Misbehaving macrophages in the pathogenesis of psoriasis

Integrated bioinformatics analysis identifies autophagy-associated genes as candidate biomarkers and reveals the immune infiltration landscape in psoriasis

Autophagy is implicated in the pathogenesis of psoriasis. We aimed to identify autophagy-related biomarkers in psoriasis via an integrated bioinformatics approach. We downloaded the gene expression profiles of GSE30999 dataset, and the "limma" package was applied to identify differentially expressed genes (DEGs). Then, differentially expressed autophagy-related genes (DEARGs) were identified via integrating autophagy-related genes with DEGs. CytoHubba plugin was used for the identification of hub genes and verified by the GSE41662 dataset. Subsequently, a series of bioinformatics analyses were employed, including protein-protein interaction network, functional enrichment, spearman correlation, receiver operating characteristic, and immune infiltration analyses. One hundred and one DEARGs were identified, and seven DEARGs were identified as hub genes and verified using the GSE41662 dataset. These validated genes had good diagnostic value in distinguishing psoriasis lesions. Immune infiltration analysis indicated that ATG5, SQSTM1, EGFR, MAPK8, MAPK3, MYC, and PIK3C3 were correlated with infiltration of immune cells. Seven DEARGs, namely ATG5, SQSTM1, EGFR, MAPK8, MAPK3, MYC, and PIK3C3, may be involved in the pathogenesis of psoriasis, which expanded the understanding of the development of psoriasis and provided important clinical significance for treatment of this disease.

Neutrophil extracellular traps promote macrophage inflammation in psoriasis

Psoriasis is a chronic inflammatory skin disease connected with immune dysregulation. Macrophages are key inflammatory cells in psoriasis but the specific mechanism of their activation is not fully understood. Neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) have been shown to regulate macrophage function. Here, we found that NET deposition was increased in psoriasis lesions. Peptidylarginine deaminase 4 (PAD4, a key enzyme for NET formation) deficiency attenuated skin lesions and inflammation in an imiquimod-induced psoriatic mouse model. Furthermore, the STING signaling pathway was markedly activated in psoriasis and abolished by PAD4 deficiency. PAD4-deficient mice treated with the STING agonist DMXAA exhibited more severe symptoms and inflammation than control mice. Mechanistically, the STING inhibitor C-176 inhibited NET-induced macrophage inflammation and further inhibited the proliferation of HaCaT cells. Our findings suggest an important role of NETs in the pathogenesis of psoriasis, and activation of macrophage STING/NF-κB signaling pathway might involve in NETs related psoriasis.

NETosis of psoriasis: a critical step in amplifying the inflammatory response

NETosis, a regulated form of neutrophil death, is crucial for host defense against pathogens. However, the release of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) during NETosis can have detrimental effects on surrounding tissues and contribute to the pro-inflammatory response, in addition to their role in controlling microbes. Although it is well-established that the IL-23-Th17 axis plays a key role in the pathogenesis of psoriasis, emerging evidence suggests that psoriasis, as an autoinflammatory disease, is also associated with NETosis. The purpose of this review is to provide a comprehensive understanding of the mechanisms underlying NETosis in psoriasis. It will cover topics such as the formation of NETs, immune cells involved in NETosis, and potential biomarkers as prognostic/predicting factors in psoriasis. By analyzing the intricate relationship between NETosis and psoriasis, this review also aims to identify novel possibilities targeting NETosis for the treatment of psoriasis.

Integrated bioinformatics combined with machine learning to analyze shared biomarkers and pathways in psoriasis and cervical squamous cell carcinoma

Background

Psoriasis extends beyond its dermatological inflammatory manifestations, encompassing systemic inflammation. Existing studies have indicated a potential risk of cervical cancer among patients with psoriasis, suggesting a potential mechanism of co-morbidity. This study aims to explore the key genes, pathways, and immune cells that may link psoriasis and cervical squamous cell carcinoma (CESC).

Methods

The cervical squamous cell carcinoma dataset (GSE63514) was downloaded from the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO). Two psoriasis-related datasets (GSE13355 and GSE14905) were merged into one comprehensive dataset after removing batch effects. Differentially expressed genes were identified using Limma and co-expression network analysis (WGCNA), and machine learning random forest algorithm (RF) was used to screen the hub genes. We analyzed relevant gene enrichment pathways using GO and KEGG, and immune cell infiltration in psoriasis and CESC samples using CIBERSORT. The miRNA-mRNA and TFs-mRNA regulatory networks were then constructed using Cytoscape, and the biomarkers for psoriasis and CESC were determined. Potential drug targets were obtained from the cMAP database, and biomarker expression levels in hela and psoriatic cell models were quantified by RT-qPCR.

Results

In this study, we identified 27 key genes associated with psoriasis and cervical squamous cell carcinoma. NCAPH, UHRF1, CDCA2, CENPN and MELK were identified as hub genes using the Random Forest machine learning algorithm. Chromosome mitotic region segregation, nucleotide binding and DNA methylation are the major enrichment pathways for common DEGs in the mitotic cell cycle. Then we analyzed immune cell infiltration in psoriasis and cervical squamous cell carcinoma samples using CIBERSORT. Meanwhile, we used the cMAP database to identify ten small molecule compounds that interact with the central gene as drug candidates for treatment. By analyzing miRNA-mRNA and TFs-mRNA regulatory networks, we identified three miRNAs and nine transcription factors closely associated with five key genes and validated their expression in external validation datasets and clinical samples. Finally, we examined the diagnostic effects with ROC curves, and performed experimental validation in hela and psoriatic cell models.

Conclusions

We identified five biomarkers, NCAPH, UHRF1, CDCA2, CENPN, and MELK, which may play important roles in the common pathogenesis of psoriasis and cervical squamous cell carcinoma, furthermore predict potential therapeutic agents. These findings open up new perspectives for the diagnosis and treatment of psoriasis and squamous cell carcinoma of the cervix.

