgery in early-stage cervical cancer patients who underwent laparoscopic radical resection (LRR). This study aimed to investigate the therapeutic effect of LRR of cervical cancer patients and its effect on cytokines.

METHODS

168 patients with cervical cancer were enrolled. The patients were divided into open group and laparoscopic group according to the random number table method, with 84 cases in each group. The surgical-related indexes and the incidence of complications of the two groups were observed, and the IFN-γ, TNF, and IL-1/2/4/6/8/10/12 levels in peripheral blood were compared before and after surgery in both groups.

RESULTS

The operation time of the patients in the laparoscopic group was significantly shorter than that in the open group (119.56 ± 45.26 vs. 206.36 ± 54.39, P < 0.01). The intraoperative blood loss in the laparoscopic group was significantly less than that in the open group (155.29 ± 57.58 vs. 529.58 ± 162.4, P < 0.01). The postoperative visual analog scale (VAS) score was also significantly lower than that in the open group (3.65 ± 0.88 vs. 6.32 ± 1.12, P < 0.01). There was no significant difference in the incidence of complications between the two groups. The degree of inflammatory cytokines changes caused by LRR was less than that of open radical surgery (P < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

LRR surgery has less stress on patients with early cervical cancer than open surgery within 5 days after surgery, which has certain reference value for early cervical cancer treatment.

Tumour Microenvironment in Skin Carcinogenesis

Tumour microenvironment is a complex system comprising cells and molecules that will provide the necessary conditions for tumour development and progression. Cells residing in the tumour microenvironment gain specific phenotypes and specific functions that are pro-tumorigenic. Tumour progression is in fact a combination between tumour cell characteristics and its interplay with tumour microenvironment. This dynamic network will allow tumour cells to grow, migrate and invade tissues. In the present chapter, we are highlighting some traits that characterise tumour microenvironment in basal cell carcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma and cutaneous melanoma. In skin cancers, there are some common tumour microenvironment characteristics such as the presence of tumour-associated macrophages and regulatory T lymphocytes that are non-tumour cells promoting tumorigenesis. There are also skin cancer type differences in terms of tumour microenvironment characteristics. Thus, markers such as macrophage migration inhibitory factor in melanoma or the extraordinary diverse genetic make-up in the cancer-associated fibroblasts associated to squamous cell carcinoma are just a few of specific traits in skin cancer types. New technological advances for evaluation of tumour environment are presented. Thus, non-invasive skin imaging techniques such as reflectance confocal microscopy can evaluate skin tumour inflammatory infiltrates for density and cellular populations. Analysing tumour micromedium in depth may offer new insights into cancer therapy and identify new therapy targets.

Effect of lentiviral vector-packaged interleukin-18 gene on the malignant behavior of lung cancer

Interleukin-18 (IL-18) is a multifunctional cytokine that exhibits antitumor, anti-infection and immunoregulatory functions. This study aimed to investigate the effects of lentiviral vector-packaged interleukin (IL)-18 gene on the malignant behavior of lung cancer and the potential underlying molecular mechanism of IL-18 anticancer activity. Human lung adenocarcinoma A549 cells transfected with human IL-18 gene-containing lentiviral expression vector were the IL-18 intervention group (group A), cells transfected with the empty lentiviral expression vector were empty vector group (group B), and cells without any intervention were the blank control group (group C). Reverse transcription-quantitative PCR and western blotting were used to determine IL-18 mRNA and protein expression levels. Cell Counting Kit-8, colony-formation, flow cytometry, invasion and wound-healing assays were used to evaluate the malignant behavior of A549 cells transfected with the IL-18 lentiviral vector. The expression levels of the T helper (Th)1 cell cytokine interferon-γ (IFN-γ) and the Th2 cell cytokine IL-4 were tested by ELISA, and western blotting was used to test the expressing of nuclear factor κB (NF-κB). The results demonstrated that IL-18 mRNA and protein expression levels in group A were significantly increased compared with groups B and C; the expression levels of IFN-γ in group A were higher and the expression levels of IL-4 in group A were lower compared with those in groups B and C; and the expression of NF-κB was increased in the cytoplasm and decreased in the nucleus in group A compared with groups B and C. The data indicated that, compared with the control groups, the IL-18 gene lentiviral expression vector increased the expression of IL-18, diminished A549 cell proliferative ability, enhanced apoptosis, decreased the invasive and metastatic capacities of the cells, promoted the secretion of IFN-γ, decreased the production of IL-4, reversed the imbalance of Th1/Th2 cell subsets and inhibited the nuclear activation of NF-κB, which collectively present an anti-lung cancer mechanism and deserve further study.

Inflammation and pancreatic cancer: An updated review

Pancreatic cancer is a devastating disease with poor prognosis in the modern era. Inflammatory processes have emerged as key mediators of pancreatic cancer development and progression. Recently, studies have been carried out to investigate the underlying mechanisms that contribute to tumorigenesis induced by inflammation. In this review, the role of inflammation in the initiation and progression of pancreatic cancer is discussed.

Immunophenotypes and Cytotoxic Functions of Lymphocytes in Patients with Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Aims and background

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the most common cancers in Asia. Immunological mechanisms are thought to play an important role in the control of tumor progression. The immune responses in HCC patients are poorly understood. In the present study, the proliferation and cytotoxic functions of lymphocytes from tumor tissues and peripheral blood of HCC patients were analysed. Simultaneously, the microcultures were phenotyped in order to determine the involvement of different lymphocyte subsets in mediating the cytotoxic function.

Methods

The frequencies of proliferating and cytotoxic lymphocytes from three tumor tissues and peripheral blood from ten HCC patients and nine healthy individuals were assessed by limiting dilution microculture analysis. These microcultures were phenotyped by single and dual color flow cytometry using monoclonal antibodies specific for CD4, CD8, CD56 and HLA-DR markers.

Results

The precursor frequencies of both proliferating and cytotoxic lymphocytes were found to be comparable in the peripheral blood of HCC patients and healthy individuals. Compared to peripheral blood, a marked reduction in the precursor frequencies of proliferating and cytotoxic lymphocytes was observed in the tumor tissues of HCC patients. In the tumor tissues, a significantly higher frequency of cytotoxic T cells compared to natural killer cells was observed. Dual color flow cytometric analysis revealed increased percentages of CD8+ HLA-DR+ lymphocytes compared to CD4+ HLA-DR+ cells in the tumor tissues.

Conclusions

Our results suggest that depressed immune responses at the tumor site might be responsible for the escape of tumor cells from the immune surveillance of the host.

Endogenously Expressed IL-4Rα Promotes the Malignant Phenotype of Human Pancreatic Cancer In Vitro and In Vivo

Exogenous interleukin-4 (IL-4) has been demonstrated to affect the growth of different human malignancies including pancreatic cancer cells. The aim of our study was to determine the role of endogenously expressed IL-4-receptor-α-chain (IL-4Rα) in pancreatic cancer cells. IL-4Rα-suppression was achieved by generating Capan-1 cells stably expressing shRNA targeting IL-4Rα. The malignant phenotype was characterized by assessing growth properties, directional and non-directional cell movement in vitro and tumor growth in vivo. Signaling pathways were analyzed upon IL-4 and IL-13 stimulation of wildtype (WT) and control-transfected cells compared to IL-4Rα-knockdown cells. Silencing of IL-4Rα resulted in reduced anchorage-dependent cell growth (p < 0.05) and reduced anchorage-independent colony size (p < 0.001) in vitro. Moreover, cell movement and migration was inhibited. IL-4 and IL-13 stimulation of Capan-1-WT cells induced activation of similar pathways like stimulation with Insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-I. This activation was reduced after IL-4Rα downregulation while IGF-I signaling seemed to be enhanced in knockdown-clones. Importantly, IL-4Rα silencing also significantly suppressed tumor growth in vivo. The present study indicates that endogenously expressed IL-4 and IL-4Rα contribute to the malignant phenotype of pancreatic cancer cells by activating diverse pro-oncogenic signaling pathways. Addressing these pathways may contribute to the treatment of the disease.

Expression of Th1- Th2- and Th17-associated cytokines in laryngeal carcinoma

T-helper (Th) 0 cell differentiation into Th1 or Th2 cells is dependent on a number of transcription factors that act at specific time points to regulate gene expression. Th17 cells, a subset of interleukin (IL)-17-producing T cells distinct from Th1 or Th2 cells, are considered to exhibit a critical function in inflammation and autoimmune diseases, as well as cancer development. In the present study, the expression of Th1-, Th2- and Th17-associated cytokines in laryngeal cancer and pericarcinoma tissues obtained from 57 laryngeal carcinoma patients was investigated. The association between Th1, Th2 and Th17 infiltration and tumor development was also evaluated. Reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction and western blotting results revealed that the mRNA and protein expression of Th2 cytokines was lower, while the expression of Th1 and Th17 cytokines was higher in tumor tissues than in pericarcinoma tissues. Furthermore, the early stage cancer patients exhibited a higher level of interferon-γ, IL-2 and IL-17 mRNA expression than those at advanced stages. Cancer tissues exhibited higher Th17 cytokine expression than pericarcinoma tissues. By contrast, Th1 cytokine expression was increased in pericarcinoma tissues compared with cancer tissues. These results indicate that high expression of Th1- and Th17-associated cytokines in laryngeal carcinoma may contribute to suppression of cancer development and a relatively good prognosis.

PPARγ Modulation of Cytokine-Stimulated MUC16 (CA125) Expression in Breast and Ovarian Cancer-Derived Cells

CA125 is serum tumor marker consisting of an epitope carried by a portion of the extremely large (>3 MDa), heavily glycosylated cell surface transmembrane mucin, MUC16. In malignancies, membrane bound mucins lose their polarized distribution, become aberrantly over-expressed and protect tumor cells from the actions of chemotherapeutic agents as well as the immune system. Previously, we described stimulation of MUC16 expression by the proinflammatory cytokines, tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα) and interferon γ (IFNγ), in breast and ovarian cancer cells and tissues. Herein, we show that PPARγ modulates cytokine-stimulated MUC16 in a complex manner: at low concentrations (<10 µM) rosiglitazone further potentiates cytokine-driven MUC16 expression while at high concentrations (>20 µM) rosiglitazone antagonizes cytokine stimulation. Rosiglitazone actions were fully reversible by the PPARγ antagonist, GW9662. Furthermore, siRNA-mediated PPARγ knockdown also prevented a large portion of high dose rosiglitazone suppression of MUC16 expression indicating that rosiglitazone inhibition is largely PPARγ-dependent. Cytokines greatly (>75%) suppressed PPARγ expression. Conversely, PPARγ activation by rosiglitazone at either low or high concentrations greatly (>75%) suppressed NFκB/p65 expression. NFκB/p65 expression was largely preserved in the presence of cytokines at low, but not high, rosiglitazone concentrations accounting for the different concentration dependent effects on MUC16 expression. Collectively, these studies demonstrate that PPARγ is an important modulator of MUC16 expression. The ability to deliver high doses of PPARγ agonists to MUC16-expressing tumors offers an avenue to reduce expression of this protective glycoprotein and increase tumor sensitivity to killing by chemotherapeutic drugs and the immune system. J. Cell. Biochem. 118: 163-171, 2017. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Clinical significance of IL-2 and IL-10 gene polymorphisms and serum levels in patients with basal-cell carcinoma

Materials & methods: Polymorphic variants of IL-2 gene (-330 T/G and +166 G/T), IL-10 gene (-1082 G/A and -819 C/T) and serum cytokines concentrations in the group of 179 patients with BCC and 173 controls were analyzed. Results: The presence of the IL-2 -330 GG genotype or IL-10 -1082 GA increased the risk of BCC (OR 3.68) (OR 3.07). IL-10 -1082 AA or GA and IL-2 -330 GG genotype increased the risk of BCC (OR 9.63). IL-2 serum levels were significantly lower (p < 0.0004) in BCC patients while IL-10 concentration was significantly higher (p < 0.00001). Conclusion: The polymorphisms in IL-2 and IL-10 genes may contribute to BCC susceptibility and influence the clinical course of BCC in polish population.

Modulation of Cytokines Production by Indomethacin Acute Dose during the Evolution of Ehrlich Ascites Tumor in Mice

The aim of the present study was to investigate the influence of a nonselective COX1/COX2 inhibitor (indomethacin) on tumor growth of Ehrlich Ascites Tumor (EAT) in mice, using as parameters the tumor growth and cytokine profile. Mice were inoculated with EAT cells and treated with indomethacin. After 1, 3, 6, 10, and 13 days the animals were evaluated for the secretion of TNFα, IL-1α, IL-2, IL-4, IL-6, IL-10, and IL-13 and PGE2 level in peritoneal cavity. The results have shown that EAT induces PGE2 production and increases tumor cells number from the 10th day. The cytokine profile showed EAT induces production of IL-6 from 10th day and of IL-2 on 13th day; the other studied cytokines were not affected in a significant way. The indomethacin treatment of EAT-bearing mice inhibited the tumor growth and PGE2 synthesis from the 10th day. In addition, the treatment of EAT-bearing mice with indomethacin has stimulated the IL-13 production and has significantly inhibited IL-6 in the 13th day of tumor growth. Taken together, the results have demonstrated that EAT growth is modulated by PGE2 and the inhibition of the tumor growth could be partly related to suppression of IL-6 and induction of IL-13.