Macrophage Functions in Psoriasis: Lessons from Mouse Models

Psoriasis is a systemic autoimmune/autoinflammatory disease that can be well studied in established mouse models. Skin-resident macrophages are classified into epidermal Langerhans cells and dermal macrophages and are involved in innate immunity, orchestration of adaptive immunity, and maintenance of tissue homeostasis due to their ability to constantly shift their phenotype and adapt to the current microenvironment. Consequently, both macrophage populations play dual roles in psoriasis. In some circumstances, pro-inflammatory activated macrophages and Langerhans cells trigger psoriatic inflammation, while in other cases their anti-inflammatory stimulation results in amelioration of the disease. These features make macrophages interesting candidates for modern therapeutic strategies. Owing to the significant progress in knowledge, our review article summarizes current achievements and indicates future research directions to better understand the function of macrophages in psoriasis.

Cardiovascular Considerations and Implications for Treatment in Psoriasis: An Updated Review

Psoriasis, a prevalent chronic inflammatory skin disorder affecting 2-3% of the global population, has transcended its dermatological confines, revealing a profound association with cardiovascular diseases (CVD). This comprehensive review explores the intricate interplay between psoriasis and cardiovascular system, delving into genetic links, immune pathways, and adipose tissue dysfunction beyond conventional CVD risk factors. The pathophysiological connections unveil unique signatures, distinct from other inflammatory skin conditions, in particular psoriasis-specific genetic polymorphisms in IL-23 and TNF-α have consistently been linked to CVD. The review navigates the complex landscape of psoriasis treatments, addressing challenges and future directions in particular relevance to CVDs in psoriasis. Therapeutic interventions, including TNF inhibitors (TNFi), present promise in reducing cardiovascular risks, and methotrexate could constitute a favourable choice. Conversely, the relationship between IL-12/23 inhibitors and cardiovascular risk remains uncertain, while recent evidence indicates that Janus kinase inhibitors may not carry CVD risks. Emerging evidence supports the safety and efficacy of IL-17 and IL-23 inhibitors in patients with CVDs, hinting at evolving therapeutic paradigms. Lifestyle modifications, statins, and emerging therapies offer preventive strategies. Dedicated screening guidelines for CVD risk assessment in psoriasis are however lacking. Further, the impact of different disease phenotypes and treatment hierarchies in cardiovascular outcomes remains elusive, demanding ongoing research at the intersection of dermatology, rheumatology, and cardiology. In conclusion, unraveling the intricate connections between psoriasis and CVD provides a foundation for a holistic approach to patient care. Collaboration between specialties, advancements in screening methodologies, and a nuanced understanding of treatment impacts are essential for comprehensive cardiovascular risk management in individuals with psoriasis.

Pentraxin 3 exacerbates psoriasiform dermatitis through regulation of macrophage polarization

OBJECTIVE

To elucidate the mechanism of Pentraxin 3 (PTX3) in the pathogenesis of psoriasiform dermatitis using Ptx3-knockout (Ptx3-KO) background mice.

METHODS

An Imiquimod (IMQ)-induced murine psoriatic model was created using Ptx3-KO (Ptx3-/-) and wild-type (Ptx3+/+) mice. Skin lesion severity and expression of inflammatory mediators (IL-6 and TNFα) were assessed using PASI score and ELISA, respectively. Cutaneous tissues from the two mice groups were subjected to histological analyses, including HE staining, Masson staining, and Immunohistochemistry (IHC). The PTX3, iNOS, COX2, and Arg1 expressions were quantified and compared between the two groups. We used RNA-seq to clarify the underlying mechanisms of the disease. Flow cytometry was used to analyze systemic Th17 cell differentiation and macrophage polarization.

RESULT

The psoriatic region exhibited a higher PTX3 expression than the normal cutaneous area. Moreover, PTX3 was upregulated in HaCaT cells post-TNFα stimulation. Upon IMQ stimulation, Ptx3-/- mice displayed a lower degree of the psoriasiform dermatitis phenotype compared to Ptx3+/+ mice. Consistent with the RNA-seq results, further experiments confirmed that compared to the wild-type group, the PTX3-KO group exhibited a generally lower IL-6, TNFα, iNOS, and COX2 expression and a contrasting trend in macrophage polarization. However, no significant difference in Th17 cell activation was observed between the two groups.

CONCLUSIONS

This study revealed that PTX3 was upregulated in psoriatic skin tissues and TNFα-stimulated HaCaT cells. We also discovered that PTX3 deficiency in mice ameliorated the psoriasiform dermatitis phenotype upon IMQ stimulation. Mechanistically, PTX3 exacerbates psoriasiform dermatitis by regulating macrophage polarization rather than Th17 cell differentiation.

A co-assembly platform engaging macrophage scavenger receptor A for lysosome-targeting protein degradation

Targeted degradation of proteins has emerged as a powerful method for modulating protein homeostasis. Identification of suitable degraders is essential for achieving effective protein degradation. Here, we present a non-covalent degrader construction strategy, based on a modular supramolecular co-assembly system consisting of two self-assembling peptide ligands that bind cell membrane receptors and the protein of interest simultaneously, resulting in targeted protein degradation. The developed lysosome-targeting co-assemblies (LYTACAs) can induce lysosomal degradation of extracellular protein IL-17A and membrane protein PD-L1 in several scavenger receptor A-expressing cell lines. The IL-17A-degrading co-assembly has been applied in an imiquimod-induced psoriasis mouse model, where it decreases IL-17A levels in the skin lesion and alleviates psoriasis-like inflammation. Extending to asialoglycoprotein receptor-related protein degradation, LYTACAs have demonstrated the versatility and potential in streamlining degraders for extracellular and membrane proteins.

Integrative analysis of RNA-sequencing and microarray for the identification of adverse effects of UVB exposure on human skin

Background

Ultraviolet B (UVB) from sunlight represents a major environmental factor that causes toxic effects resulting in structural and functional cutaneous abnormalities in most living organisms. Although numerous studies have indicated the biological mechanisms linking UVB exposure and cutaneous manifestations, they have typically originated from a single study performed under limited conditions.

Methods

We accessed all publicly accessible expression data of various skin cell types exposed to UVB, including skin biopsies, keratinocytes, and fibroblasts. We performed biological network analysis to identify the molecular mechanisms and identify genetic biomarkers.

Results

We interpreted the inflammatory response and carcinogenesis as major UVB-induced signaling alternations and identified three candidate biomarkers (IL1B, CCL2, and LIF). Moreover, we confirmed that these three biomarkers contribute to the survival probability of patients with cutaneous melanoma, the most aggressive and lethal form of skin cancer.