The expression levels of transcription factors T-bet, GATA-3, RORγt and FOXP3 in peripheral blood lymphocyte (PBL) of patients with liver cancer and their significance

OBJECTIVES

To investigate the expression of transcriptional factors (TFs) T-bet, GATA-3, RORγt and FOXP in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) of patients with hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) and to evaluate the correlation between the imbalances of Th1/Th2, Th17/Treg at the expression levels and liver cancer Methods: The peripheral venous blood was drawn from 20 HCC-patients (HCC-group) and 20 health participants (C-group). The expression levels of Th1, Th2 and Th17 and the major Treg-specific TFs T-bet, GATA-3, RORγt and FOXP3 in the PBMC were measured with quantitative real-time PCR(RT-qPCR).

RESULTS

The mRNA level of Th1-specific TF T-bet in HCC-group was significantly lower than that of C-group (52.34±34.07 VS 104.01±56.00, P<0.01); the mRNA level of Th2-specifc TF, GATA-3, in HCC group was significantly higher than that in C-group (1.38±1.15 VS 0.58±0.65, P<0.05) and T-bet mRNA/GATA-3 mRNA ratio was significantly lower in HCC-group than in C-group (86.01±116.71 VS 461.88±708.81, P<0.05). The mRNA level of Th17-specific TF RORγt in HCC-group was significantly higher than that of C-group (72.32±32.82 VS 33.07±22.86, P<0.01). Treg-specific TF FOXP3 mRNA level was significant higher in HCC-group than in C-group (3.17±1.59 VS 1.39±1.13, P<0.01) CONCLUSION: T-bet mRNA level was reduced whereas GATA-3 mRNA level was increased and T-bet/GATA-3 ratio was significantly reduced in PBMC, indicating that Th1/Th2 ratio was of imbalance at TF levels in PBMC of HCC, displaying Th2 thrift phenomena. The mRNA levels of RORγt and FOXP3 in PBMC of HCC were significantly increased, indicating the existence of a predominant phenomenon of Th17- and Treg-expressing PBMC in HCC.

Lessons from patient-derived xenografts for better in vitro modeling of human cancer

The development of novel cancer therapeutics is often plagued by discrepancies between drug efficacies obtained in preclinical studies and outcomes of clinical trials. The inconsistencies can be attributed to a lack of clinical relevance of the cancer models used for drug testing. While commonly used in vitro culture systems are advantageous for addressing specific experimental questions, they are often gross, fidelity-lacking simplifications that largely ignore the heterogeneity of cancers as well as the complexity of the tumor microenvironment. Factors such as tumor architecture, interactions among cancer cells and between cancer and stromal cells, and an acidic tumor microenvironment are critical characteristics observed in patient-derived cancer xenograft models and in the clinic. By mimicking these crucial in vivo characteristics through use of 3D cultures, co-culture systems and acidic culture conditions, an in vitro cancer model/microenvironment that is more physiologically relevant may be engineered to produce results more readily applicable to the clinic.

Expression of CD163, interleukin-10, and interferon-gamma in oral squamous cell carcinoma: mutual relationships and prognostic implications

Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) and their associated inflammatory cytokines represent the major inflammatory component of the stroma of many tumors and can affect prognosis in the case of neoplasms. The objective of this study was to determine the prognostic significance of CD163(+) cells, interleukin-10 (IL-10), and interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) in oral lesions associated with oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC). The levels of CD163, IFN-γ, and IL-10 in the tissue samples of 240 patients with OSCC and 58 patients with other oral lesions were assessed by immunohistochemistry. Individuals with low IFN-γ levels, high IL-10 levels, and low CD163 levels were of special concern with respect to OSCC progression. We found that high levels of CD163, or a combination of low IFN-γ levels, high IL-10 levels, and low CD163 levels, were associated with poorer overall survival (OS). CD163(+) cells provide better predictive power for OS in comparison with traditional markers, such as clinical stage and lymph node metastasis. Therefore, CD163(+) cells may be effective prognostic predictors of OSCC. IL-10 may also indicate poor outcomes when IFN-γ secretion is low and the cells are CD163(-) .

Type I interferons: key players in normal skin and select cutaneous malignancies

Interferons (IFNs) are a family of naturally existing glycoproteins known for their antiviral activity and their ability to influence the behavior of normal and transformed cell types. Type I Interferons include IFN- α and IFN- β . Currently, IFN- α has numerous approved antitumor applications, including malignant melanoma, in which IFN- α has been shown to increase relapse free survival. Moreover, IFN- α has been successfully used in the intralesional treatment of cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) and basal cell carcinoma (BCC). In spite of these promising clinical results; however, there exists a paucity of knowledge on the precise anti-tumor action of IFN- α / β at the cellular and molecular levels in cutaneous malignancies such as SCC, BCC, and melanoma. This review summarizes current knowledge on the extent to which Type I IFN influences proliferation, apoptosis, angiogenesis, and immune function in normal skin, cutaneous SCC, BCC, and melanoma.

Epithelial keratin and filaggrin expression in seborrheic keratosis: evaluation based on histopathological classification

OBJECTIVES

Seborrheic keratosis (SK) is classified into six types: hyperkeratotic; acanthotic; irritated; clonal; reticulated; and adenoid. However, the origins of the respective types of SK remain unclear.

METHODS

To clarify the histogenetic origins of SK, we performed immunohistochemical studies of keratin (K) and filaggrin expression, taking into account the histopathological classifications of SK.

RESULTS

Hyperkeratotic SK mainly expressed K1, K10, and filaggrin. Acanthotic SK mainly expressed K14 with some K15. Irritated SK mainly expressed K14 and K17 in squamous eddies. Clonal SK, reticulated SK, and adenoid SK mainly expressed K14. The results show that hyperkeratotic SK differentiated towards squamoid terminal keratinization, whereas acanthotic, irritated, clonal, reticulated, and adenoid SK mainly differentiated towards basaloid undifferentiated cells. In addition, acanthotic SK differentiated towards the hair bulge, and irritated SK differentiated towards the follicular infrainfundibulum.

CONCLUSIONS

Based on the patterns of keratin and filaggrin expression demonstrated by the histopathological types, SK demonstrated diverse differentiation towards epidermal keratinization, basaloid cells, the infrainfundibulum and hair follicle bulges, which suggests that SK is in an undifferentiated and hyperproliferative state with heterogeneous differentiation. The immunohistochemical method of investigating patterns of keratin expression is useful in the differential diagnosis of cutaneous epithelial tumors.

Tissue-derived hedgehog proteins modulate Th differentiation and disease

Genome-wide association studies of complex immune-mediated diseases have indicated that many genetic factors, each with individual low risk, contribute to overall disease. It is therefore timely and important to characterize how immune responses may be subtly modified by tissue context. In this article, we explore the role of tissue-derived molecules in influencing the function of T cells, which, owing to their migratory nature, come into contact with many different microenvironments through their lifespan. Hedgehog (Hh) proteins act as secreted morphogens, providing concentration-dependent positional and temporal cell-fate specification in solid tissues. Hh signaling is required for embryogenesis and is important in postnatal tissue renewal and in malignancy. However, the function of Hh in dynamic, fluid systems, such as in mammalian immunity, is largely unknown. In this article, we show that Hh-dependent transcription in T cells promoted Th2 transcriptional programs and differentiation, exacerbating allergic disease. Of interest, expression of Sonic Hh increased in lung epithelial cells following the induction of allergic disease, and lung T cells upregulated Hh target gene expression, indicating that T cells respond to locally secreted Hh ligands in vivo. We show that Il4, the key Th2 cytokine, is a novel transcriptional target of Hh signals in T cells, providing one mechanism for the role of Hh in Th differentiation. We propose that Hh, secreted from inflamed, remodeling, or malignant tissue, can modulate local T cell function. Our data present an unexpected and novel role for tissue-derived morphogens in the regulation of fluid immune responses, with implications for allergy and tumor responses, suggesting new uses for anti-Hh therapeutics.

Nano size effects of TiO2 nanotube array on the glioma cells behavior

In order to investigate the interplay between the cells and TiO₂ nanotube array, and to explore the ability of cells to sense the size change in nano-environment, we reported on the behavior of glioma C6 cells on nanotube array coatings in terms of proliferation and apoptosis. The behavior of glioma C6 cells was obviously size-dependent on the coatings; the caliber with 15 nm diameter provided effective spacing to improve the cells proliferation and enhanced the cellular activities. C6 cells’ biological behaviors showed many similar tendencies to many phorocytes; the matching degree of geometry between nanotube and integrin defined that a spacing of 15 nm was optimal for inducing signals to nucleus, which results in achieving maximum activity of glioma cells. In addition, the immune behavior of cells was studied, a variety of inflammatory mediator’s gene expression levels were controlled by the nanoscale dimension, the expressions of IL-6 and IL-10 were higher on 30 nm than on 15 nm nanotube.

Association analyses identify multiple new lung cancer susceptibility loci and their interactions with smoking in the Chinese population

To find additional susceptibility loci for lung cancer, we tested promising associations from our previous genome-wide association study (GWAS) of lung cancer in the Chinese population in an extended validation sample size of 7,436 individuals with lung cancer (cases) and 7,483 controls. We found genome-wide significant (P < 5.0 × 10(-8)) evidence for three additional lung cancer susceptibility loci at 10p14 (rs1663689, close to GATA3, P = 2.84 × 10(-10)), 5q32 (rs2895680 in PPP2R2B-STK32A-DPYSL3, P = 6.60 × 10(-9)) and 20q13.2 (rs4809957 in CYP24A1, P = 1.20 × 10(-8)). We also found consistent associations for rs247008 at 5q31.1 (IL3-CSF2-P4HA2, P = 7.68 × 10(-8)) and rs9439519 at 1p36.32 (AJAP1-NPHP4, P = 3.65 × 10(-6)). Four of these loci showed evidence for interactions with smoking dose (P = 1.72 × 10(-10), P = 5.07 × 10(-3), P = 6.77 × 10(-3) and P = 4.49 × 10(-2) for rs2895680, rs4809957, rs247008 and rs9439519, respectively). These results advance our understanding of lung cancer susceptibility and highlight potential pathways that integrate genetic variants and smoking in the development of lung cancer.

Epithelial immune cell-like transition (EIT): a proposed transdifferentiation process underlying immune-suppressive activity of epithelial cancers

The immune system plays a key role in eliminating cancer cells in the body. However, even in fully immune-competent bodies cancers can evade anti-tumor immune action. There is increasing evidence that epithelial cancers can actively suppress anti-tumor immune responses by creating an immune-suppressive micro-environment. It has been reported that epithelial cancers can express immune genes/proteins not normally expressed by their parental tissues, including a variety of cytokines/receptors, immune transcription factors and Ig motifs in cell surface molecules. Recently we observed increased expression of immune genes, including immune-suppressive genes, by prostate epithelial cancers. In view of the above, we propose that immune-suppressive activity of epithelial cancers may stem from their acquisition of immune properties via a transdifferentiation process, we term "Epithelial Immune Cell-like Transition" (EIT), similar to neuroendocrine-like transdifferentiation of prostate adenocarcinoma cells. We propose that the acquired immune properties enable the cancer cells to "communicate" with immune cells, leading to suppression of anti-cancer immune activity in their micro-environment and facilitation of the expansion and malignant progression of the disease. Acquired immune properties of epithelial cancers, which might be quite common, could provide novel targets for reducing cancer-generated immune-suppressive activity and enhancing anti-tumor immune activity. This proposed paradigm shift could lead to novel therapeutic approaches with improved efficacy and broad application.

Recent advances in developing synthetic carbohydrate-based vaccines for cancer immunotherapies

Cancer cells can often be distinguished from healthy cells by the expression of unique carbohydrate sequences decorating the cell surface as a result of aberrant glycosyltransferase activity occurring within the cell; these unusual carbohydrates can be used as valuable immunological targets in modern vaccine designs to raise carbohydrate-specific antibodies. Many tumor antigens (e.g., GM2, Ley, globo H, sialyl Tn and TF) have been identified to date in a variety of cancers. Unfortunately, carbohydrates alone evoke poor immunogenicity, owing to their lack of ability in inducing T-cell-dependent immune responses. In order to enhance their immunogenicity and promote long-lasting immune responses, carbohydrates are often chemically modified to link to an immunogenic protein or peptide fragment for eliciting T-cell-dependent responses. This review will present a summary of efforts and advancements made to date on creating carbohydrate-based anticancer vaccines, and will include novel approaches to overcoming the poor immunogenicity of carbohydrate-based vaccines.

Th2 and regulatory immune reactions contribute to IgG4 production and the initiation of Mikulicz disease

OBJECTIVE

Mikulicz disease has been considered to be a subtype of Sjögren's syndrome (SS). However, recent studies have suggested that Mikulicz disease is an IgG4-related disease and is distinguishable from SS. In addition, it has been reported that both interleukin-4 (IL-4) and IL-10 induce IgG4 production and inhibit IgE. This study was undertaken to examine the expression of these cytokines in patients with Mikulicz disease and patients with SS.