Conclusion

Our findings will aid the understanding of UVB-induced cutaneous toxicity and the accompanying molecular mechanisms. In addition, the three candidate biomarkers that change molecular signals due to UVB exposure of skin might be related to the survival rate of patients with cutaneous melanoma.

Phytochemicals: Targeting autophagy to treat psoriasis

BACKGROUND

Psoriasis is an immune-mediated chronic inflammatory skin disease characterized by well-defined erythema and white scales, which affects approximately 2% of the worldwide population and causes long-term distress to patients. Therefore, development of safe and effective therapeutic drugs is imminent. Autophagy, an evolutionarily conserved catabolic process, degrades intracellular constituents to maintain cellular energy homeostasis. Numerous studies have revealed that autophagy is closely related to immune function, such as removal of intracellular bacteria, inflammatory cytokine secretion, antigen presentation, and lymphocyte development. Phytochemicals derived from natural plants are often used to treat psoriasis due to their unique therapeutic properties and favorable safety. So far, a mass of phytochemicals have been proven to be able to activate autophagy and thus alleviate psoriasis. This review aimed to provide directions for finding phytochemicals that target autophagy to treat psoriasis.

METHODS

The relevant literatures were collected from classical TCM books and a variety of databases (PubMed, Google Scholar, ScienceDirect, Springer Link, Web of Science and China National Knowledge Infrastructure) till December 2022. Search terms were "Phytochemical", "Psoriasis" and "Autophagy". The retrieved data followed PRISMA criteria (preferred reporting items for systematic review).

RESULTS

Phytochemicals treat psoriasis mainly through regulating immune cell function, inhibiting excessive inflammatory response, and reducing oxidative stress. While the role and mechanism of autophagy in the pathogenesis of psoriasis have been confirmed in human trials, most of the evidence for phytochemicals that target autophagy to treat psoriasis comes from animal studies. The research focusing on the role of phytochemical-mediated autophagy in the prevention and treatment of psoriasis is limited, and the definite relationship between phytochemical-regulated autophagy and treatment of psoriasis still deserves further experimental confirmation.

CONCLUSIONS

Phytochemicals with autophagic activities will provide new insights into the therapeutic intervention for psoriasis.

Identification of PANoptosis-related biomarkers and immune infiltration characteristics in psoriasis

BACKGROUND

PANoptosis may play a vital role in psoriasis. We investigated the relationship between PANoptosis in psoriasis.

METHODS

Genes information was mainly obtained from GeneCards and the gene expression omnibus database. Genefunctions identification was based on gene ontology and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes analyses. Gene set enrichment analysis was used to identify enriched signaling pathways in psoriasis. We constructed PPI networks using the search tool for the retrieval of interacting genes database and Cytoscape and explored mRNA-miRNA, mRNA-TF, and mRNA-drug interaction networks. Receiver operating characteristic curves were performed to screen potential biomarkers among these hub genes. Immune cell infiltration was analyzed using the Pearson algorithm, and the correlation between immune-cell abundance and PANoptosis-related differentially expressed gene (PDGs) was investigated.

RESULTS

We identified 10 PDGs, which were mainly involved in pyroptosis, cytokine-mediated signaling pathways, Salmonella infection and NOD-like receptor signaling pathway. The activated pathways were mostly proinflammatory and immunoregulatory pathways between immune cells. BAK1, CASP4, IL18, and IRF1 were identified as hub genes in the mRNA-miRNA network, and BAK1, IRF1, and PYCARD were hub genes in the mRNA-TF network. CASP1 was found to be the most targeted gene by drugs or molecular compounds. We found PDGs were positively associated with proinflammatory immune cell infiltration and negatively associated with anti-inflammatory or regulatory immune cells.

CONCLUSION

We confirmed the role of PANoptosis in psoriasis for the first time and predicted hub genes and immune characteristics, which provides new ideas for further investigation of psoriasis on pathogenic mechanisms and therapeutic strategies.

Fufang Shengdi mixture alleviates psoriasis-like skin inflammation via promoting Annexin-A proteins expression

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Traditional Chinese medicine believes that "blood fever" is an important cause of psoriasis. Fufang Shengdi mixture (FFSD), based on the Hongban Decoction, is composed of Rehmannia glutinosa (Gaertn.) DC., Raw gypsum (Chinese: Sheng Shi Gao), and Lonicera japonica Thunb (Caprifoliaceae). FFSD has effects on nourishing Yin, clearing heat, connecting collaterals, and cooling blood. In modern medical explanation, FFSD has the effects of anti-inflammatory and immunosuppression. Our study proved that FFSD can suppress immunity and ameliorate the symptoms of imiquimod-induced psoriasis in mice.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study evaluated the efficacy and possible mechanism of FFSD in psoriasis mice.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

First, the main components of FFSD were analyzed using high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem high-resolution mass spectrometry (HPLC-HRMS). An imiquimod (IMQ)-induced psoriasis mouse model was used to evaluate the efficacy of FFSD orally. Psoriasis area and severity index (PASI) scores were recorded throughout the course of the mice to reflect the severity of psoriasis. Hematoxylin-eosin staining was used to observe the pathological changes in skin lesions. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was performed to test the level of IFN-γ and TNF-α in plasma. To further investigate the immunopharmacological effect of FFSD, we used chicken ovalbumin (OVA) to induce immunoreaction in mice. ELISA was used to detect the levels of anti-OVA antibody, IFN-γ and TNF-α in mice. Flow cytometry was performed to quantify the ratio of cell types in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) to evaluate the effect of FFSD on immunosuppression. Proteomics and bioinformatics analyzes were performed to find the regulation pathway of the immunosuppressive effect of FFSD. Finally, quantitative PCR (qPCR) and immunohistochemistry were used to measure the upregulation of Annexin-A proteins (ANXAs) in the skin lesion tissue of IMQ-induced mouse.

RESULTS

On the basis of knowing the composition of FFSD, we first proved the efficacy of FFSD in alleviating IMQ-induced psoriasis in mice. Second, we further clarified the pharmacological effect of FFSD on immunosuppression via OVA-induced mice. Subsequently, it was found that the significant up-regulation of ANXAs was caused by FFSD through proteomics analysis, and the finding was proved in the IMQ-induced psoriasis mouse model.

CONCLUSIONS

This study elucidates the immunosuppressive pharmacological effect of FFSD on improving psoriasis through up-regulating ANXAs.