METHODS

Labial salivary gland (LSG) sections from 15 patients with Mikulicz disease and 18 patients with SS were examined for subsets of the infiltrating lymphocytes, expression patterns of messenger RNA (mRNA) for cytokines/chemokines, and relationships between the IgG4:IgG ratio and the expression of mRNA for IL-4 or IL-10.

RESULTS

Immunohistochemical analysis showed lymphocyte infiltration of various subsets in the LSGs of SS patients, and the selective infiltration of IgG4-positive plasma cells and Treg cells in the LSGs of Mikulicz disease patients. The levels of mRNA for both Th1 and Th2 cytokines and chemokines in LSGs from patients with SS were significantly higher than in controls, while the expression of both Th2 and Treg cells was significantly higher in the patients with Mikulicz disease than in controls. Furthermore, the expression of IL-4 or IL-10 in the LSGs was correlated with the IgG4:IgG ratio.

CONCLUSION

These results suggest that the pathogenesis of Mikulicz disease is different from that of SS. Mikulicz disease is a unique inflammatory disorder characterized by Th2 and regulatory immune reactions that might play key roles in IgG4 production.

Early effects of low dose C ion or x-ray irradiation on peripheral blood lymphocytes of patients with alimentary tract cancer

The aim of this study was to examine the early effects of low dose (12)C(6+) irradiation or X-ray on peripheral blood lymphocytes (PBL) of patients with alimentary tract cancer and to explore mechanisms that may be involved in an antitumor immune response. We found that the percentage of T lymphocyte subsets, the mRNA expression levels of IL-2 and IFN-γ in PBL, and their protein levels in supernatant were significantly increased 24 hours after exposure to low dose radiation. The effects were more pronounced in the group receiving 0.05Gy (12)C(6+) ion irradiation than the group receiving X-ray irradiation. There was no significant change in the percentage of NK cell subsets and TNF-α production of PBL. Our study suggests that low dose irradiation could alleviate immune suppression caused by tumor burden and that the effect was more pronounced for 0.05Gy high linear energy transfer (LET) (12)C(6+) irradiation.

Preliminary analysis of Th1/Th2 and Tc1/Tc2 shift in peripheral blood of gastric cancer patients

AIM: To investigate shift of Th1/Th2 and Tc1/Tc2 balance in peripheral blood of gastric cancer patients.

METHODS: Peripheral blood samples were collected from 25 preoperative gastric cancer patients and 25 healthy controls. Intracellular cytokine expression (IFN-γ, IL-4) of activated T lymphocytes were assessed by four-color flow cytometric analysis.

RESULTS: The ratios of Th1/PBL, Tc1/PBL, Th1/Th2 and Tc1/Tc2 in gastric cancer patients were significantly lower than the normal control group (6.242% ± 4.078% vs 3.047% ±1.710%, 14.171% ± 8.984% vs 6.393% ± 5.235%, 3.127% ± 3.633% vs 1.172% ± 0.300%, 17.200% ± 25.930% vs 3.252% ± 8.732%, all P < 0.01).

CONCLUSION: There is a shift in the Th1/Th2, Tc1/Tc2 balance toward Th2 and Tc2 dominance in peripheral blood of gastric cancer patients, suggesting that cellular immunity of gastric cancer patients is inhibited and that the abnormal differentiation of T cell subsets might play an important role in the pathologic process of gastric cancer.

An evaluation of a preparation of Mycobacterium vaccae (SRL172) as an immunotherapeutic agent in renal cancer

Two studies were carried out to evaluate heat-killed Mycobacterium vaccae SRL172 as an immunotherapeutic agent for patients with metastatic, post-nephrectomy, renal cell carcinoma. In the first study, 60 patients in France and the UK received injections of SRL172, and their survival was compared with that of historical controls who had been treated either with biological response modifiers (IL-2, IFN-alpha) or chemotherapy. In the second study, 36 patients were randomised to receive treatment with IL-2 alone or IL-2 plus SRL172. Survival and adverse events related to the treatments were assessed and compared between treatment groups. The first study showed that those treated with SRL172 alone survived equally as long as those receiving IL-2 or IFN-alpha and both treatment groups survived longer than those on chemotherapy (p<0.001), a result supported by Cox's proportional hazards regression analysis. The second study, stopped early due to drug supply issues, showed that the addition of SRL172 to IL-2 made no difference to survival compared to IL-2 alone, in the limited numbers treated. Adverse events occurring in those receiving SRL172 in the first study were mild and in the second study those receiving IL-2 alone had significantly more adverse events than those receiving SRL172 plus IL-2 (p<0.001). It is concluded that SRL172 may have activity in metastatic renal cancer and has very low toxicity, making it worthy of further study.

Enhancement of CD4+ T cell activities and modulation of Th1/Th2 lineage development in radiated tumor-bearing rats treated with male zooid of Antheraea pernyi extracts

AIM: To investigate whether supplementation of male zooid of Antheraea pernyi extracts (MZAPE) could enhance immune function of radiated tumor-bearing rats.

METHODS: Eighty male Wistar rats were randomly divided into a control group, a simple radiation group, a MZAPE group, and a radiation plus MZAPE group. With the tumor model established by implanting Walker-256 ascites tumor cells, tumor weight and tumor control rate were calculated. The rats in the simple radiation and radiation plus MZAPE groups were underwent to radiation at 10 Gy within 2 d. In the MZAPE and radiation plus MZAPE groups, the MZAPE was gavaged at a dose of 16.53 mg/kg once a day for 7 d. T cell subsets in peripheral blood were determined by flow cytometry and the expression of IL-2, IFN-γ, IL-4 and IL-10 in sera were determined by ELISA on the 8th d.

RESULTS: The tumor weight of simple radiation group, MZAPE group and radiation plus MZAPE group was lower than that of control group (P < 0.01) and tumor control rates were 63.08% ± 6.43%, 69.86% ± 7.12% and 35.30% ± 7.67%, respectively. CD4⁺ T and CD8⁺ T cells in the peripheral blood of the simple radiation group were fewer than in control group. In the MZAPE and radiation plus MZAPE groups, the number of CD4⁺ T cells was higher while CD8⁺ T cells was lower than in the control and simple radiation groups. Expression of IL-2 and INF-γ in the radiation group was lower than in control group, and significantly enhanced during MZAPE therapy (P < 0.05). Expression of IL-4 and IL-10 in the radiation group had no significant changes compared with the control group, and decreased significantly after MZAPE treatment (P < 0.01).

CONCLUSION: MZAPE administration may help improve the immune function of the radiated tumor-bearing rats and reverse the radiation-induced immune inhibition by promoting the proliferation of T helper cells and inducing the transdifferentiation from Th2 to Th1.