Transcriptional regulation on effector T cells in the pathogenesis of psoriasis

Psoriasis is one of the most common inflammatory diseases, characterized by scaly erythematous plaques on the skin. The accumulated evidence on immunopathology of psoriasis suggests that inflammatory reaction is primarily mediated by T helper (Th) cells. The differentiation of Th cells plays important roles in psoriatic progression and it is regulated by transcription factors such as T-bet, GATA3, RORγt, and FOXP3, which can convert naïve CD4+ T cells, respectively, into Th1, Th2, Th17 and Treg subsets. Through the activation of the JAK/STAT and Notch signaling pathways, together with their downstream effector molecules including TNF-α, IFN-γ, IL-17, TGF-β, these subsets of Th cells are then deeply involved in the pathogenesis of psoriasis. As a result, keratinocytes are abnormally proliferated and abundant inflammatory immune cells are infiltrated in psoriatic lesions. We hypothesize that modulation of the expression of transcription factors for each Th subset could be a new therapeutic target for psoriasis. In this review, we will focus on the recent literature concerning the transcriptional regulation of Th cells in psoriasis.

Pharmacogenomics on the Treatment Response in Patients with Psoriasis: An Updated Review

The efficacy and the safety of psoriasis medications have been proved in trials, but unideal responses and side effects are noted in clinical practice. Genetic predisposition is known to contribute to the pathogenesis of psoriasis. Hence, pharmacogenomics gives the hint of predictive treatment response individually. This review highlights the current pharmacogenetic and pharmacogenomic studies of medical therapy in psoriasis. HLA-Cw*06 status remains the most promising predictive treatment response in certain drugs. Numerous genetic variants (such as ABC transporter, DNMT3b, MTHFR, ANKLE1, IL-12B, IL-23R, MALT1, CDKAL1, IL17RA, IL1B, LY96, TLR2, etc.) are also found to be associated with treatment response for methotrexate, cyclosporin, acitretin, anti-TNF, anti-IL-12/23, anti-IL-17, anti-PDE4 agents, and topical therapy. Due to the high throughput sequencing technologies and the dramatic increase in sequencing cost, pharmacogenomic tests prior to treatment by whole exome sequencing or whole genome sequencing may be applied in clinical in the future. Further investigations are necessary to manifest potential genetic markers for psoriasis treatments.

Topical Diacerein Decreases Skin and Splenic CD11c+ Dendritic Cells in Psoriasis

Psoriasis is an inflammatory skin disease characterized by increased neo-vascularization, keratinocyte hyperproliferation, a pro-inflammatory cytokine milieu and immune cell infiltration. Diacerein is an anti-inflammatory drug, modulating immune cell functions, including expression and production of cytokines, in different inflammatory conditions. Therefore, we hypothesized that topical diacerein has beneficial effects on the course of psoriasis. The current study aimed to evaluate the effect of topical diacerein on imiquimod (IMQ)-induced psoriasis in C57BL/6 mice. Topical diacerein was observed to be safe without any adverse side effects in healthy or psoriatic animals. Our results demonstrated that diacerein significantly alleviated the psoriasiform-like skin inflammation over a 7-day period. Furthermore, diacerein significantly diminished the psoriasis-associated splenomegaly, indicating a systemic effect of the drug. Remarkably, we observed significantly reduced infiltration of CD11c⁺ dendritic cells (DCs) into the skin and spleen of psoriatic mice with diacerein treatment. As CD11c⁺ DCs play a pivotal role in psoriasis pathology, we consider diacerein to be a promising novel therapeutic candidate for psoriasis.

The phytochemical profiling, pharmacological activities, and safety of malva sylvestris: a review

Malva sylvestris is a plant commonly found in Europe, Asia, and Africa. The leaves and flowers of this plant have been used for centuries in traditional medicine to treat various ailments such as cough, cold, diarrhoea, and constipation. Google Scholar, PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science were used to search for relevant material on the phytochemical profiling and pharmacologic activities of Malva sylvestris. The techniques used in phytochemical profiling and the pharmacologic activity of each compound were extracted from the included studies, including in vitro, in vivo, and clinical studies. The phytochemical analysis of Malva sylvestris revealed that the leaves and flowers are the most commonly used parts of the plant and contain various bioactive compounds such as flavonoids, mucilages, terpenoids, phenol derivatives, coumarins, sterols, tannins, saponins, and alkaloids. These phytochemicals are responsible for the many pharmacological activities of Malva sylvestris, such as anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, hepatoprotective, laxative, antiproliferative and antioxidant properties. This review has presented an overview of the antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory activities and the cytotoxic effects of Malva sylvestris on different types of cancer cells. It has also summarised the work on developing copper oxide nanoparticles using Malva sylvestris leaf extract and its potential use in food and medicine. This review aims to highlight the traditional uses, phytochemistry, pharmacological activities, and safety of Malva sylvestris.

Transcriptional inhibition of STAT1 functions in the nucleus alleviates Th1 and Th17 cell-mediated inflammatory diseases

T helper 1 cells (Th1 cells) and T helper 17 cells (Th17 cells) play pivotal roles in the pathogenesis of various autoimmune diseases, including psoriasis and inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Signal transducer and activator of transcription 1 (STAT1) regulates the Th1 and Th17 cell lineage commitment at an early stage and maintains their immunological functions in vitro and in vivo. The previous strategies to block STAT1 functions to treat autoimmune diseases inhibit Th1 cell activity but simultaneously cause hyper-activation of Th17 cells. Herein, to modulate the functions of pathogenic Th1 and Th17 cells without genetic modification in normal physiological conditions, we generated the nucleus-deliverable form of the transcription modulation domain of STAT1 (ndSTAT1-TMD), which can be transduced into the nucleus of the target cells in a dose- and time-dependent manner without affecting the cell viability and T cell activation signaling events. ndSTAT1-TMD significantly blocked the differentiation of naïve CD4+ T cells into Th1 or Th17 cells via competitive inhibition of endogenous STAT1-mediated transcription, which did not influence Th2 and Treg cell differentiation. When the gene expression profile of Th1 or Th17 cells after ndSTAT1-TMD treatment was analyzed by mRNA sequencing, the expression of the genes involved in the differentiation capacity and the immunological functions of Th1 or Th17 cells were substantially reduced. The therapeutic potential of ndSTAT1-TMD was tested in the animal model of psoriasis and colitis, whose pathogenesis is mainly contributed by Th1 or/and Th17 cells. The symptoms and progression of psoriasis and colitis were significantly alleviated by ndSTAT1-TMD treatment, comparable to anti-IL-17A antibody treatment. In conclusion, our study demonstrates that ndSTAT1-TMD can be a new therapeutic reagent for Th1/17 cell-mediated autoimmune diseases by modulating the functions of pathogenic Th1 and Th17 cells together.

The Role of PD-L1 on Langerhans Cells in the Regulation of Psoriasis

Langerhans cells (LCs) are skin-resident cells with potent antigen-presenting cell capabilities, which reportedly play some roles in the development of psoriasis, an inflammatory skin disease mediated by IL-17A‒producing cells, T helper 17 cells, and TCR-γδ^low T cells. LCs in psoriatic skin lesions but not in normal skin express PD-L1, which binds to PD-1, an immune checkpoint molecule, to negatively regulate immune reactions. The aim of this study is to elucidate the regulatory role of LCs through the PD-1/PD-L1 axis in a murine model of imiquimod-induced psoriasis-like dermatitis. Imiquimod application on wild-type C57BL/6J mice induced PD-L1 expression on LCs both in the ear skin and skin-draining lymph nodes. To further identify the functional role of PD-L1 expressed on LCs, we generated conditional knockout mice lacking PD-L1 expression on LCs (Pd-l1-cKO mice). Pd-l1-cKO mice presented significantly more severe imiquimod-induced psoriasis-like dermatitis than their control littermates. Flow cytometric analysis showed that the frequency of activated IL-17A‒producing γδ^low T cells was increased in the ear skin samples, and IL-17A production by CCR6⁺ migrating γδ^low T cells increased in the skin-draining lymph nodes in imiquimod-applied Pd-l1-cKO mice than in control littermates. Collectively, LCs disrupt the exacerbation of psoriasis through PD-L1.

Dendritic Cells and Macrophages in the Pathogenesis of Psoriasis

Psoriasis is a chronic inflammatory skin disease characterized by scaly indurated erythema. This disease impairs patients’ quality of life enormously. Pathological findings demonstrate proliferation and abnormal differentiation of keratinocytes and massive infiltration of inflammatory immune cells. The pathogenesis of psoriasis is complicated. Among immune cells, dendritic cells play a pivotal role in the development of psoriasis in both the initiation and the maintenance phases. In addition, it has been indicated that macrophages contribute to the pathogenesis of psoriasis especially in the initiation phase, although studies on macrophages are limited. In this article, we review the roles of dendritic cells and macrophages in the pathogenesis of psoriasis.

TNF is a potential therapeutic target to suppress prostatic inflammation and hyperplasia in autoimmune disease

Autoimmune (AI) diseases can affect many organs; however, the prostate has not been considered to be a primary target of these systemic inflammatory processes. Here, we utilize medical record data, patient samples, and in vivo models to evaluate the impact of inflammation, as seen in AI diseases, on prostate tissue. Human and mouse tissues are used to examine whether systemic targeting of inflammation limits prostatic inflammation and hyperplasia. Evaluation of 112,152 medical records indicates that benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) prevalence is significantly higher among patients with AI diseases. Furthermore, treating these patients with tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-antagonists significantly decreases BPH incidence. Single-cell RNA-seq and in vitro assays suggest that macrophage-derived TNF stimulates BPH-derived fibroblast proliferation. TNF blockade significantly reduces epithelial hyperplasia, NFκB activation, and macrophage-mediated inflammation within prostate tissues. Together, these studies show that patients with AI diseases have a heightened susceptibility to BPH and that reducing inflammation with a therapeutic agent can suppress BPH.

Iontophoresis of Biological Macromolecular Drugs

Over the last few decades, biological macromolecular drugs (e.g., peptides, proteins, and nucleic acids) have become a significant therapeutic modality for the treatment of various diseases. These drugs are considered superior to small-molecule drugs because of their high specificity and favorable safety profiles. However, such drugs are limited by their low oral bioavailability and short half-lives. Biological macromolecular drugs are typically administrated via invasive methods, e.g., intravenous or subcutaneous injections, which can be painful and induce needle phobia. Noninvasive transdermal delivery is an alternative administration route for the local and systemic delivery of biological macromolecular drugs. However, a challenge with the noninvasive transdermal delivery of biological macromolecular drugs is the outermost layer of the skin, known as the stratum corneum, which is a physical barrier that restricts the entry of extraneous macromolecules. Iontophoresis (IP) relies on the application of a low level of electricity for transdermal drug delivery, in order to facilitate the skin permeation of hydrophilic and charged molecules. The IP of several biological macromolecular drugs has recently been investigated. Herein, we review the IP-mediated noninvasive transdermal delivery of biological macromolecular drugs, their routes of skin permeation, their underlying mechanisms, and their advance applications.

cPLA2 blockade attenuates S100A7-mediated breast tumorigenicity by inhibiting the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment

BACKGROUND

Molecular mechanisms underlying inflammation-associated breast tumor growth are poorly studied. S100A7, a pro-inflammatory molecule has been shown to enhance breast cancer growth and metastasis. However, the S100A7-mediated molecular mechanisms in enhancing tumor growth and metastasis are unclear.

METHODS

Human breast cancer tissue and plasma samples were used to analyze the expression of S100A7, cPLA2, and PGE2. S100A7-overexpressing or downregulated human metastatic breast cancer cells were used to evaluate the S100A7-mediated downstream signaling mechanisms. Bi-transgenic mS100a7a15 overexpression, TNBC C3 (1)/Tag transgenic, and humanized patient-derived xenograft mouse models and cPLA2 inhibitor (AACOCF3) were used to investigate the role of S100A7/cPLA2/PGE2 signaling in tumor growth and metastasis. Additionally, CODEX, a highly advanced multiplexed imaging was employed to delineate the effects of S100A7/cPLA2 inhibition on the recruitment of various immune cells.