Use of a keratolytic agent with occlusion for topical treatment of hyperkeratotic seborrheic keratoses

BACKGROUND

Seborrheic keratoses are the most common benign tumors in adults. Despite their negative cosmetic appearance, no topical treatment is commonly recommended for these lesions.

OBJECTIVE

Our objective was to assess whether clinical benefit could be achieved by using a keratolytic topical agent and superficial scraping for this condition.

METHODS

A topical 50% urea-containing product under occlusion was applied daily to large and/or thick hyperkeratotic seborrheic keratoses on the truck and extremities. The patients were instructed to digitally scrape the surface of the lesions in an attempt to reduce the thickness of the lesions.

RESULTS

In a pilot nonrandomized open-label survey, patients expressed satisfaction with using this topical therapeutic technique.

CONCLUSIONS

Hyperkeratotic seborrheic keratoses can be satisfactorily managed with topical agents and scraping with reasonable patient satisfaction. Further studies with various keratolytic agents using other delivery systems are warranted.

Targeting tumours by adoptive transfer of immune cells

1. Surgery, radiotherapy and chemotherapy are the most widely used and well-established modalities for treating malignant diseases. Surgery is used to excise solid tumours and radiotherapy/chemotherapy are used for the treatment of liquid tumours and for solid tumours where there is a risk of micrometastases. A major drawback for both radiotherapy and chemotherapy is their lack of specificity for tumour cells. Both these treatments can destroy normal bone marrow cells and result in severe side-effects. 2. The impairment of haemapoiesis due to bone marrow destruction combined with the use of toxins in chemotherapy that inhibit the proliferation of immune cells leaves many patients immunocompromised. This complicates the development of prophylactic (vaccine) strategies for tumours where patients are undergoing conventional therapy. 3. An alternative approach is to expand and activate tumour-specific immune cells in vitro that can then be adoptively transferred back in large numbers. This is defined as adoptive immunotherapy and has the advantage of potentially bypassing the immuno-inhibitory effects of conventional therapies. 4. Transferred immune cells have been shown to mediate tumour regression in patients by both direct and indirect mechanisms. The immune cells used include tumour reactive T lymphocytes and dendritic cells, which elicit tumour specific responses. 5. Many novel cell-based immunotherapeutic strategies developed in murine tumour models are now being applied in human clinical trials. The malignancies targeted include melanoma, chronic myelogenous leukaemia and breast, ovarian, colon and kidney cancers. In the present review, we discuss these novel cell-based strategies and the implications they have for the future treatment of human malignancies.

Cytokine production of lung cancer cell lines: Correlation between their production and the inflammatory/immunological responses both in vivo and in vitro

Cytokines produced by tumor cells may have various effects on antitumor immune responses and tumor growth. In the present study, the cytokine production of 31 lung cancer cell lines was evaluated, while any correlation with the histological type, the induction of tumor-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL) in vitro, and angiogenesis and the infiltration of inflammatory cells in tumor tissues were also examined. Production of interleukin (IL)-1alpha, IL-1beta, IL-4, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha, granulocyte macrophage colony stimulating factor (GM-CSF), granulocyte colony stimulating factor, transforming growth factor (TGF)-beta and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) in the culture supernatant was measured using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Each cytokine was produced in a substantial number of the tumor cell lines. In particular, IL-6, IL-8, TGF-beta and VEGF were produced in 18 (55%), 29 (94%), 31 (100%) and 28 (90%) of 31 cell lines, respectively. However, neither IL-4 nor TNF-alpha was produced at all by any tumor cell line. TGF-beta production was significantly higher in adenocarcinoma than in squamous cell carcinoma (P = 0.03). Immunohistochemical staining revealed the magnitude of macrophage infiltration, and angiogenesis in surgically resected tumor tissue specimens correlated well with GM-CSF and IL-8 production from the corresponding cell lines. Among six lung cancer cell lines, CTL were induced in the three lung cancer cell lines that produced a lower amount of TGF-beta (<100 pg/mL). These findings suggested that TGF-beta produced by tumor cells could inhibit the induction of CTL in vitro. The present results suggest that the production of various cytokines from tumor cells might exert various paracrine effects both in vivo and in vitro.

Immunization of Rhesus monkeys with a SialylTn-mAb17-1A conjugate vaccine co-formulated with QS-21 induces a temporary systemic cytokine release and NK cytotoxicity against tumor cells

Tumor-associated antigens resulting from aberrant glycosylation, such as the SialylTn carbohydrate antigen, are frequently over-expressed on cancer cells and provide potential targets for cancer vaccination. Immunization of Rhesus monkeys with SialylTn coupled to a highly immunogenic carrier molecule and formulated on aluminum hydroxide induced a strong immune response against the carrier protein but only a moderate IgM immune response against the SialylTn carbohydrate antigen. Co-formulation with QS-21 adjuvant dramatically enhanced the anti-SialylTn immune response and resulted in a SialylTn-specific IgG switch. The kinetics of the carbohydrate-specific IgG response correlated with a temporary release of cytokines such as IFNgamma, IL-2, IL-1beta, TNFalpha and GM-CSF which was measurable in the immune serum by xMAP Multiplex technology. Furthermore, tumor cell killing by activated natural killer cells was induced. These data demonstrate that immunization with a tumor-associated carbohydrate antigen in a highly immunogenic formulation results in a temporary release of type 1 cytokines which may be required for the induction of a specific IgG immune response against the carbohydrate antigen as well as for activation of effector cells against tumor cells.

In vivo expression of immunosuppressive cytokines in human papillomavirus-transformed cervical cancer cells

Genital human Papillomavirus infection is common and only a minor fraction of infected subjects develop progressing cervical epithelial lesions or cancer. Bypassing local immune responses is important for the development of cervical cancer. In this work we determined the cytokine pattern in samples from patients with cervical cancer. Thus, we examined the local mRNA expression profile of helper T cell type 1 (Th1), Th2, and Th3 cytokines in HPV-positive cervical cancer biopsies by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction. Our data indicate that 80% of the tumors expressed low levels of CD4 mRNA, with all of them expressing higher CD8 mRNA levels. Most tumors expressed interleukin (IL)-4 and IL-10 mRNAs and, most importantly, all of them expressed transforming growth factor (TGF)-beta1 and interferon gamma mRNA. None of the tumors studied expressed IL-12, IL-6, or tumor necrosis factor (TNF) mRNA. Immunohistochemical analysis identified IL-10 only in tumor cells and koilocytic cells, but not in tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes, suggesting that IL-10-producing cells are those transformed by HPV. We found a correlation between immunostaining for IL-10 protein and the level of IL-10 mRNA expression. Moreover, supernatants from HPV-transformed cell cultures contained IL-10 and TGF- beta1. Our findings indicate a predominant expression of immunosuppressive cytokines, which might help downregulate tumor-specific immune responses in the microenvironment of the tumor. This information may be useful for cervical cancer immunotherapies or for therapeutic vaccine design against Human Papillomavirus.