RESULTS

In this study, we found that S100A7 and cPLA2 are highly expressed and correlate with decreased overall survival in breast cancer patients. Further mechanistic studies revealed that S100A7/RAGE signaling promotes the expression of cPLA2 to mediate its oncogenic effects. Pharmacological inhibition of cPLA2 suppressed S100A7-mediated tumor growth and metastasis in multiple pre-clinical models including transgenic and humanized patient-derived xenograft (PDX) mouse models. The attenuation of cPLA2 signaling reduced S100A7-mediated recruitment of immune-suppressive myeloid cells in the tumor microenvironment (TME). Interestingly, we discovered that the S100A7/cPLA2 axis enhances the immunosuppressive microenvironment by increasing prostaglandin E2 (PGE2). Furthermore, CO-Detection by indEXing (CODEX) imaging-based analyses revealed that cPLA2 inhibition increased the infiltration of activated and proliferating CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cells in the TME. In addition, CD163⁺ tumor associated-macrophages were positively associated with S100A7 and cPLA2 expression in malignant breast cancer patients.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study provides new mechanistic insights on the cross-talk between S100A7/cPLA2 in enhancing breast tumor growth and metastasis by generating an immunosuppressive TME that inhibits the infiltration of cytotoxic T cells. Furthermore, our studies indicate that S100A7/cPLA2 could be used as novel prognostic marker and cPLA2 inhibitors as promising drugs against S100A7-overexpressing aggressive breast cancer.

IFN-κ Is a Rheostat for Development of Psoriasiform Inflammation

Psoriasis is a common, inflammatory autoimmune skin disease. Early detection of an IFN-1 signature occurs in many psoriasis lesions, but the source of IFN production remains debated. IFN-κ is an important source of IFN-1 production in the epidermis. We identified a correlation between IFN-regulated and psoriasis-associated genes in human lesional skin. We thus wanted to explore the effects of IFN-κ in psoriasis using the well-characterized imiquimod psoriasis model. Three mouse strains aged 10 weeks were used: wild-type C57Bl/6, C57Bl/6 that overexpress Ifnk in the epidermis (i.e., transgenic), and total body Ifnk^-/- (i.e., knockout) strain. Psoriasis was induced by topical application of imiquimod on both ears for 8 consecutive days. Notably, the severity of skin lesions and inflammatory cell infiltration was more significantly increased in transgenic than in wild-type than in knockout mice. Gene expression analysis identified greater upregulation of Mxa, Il1b, Tnfa, Il6, Il12, Il23, Il17, and Ifng in transgenic compared to wild-type compared to knockout mice after imiquimod treatment. Furthermore, imiquimod increased CD8⁺ and CD4⁺ T-cell infiltration more in transgenic than in wild-type than in knockout mice. In summary, we identified IFN-κ as a rheostat for initiation of psoriasiform inflammation. This suggests that targeting IFN-1s early in the disease may be an effective way of controlling psoriatic inflammation.

Effects of lysophosphatidic acid receptor 5 on NLRC4 inflammasome in brain tissues of transient cerebral ischemia/reperfusion rat

AIM

To explore whether LPA5 was involved in the inflammatory responses in CI/R injury by regulation of NLRC4.

METHOD

The cerebral I/R model in rats was constructed with ischemia of 2h and different time points of reperfusion. After that, western blot was used to determine protein expression (LPA5, NLRC4, AIM2, caspase-1, cleaved-caspase-1, mature IL-1β, and precursor IL-1β). And LPA5 and NLRC4 expression were also detected by using immunofluorescence experiment. Afterward, two sequence of LPA5-siRNA were injected into rats via intracerebroventricular administration. TTC staining and HE staining were performed.

RESULT

As the reperfusion time was prolonged, LPA5 content was continuously increased, and the highest expression of NLRC4 was found at 4h of reperfusion. And protein expression of AIM2, cleaved-caspase-1, and mature IL-1β was also at highest level at 4h. And after reperfusion of 4h, LPA5 siRNA1# or 2# was injected into lateral ventricles. LPA5 silence markedly reduced the infract volume and improved the histological change of ischemic zone. And LPA5 silence significantly downregulated NLRC4, AIM2, and the ratio of cleaved-caspase-1/caspase-1 and mature IL-1β/precursor IL-1β. And compared with LPA5-siRNA2#, LPA5-siRNA1# exerted a more significant effect.

CONCLUSION

Low expression of LPA5 can protect against the inflammatory responses in CI/R model of rats through inhibiting NLRC4 inflammasomes.

The hair follicle-psoriasis axis: Shared regulatory mechanisms and therapeutic targets

It has long been known that there is a special affinity of psoriasis for the scalp: Here, it occurs most frequently, lesions terminate sharply in frontal skin beyond the hair line and are difficult to treat. Yet, surprisingly, scalp psoriasis only rarely causes alopecia, even though the pilosebaceous unit clearly is affected. Here, we systematically explore the peculiar, insufficiently investigated connection between psoriasis and growing (anagen) terminal scalp hair follicles (HFs), with emphasis on shared regulatory mechanism and therapeutic targets. Interestingly, several drugs and stressors that can trigger/aggravate psoriasis can inhibit hair growth (e.g. beta-blockers, chloroquine, carbamazepine, interferon-alpha, perceived stress). Instead, several anti-psoriatic agents can stimulate hair growth (e.g. cyclosporine, glucocorticoids, dithranol, UV irradiation), while skin/HF trauma (Köbner phenomenon/depilation) favours the development of psoriatic lesions and induces anagen in "quiescent" (telogen) HFs. On this basis, we propose two interconnected working models: (a) the existence of a bidirectional "hair follicle-psoriasis axis," along which keratinocytes of anagen scalp HFs secrete signals that favour the development and maintenance of psoriatic scalp lesions and respond to signals from these lesions, and (b) that anagen induction and psoriatic lesions share molecular "switch-on" mechanisms, which invite pharmacological targeting, once identified. Therefore, we advocate a novel, cross-fertilizing and integrative approach to psoriasis and hair research that systematically characterizes the "HF-psoriasis axis," focused on identification and therapeutic targeting of selected, shared signalling pathways in the future management of both, psoriasis and hair growth disorders.

Cell-Inspired Biomaterials for Modulating Inflammation

Inflammation is a crucial part of wound healing and pathogen clearance. However, it can also play a role in exacerbating chronic diseases and cancer progression when not regulated properly. A subset of current innate immune engineering research is focused on how molecules such as lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids native to a healthy inflammatory response can be harnessed in the context of biomaterial design to promote healing, decrease disease severity, and prolong survival. The engineered biomaterials in this review inhibit inflammation by releasing anti-inflammatory cytokines, sequestering proinflammatory cytokines, and promoting phenotype switching of macrophages in chronic inflammatory disease models. Conversely, other biomaterials discussed here promote inflammation by mimicking pathogen invasion to inhibit tumor growth in cancer models. The form that these biomaterials take spans a spectrum from nanoparticles to large-scale hydrogels to surface coatings on medical devices. Cell-inspired molecules have been incorporated in a variety of creative ways, including loaded into or onto the surface of biomaterials or used as the biomaterials themselves.

Differential Involvement of Programmed Cell Death Ligands in Skin Immune Responses

PD-1 is an immunoregulatory receptor that can bind PD-L1 or PD-L2 expressed on stimulated antigen-presenting cells. In this study, isolated antigen-presenting cells (macrophages and dendritic cells) were cultured with IFN-γ, IL-4, or IL-17A, and the expression of PD-L1 and PD-L2 was compared by flow cytometry. Strong upregulation of PD-L1 expression was observed on IFN-γ stimulation of both antigen-presenting cells as well as in response to IL-17A stimulation of macrophages compared with the expression in unstimulated controls. In contrast, only stimulation with IL-4 could upregulate PD-L2 expression on both antigen-presenting cells. Therefore, experiments were performed in murine models, including DNFB-induced contact hypersensitivity, calcipotriol-induced atopic dermatitis-like skin inflammation, and imiquimod-induced psoriasis-like dermatitis models, to trigger IFN-γ‒mediated T helper type (Th)1-, IL-4‒mediated Th2-, and IL-17A‒mediated Th17-type responses, respectively. In both Th1- and Th17-type immunity models, changes in ear thickness were more severe in Pd-l1‒deficient mice than in wild-type or Pd-l2‒deficient mice. In the Th2-type immunity model, changes in thickness in Pd-l2‒deficient mice were more severe than that in wild-type or Pd-l1‒deficient mice. Collectively, PD-L1 has predominant roles in Th1 and Th17 type immunity, whereas PD-L2 is involved in Th2-type immunity.

IFN-γ Drives Human Monocyte Differentiation into Highly Proinflammatory Macrophages That Resemble a Phenotype Relevant to Psoriasis

As key cells of the immune system, macrophages coordinate the activation and regulation of the immune response. Macrophages present a complex phenotype that can vary from homeostatic, proinflammatory, and profibrotic to anti-inflammatory phenotypes. The factors that drive the differentiation from monocyte to macrophage largely define the resultant phenotype, as has been shown by the differences found in M-CSF- and GM-CSF-derived macrophages. We explored alternative inflammatory mediators that could be used for in vitro differentiation of human monocytes into macrophages. IFN-γ is a potent inflammatory mediator produced by lymphocytes in disease and infections. We used IFN-γ to differentiate human monocytes into macrophages and characterized the cells at a functional and proteomic level. IFN-γ alone was sufficient to generate macrophages (IFN-γ Mϕ) that were phagocytic and responsive to polarization. We demonstrate that IFN-γ Mϕ are potent activators of T lymphocytes that produce IL-17 and IFN-γ. We identified potential markers (GBP-1, IP-10, IL-12p70, and IL-23) of IFN-γ Mϕ and demonstrate that these markers are enriched in the skin of patients with inflamed psoriasis. Collectively, we show that IFN-γ can drive human monocyte to macrophage differentiation, leading to bona fide macrophages with inflammatory characteristics.

Emerging Pathophysiological Targets of Psoriasis for Future Therapeutic Strategies

Psoriasis is a chronic autoimmune skin disorder which involves complex interactions between genes, keratinocytes, T-cells and inflammatory cells. It affects 2-3% population worldwide. Molecular biology and cellular immunology of psoriasis, when linked with biotechnology and genetic studies can help researchers to understand the pathophysiology of psoriasis. T-cells activation, keratinocyte hyperproliferation, and angiogenesis are the core mechanisms entailed in the development of psoriasis lesion. Investigators are trying to overcome the challenges of complex pathophysiology pathways involved in this disorder. The different possible hypotheses for its pathophysiology such as growth factors, enzymes, inflammation, and genetic factors mediated pathophysiology have been described in the present review paper in detail. Clinically available drugs only control the symptoms of psoriasis but are not effective for the treatment of the disorder completely and are also associated with some side effects such as itching, renal disorders, hematologic, nonmelanoma skin cancer, pulmonary, gastrointestinal toxicity, etc. This paper made an effort to understand the pathophysiological targets, discuss the research done so far and the treatments available for the effective management of psoriasis.

2,4-Dimethoxy-6-Methylbenzene-1,3-diol, a Benzenoid From Antrodia cinnamomea, Mitigates Psoriasiform Inflammation by Suppressing MAPK/NF-κB Phosphorylation and GDAP1L1/Drp1 Translocation

Antrodia cinnamomea exhibits anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and immunomodulatory activities. We aimed to explore the antipsoriatic potential of 2,4-dimethoxy-6-methylbenzene-1,3-diol (DMD) derived from A. cinnamomea. The macrophages activated by imiquimod (IMQ) were used as the cell model for examining the anti-inflammatory effect of DMD in vitro. A significantly high inhibition of IL-23 and IL-6 by DMD was observed in THP-1 macrophages and bone marrow-derived mouse macrophages. The conditioned medium of DMD-treated macrophages could reduce neutrophil migration and keratinocyte overproliferation. DMD could downregulate cytokine/chemokine by suppressing the phosphorylation of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) and NF-κB. We also observed inhibition of GDAP1L1/Drp1 translocation from the cytoplasm to mitochondria by DMD intervention. Thus, mitochondrial fission could be a novel target for treating psoriatic inflammation. A psoriasiform mouse model treated by IMQ showed reduced scaling, erythema, and skin thickening after topical application of DMD. Compared to the IMQ stimulation only, the active compound decreased epidermal thickness by about 2-fold. DMD diminished the number of infiltrating macrophages and neutrophils and their related cytokine/chemokine production in the lesional skin. Immunostaining of the IMQ-treated skin demonstrated the inhibition of GDAP1LI and phosphorylated Drp1 by DMD. The present study provides insight regarding the potential use of DMD as an effective treatment modality for psoriatic inflammation.