Cytokine Gene Polymorphisms and Breast Cancer Susceptibility

Human breast cancer (BC) is characterized by a considerable clinical heterogeneity. Steroid hormone receptor expression and growth factor receptor expression have been considered suitable diagnostic and prognostic markers, whereas mutations of oncosuppressor and gatekeeper genes have been found associated with an increased risk for this malignancy. To evaluate the role that polymorphisms of genes involved in the regulation of inflammatory response might play in BC susceptibility, we investigated associations between cytokine functionally relevant polymorphisms in 84 BC patients compared to 110 age- and sex-matched controls. TNF-alpha (-308G/A), TGF-beta1 (+869C/T), IL-10 (-1117G/A; -854C/T; -627C/A), and IFN-gamma (874T/A) single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) were identified by sequence-specific primers (SSP)-PCR or restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP)-PCR. Genotype or haplotype distributions for each polymorphisms were consistent with the HWE in these populations. We were unable to demonstrate differences in genotype or allele frequencies between patient and control groups. Data obtained in this study indicate that none of the cytokine SNPs studied is likely to have predisposing or protective effects on BC susceptibility. On the other hand, both positive and negative association with BC have been reported for some of the studied genotypes by different research groups. In conclusion, further studies involving larger numbers of subjects are required.

Direct interaction of C/EBPdelta and Sp1 at the GC-enriched promoter region synergizes the IL-10 gene transcription in mouse macrophage

We previously reported that LPS activates the transcription of the IL-10 gene through the Sp1 and C/EBP binding sites and indicated that Sp1, C/EBPbeta and C/EBPdelta can coactivate the IL-10 gene expression in mouse macrophage cells [Liu Y.-W., Tseng H.-P., Chen L.-C., Chen B.-K., Chang W.-C. J. Immunol. 171: 821-828, 2003]. In the present report, we demonstrated the direct physical interaction between C/EBPdelta and Sp1, and also mapped the interaction domains of these two proteins. C/EBPdelta binds to Sp1 via its basic region leucine zipper domain. The C-terminus of Sp1 was also the major region interacting with C/EBPdelta. However, both glutamine- and serine/threonine-rich homologus regions of Sp1 also interacted with C/EBPdelta. The binding of Sp1 and C/EBPdelta as a complex to the Sp1 binding site on the promoter of IL-10 was further confirmed by using the DNA affinity precipitation assay. By using Sp1-deficient SL2 cells, we also found that the overexpressions of C/EBPdelta and Sp1 synergically activate the transcriptional activity of IL-10 gene. Taken together, our present results revealed a novel mechanism of a superactivation of Sp1 by C/EBPdelta via a direct interaction between these two transcription factors leading to the activation of the IL-10 gene in mouse macrophage cells.

Semaphorin-3A is expressed by tumor cells and alters T-cell signal transduction and function

An important aspect of tumor progression is the ability of cancer cells to escape detection and clearance by the immune system. Recent studies suggest that several tumors express soluble factors interfering with the immune response. Here, we show that semaphorin-3A (Sema-3A), a secreted member of the semaphorin family involved in axonal guidance, organogenesis, and angiogenesis, is highly expressed in several tumor cells. Conditioned media of Sema-3A-transfected COS-7 cells or human recombinant Sema-3A inhibited primary human T-cell proliferation and cytokines production under anti-CD3 plus anti-CD28 stimulating conditions. Sema-3A also inhibited the activation of nonspecific cytotoxic activity in mixed lymphocyte culture (MLC), as measured against K-562 cells. In contrast, suppression of Sema-3A in tumor cells with a small interfering RNA (siRNA) augmented T-cell activation. The inhibitory effect of Sema-3A in T cells is mediated by blockade of Ras/mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathway. The presence of Sema-3A increased the activation of the Ras family small GTPase Rap1 and introduction of the dominant-negative mutant of Rap1 (Rap1N17) blunted the immunoinhibitory effects of Sema-3A. These results suggest that Sema-3A inhibits primary T-cell activation and imply that it can contribute to the T-cell dysfunction in the tumor microenvironment.

Cutting edge: proangiogenic properties of alternatively activated dendritic cells

Angiogenesis plays an important role in tissue remodeling and repair during the late phase of inflammation. In the present study, we show that human dendritic cells (DC) that matured in the presence of anti-inflammatory molecules such as calcitriol, PGE2, or IL-10 (alternatively activated DC) selectively secrete the potent angiogenic cytokine vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) isoforms VEGF165 and VEGF121. No VEGF production was observed in immature or classically activated DC. Also, the capacity to produce VEGF was restricted to the myeloid DC subset. When implanted in the chick embryo chorioallantoic membrane, alternatively activated DC elicit a marked angiogenic response, which is inhibited by neutralizing anti-VEGF Abs and by the VEGFR-2 inhibitor SU5416. Therefore, alternatively activated DC may contribute to the resolution of the inflammatory reaction by promoting VEGF-induced angiogenesis.

NF-kappaB dependent cytokine levels in saliva of patients with oral preneoplastic lesions and oral squamous cell carcinoma

Previous investigations in our laboratory and others (Chen et al., 1998) have shown that the levels of certain inflammatory, proangiogenic cytokines in saliva and tissue specimens of patients with oral premalignant lesions (OPML) are elevated. We have also shown that these cytokines are elevated in tissue culture of oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) cell lines. The purpose of this pilot study was to determine the level of several inflammatory, NF-kappaB-dependent cytokines in whole unstimulated saliva (WUS), in subjects with OPML as compared to those with diagnosed OSCC. Subjects (n=13) with OMPL, OSCC (n=13), and age-sex matched controls without oral lesions (C) (n=13) were enrolled. The mean age was 58.7 years. WUS was collected by standard techniques for 5 min (Navazesh, 1993). WUS samples were centrifuged and the cytokine analysis was performed on the supernatants by ELISA as previously described by Ondrey et al. (1991). The cytokines analyzed were: TNF-alpha, interleukin-1, interleukin-6, and interleukin-8 (TNF-alpha, IL-1, IL-6, and IL-8). The results as analyzed by Pairwise t-tests revealed significant differences in the salivary levels of: (1) TNF-alpha: (mean+/-S.E.M.: TNF-alpha-OSSC=28.9+/-14.6* pcg/ml versus OPML=10.5+/-7.4* pcg/ml versus controls=3.0+/-1.0 pcg/ml; *p<0.01); (2) IL-1: (IL-1-OSSC=454.4+/-215.8* pcg/ml versus OPML=255.1+/-124.8* pcg/ml versus controls=173.2+/-66.9 pcg/ml; *p<0.01); (3) IL-6: (mean+/-S.E.M.: IL-6-OSSC=88.2+/-43.2* pcg/ml versus OPML=70.8+/-24.3* pcg/ml versus controls=1.4+/-1.0 pcg/ml; *p<0.001) and (4) IL-8 in saliva: (mean+/-S.E.M.: IL-8-OSSC=3154.1+/-1023.2* pcg/ml versus OPML=1918.2+/-899.1* pcg/ml versus controls=1580.7+/-789.0 pcg/ml; *p<0.001). There was a significant increase in the levels of all cytokines in the saliva of the OPML as compared to controls, and a significant difference in the cytokines of OSSC saliva compared to the OPML and controls. These results suggest that these proangiogenic, proinflammatory cytokines are elevated in the saliva of patients with OSSC and OPML as compared to controls, which may have diagnostic and/or prognostic significance.

Tumor-derived MUC1 mucins interact with differentiating monocytes and induce IL-10highIL-12low regulatory dendritic cell

Dendritic cells (DC) initiate immunity by the activation of naive T cells and control immunity through their ability to induce unresponsiveness of lymphocytes by mechanisms that include deletion and induction of regulatory cells. An inadequate presentation to T cells by tumor-induced "regulatory" DC, among several mechanisms, can explain tolerance to tumor-associated Ags. In this study, we show that tumor-derived mucin profoundly affects the cytokine repertoire of monocyte-derived DC and switch them into IL-10(high)IL-12(low) regulatory APCs with a limited capacity to trigger protective Th1 responses. In fact, DC cocultured with pancreatic tumor cell lines in a Transwell system did not reach full maturation, had low immunostimulatory functions, did not produce IL-12, and released high levels of IL-10. The involvement of known tumor-derived immune-suppressive factors (e.g., vascular endothelial growth factor, TGF-beta, IL-6, and IL-10) was considered and excluded. We provide evidence that tumor-derived MUC1 mucins are responsible for the impaired DC maturation and function. DC obtained in the presence of tumor microenvironment preferentially polarized IL-4(+) response. Moreover, T cells primed by these regulatory DC became anergic and behaved as suppressor/regulatory cells. These findings identify mucin secretion as a novel mechanism of tumor escape from immune surveillance and provide the basis for the generation of potentially tolerogenic DC.

Inhibition of growth and survival of human head and neck squamous cell carcinoma cells by curcumin via modulation of nuclear factor-kappaB signaling

Increased expression of proinflammatory and proangiogenic factors are associated with aggressive tumor growth and decreased survival of patients with head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC). In as much as genes that are regulated by nuclear factor NF-kappaB suppress apoptosis, induce proliferation, and mediate inflammation, angiogenesis and tumor metastasis, agents that suppress NF-kappaB activation have potential as treatment for various cancers including HNSCC. We demonstrate that all HNSCC cell lines expressed constitutively active NF-kappaB and IkappaBalpha kinase (IKK), which is needed for NF-kappaB activation. Treatment of MDA 686LN cells with curcumin (diferuloylmethane), a pharmacologically safe chemopreventive agent, inhibited NF-kappaB activation through abrogation of IKK. As a result expression of various cell survival and cell proliferative genes including Bcl-2, cyclin D1, IL-6, COX-2 and MMP-9 was suppressed. This, in turn, inhibits proliferation of all HNSCC cell lines, arrests cell cycle in G1/S phase (MDA 686LN) and induces apoptosis as indicated by upstream and downstream caspase activation, PARP cleavage, annexin V staining in MDA 686LN cells. Suppression of NF-kappaB by cell-permeable p65-based peptide and NBD peptide also inhibited the proliferation and induced apoptosis in these cells. Our results indicate that curcumin is a potent inhibitor of cell proliferation and an inducer of apoptosis in HNSCC through suppression of IKK-mediated NF-kappaB activation and of NF-kappaB-regulated gene expression.

IL-4 protects tumor cells from anti-CD95 and chemotherapeutic agents via up-regulation of antiapoptotic proteins

We recently proposed that Th1 and Th2 cytokines exert opposite effects on the pathogenesis and clinical outcome of organ-specific autoimmunity by altering the expression of genes involved in target cell survival. Because a Th2 response against tumors is associated with poor prognosis, we investigated the ability of IL-4 to protect tumor cells from death receptor- and chemotherapy-induced apoptosis. We found that IL-4 treatment significantly reduced CD95 (Fas/APO-1)- and chemotherapeutic drug-induced apoptosis in prostate, breast, and bladder tumor cell lines. Analysis of antiapoptotic protein expression revealed that IL-4 stimulation resulted in up-regulation of cellular (c) FLIP/FLAME-1 and Bcl-x(L). Exogenous expression of cFLIP/FLAME-1 inhibited apoptosis induced by CD95 and to a lesser extent by chemotherapy, while tumor cells transduced with Bcl-x(L) were substantially protected both from CD95 and chemotherapeutic drug stimulation. Moreover, consistent IL-4 production and high expression of both cFLIP/FLAME-1 and Bcl-x(L) were observed in primary prostate, breast, and bladder cancer in vivo. Finally, primary breast cancer cells acquired sensitivity to apoptosis in vitro only in the absence of IL-4. Thus, IL-4 protects tumor cells from CD95- and chemotherapy-induced apoptosis through the up-regulation of antiapoptotic proteins such as cFLIP/FLAME-1 and Bcl-x(L). These findings may provide useful information for the development of therapeutic strategies aimed at restoring the functionality of apoptotic pathways in tumor cells.

Intralesional interferon alpha-2b in the treatment of basal cell carcinoma and squamous cell carcinoma: revisited

BACKGROUND

Intralesional interferon (IFN) alpha-2b has been shown to be a safe and effective mode of treatment for basal cell carcinoma and squamous cell carcinoma. Multiple studies published in the 1980s through the early 1990s have demonstrated the efficacy of intralesional interferon in the treatment of these malignancies. Unfortunately, this modality appears to be underused.

OBJECTIVE

This article serves to remind dermatologists that in addition to cryotherapy, electrodesiccation, and surgical excision, intralesional IFN-alpha is an important part of the armamentarium in the treatment of nonmelanoma skin cancers.

METHODS

In addition to a review of the literature, we present eight cases in seven patients successfully treated with intralesional IFN for basal cell carcinoma and squamous cell carcinoma.

CONCLUSIONS

Its nonsurgical approach and excellent cosmetic results make IFNalpha-2b an attractive option for patients and an important alternative when other treatment modalities are impractical or contraindicated.