Green Phellodendri Chinensis Cortex-based carbon dots for ameliorating imiquimod-induced psoriasis-like inflammation in mice

Background

Carbon dots (CDs) with multifaceted advantages have provided hope for development brand-new nanodrug for treating thorny diseases. This study developed a green and simple calcination method to prepare novel CDs as promising drug for psoriasis treatment. The as-prepared CDs using Phellodendri Chinensis Cortex (PCC) as sole precursor were characterized by a series of methods, mainly including electron microscopy, optical technology and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS).

Results

Results displayed that fluorescence (Quantum yield = 5.63%) and nontoxic PCC-based CDs (PCC-CDs) with abundant chemical groups exhibited solubility and tiny sizes at average of (1.93 ± 0.53) nm, which may be beneficial for its inherent biological activity. Moreover, by using the typical imiquimod (IMQ)-induced psoriasis-like skin mouse model, we firstly demonstrated the pronounced anti-psoriasis activity of as-prepared PCC-CDs on ameliorating the appearance, psoriasis area and severity index (PASI) scores as well as histopathological morphology of both back skin tissues and right ears in IMQ-induced mouse. Further potential mechanisms behind the anti-psoriasis activities may be related to suppress M1 polarization and relatively promote M2 polarization of macrophage both in vitro and in vivo.

Conclusion

These results suggested that PCC-CDs have potential to be an anti-psoriasis candidate for clinical applications to treat psoriasis, which not only provided an evidence for further broadening the biological application of CDs, but also provided a potential hope for application nanodrugs to treat thorny diseases.

Graphic Abstract

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12951-021-00847-y.

Identification of Hub Genes and Immune Infiltration in Psoriasis by Bioinformatics Method

Background

Psoriasis is a chronic, prolonged, and recurrent skin inflammatory disease. However, the pathogenesis of psoriasis is not completely clear, thus we aimed to explore potential molecular basis of it.

Methods

Two datasets were downloaded from the Gene Expression Omnibus database. After identifying the differentially expressed genes of psoriasis skin lesion samples and healthy controls, three kinds of analyses, namely functional annotation, protein-protein interaction (PPI) network, and immune infiltration analyses, were performed.

Results

A total of 152 up-regulated genes and 38 down-regulated genes were selected for subsequent analyses. Evaluation of the PPI network identified the most important module containing 13 hub genes. Gene ontology analysis showed that the hub genes have a significant enrichment effect on positive regulation of cell migration, defense response to the other organism and epithelial cell differentiation. KEGG signaling pathway analysis showed that the hub genes were significantly enriched in chemokine signaling, Toll-like receptor signaling pathway, and IL-17 signaling pathway. Compared with the normal control sample, naive B cells, CD8⁺ T cells, activated memory CD4⁺ T cells, follicular helper T cells, gamma delta T cells, resting NK cells, monocytes, M0 macrophages, M1 macrophages, activated dendritic cells and neutrophils infiltrated more, while memory B cells, naive CD4⁺ T cells, regulatory T cells (Tregs), activated NK cells, resting mast cells, and eosinophils infiltrated less.

Conclusion

To conclude, the hub genes and pathways identified from psoriasis lesions and normal controls along with the immune infiltration profile may provide new insights into the study of psoriasis.

Single-cell RNA-Seq reveals the transcriptional landscape and heterogeneity of skin macrophages in Vsir-/- murine psoriasis

Rationale: V-domain immunoglobulin suppressor of T cell activation (VISTA) is a novel inhibitory immune checkpoint molecule. Vsir-/- mice have exacerbated psoriasis-like skin inflammation. The immune cell subsets involved in inflammation in Vsir-/- psoriatic mice are largely unknown. We have used scRNA-seq as an unbiased profiling strategy to study the heterogeneity of immune cells at a single cell level in the skin of Vsir-/- psoriatic mice. Methods: In the present study, the right ear and shaved back skin of wild type and Vsir-/- mice were treated with IMQ for 5 consecutive days to induce psoriasis-like dermatitis. Then, the single-cell RNA sequencing analysis of mouse back skin lesions was performed using 10 × Genomics technique. Results: We identified 12 major cell subtypes among 23,258 cells. The major populations of the skin cells included macrophages, dendritic cells and fibroblasts. Macrophages constituted the main immune cell population in the WT (61.29%) and Vsir-/- groups (77.7%). It should be noted that DCs and fibroblasts were expanded in the Vsir-/- psoriatic mice. Furthermore, the gene expression signatures were assessed. We observed that Hspb1 and Cebpb were significantly upregulated in the Vsir-/- psoriatic mice. Differential gene expression and gene ontology enrichment analyses revealed specific gene expression patterns distinguishing these subsets and uncovered putative functions of each cell type. Date analysis resulted in the discovery of a number of novel psoriasis-associated genes in Vsir-/- mice. Conclusion: We present a comprehensive single-cell landscape of the skin immune cells in Vsir-/- psoriatic mice. These unprecedented data uncovered the transcriptional landscape and phenotypic heterogeneity of skin macrophages in psoriasis and identified their gene expression signature suggesting specialized functions in Vsir-/- mice. Our findings will open novel opportunities to investigate the role of VISTA in driving psoriasis.

Regulating the Polarization of Macrophages: A Promising Approach to Vascular Dermatosis

Macrophages, a kind of innate immune cells, derive from monocytes in circulation and play a crucial role in the innate and adaptive immunity. Under the stimulation of the signals from local microenvironment, macrophages generally tend to differentiate into two main functional phenotypes depending on their high plasticity and heterogeneity, namely, classically activated macrophage (M1) and alternatively activated macrophage (M2). This phenomenon is often called macrophage polarization. In pathological conditions, chronic persistent inflammation could induce an aberrant response of macrophage and cause a shift in their phenotypes. Moreover, this shift would result in the alteration of macrophage polarization in some vascular dermatoses; e.g., an increase in proinflammatory M1 emerges from Behcet's disease (BD), psoriasis, and systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), whereas an enhancement in anti-inflammatory M2 appears in infantile hemangioma (IH). Individual polarized phenotypes and their complicated cytokine networks may crucially mediate in the pathological processes of some vascular diseases (vascular dermatosis in particular) by activation of T cell subsets (such as Th1, Th2, Th17, and Treg cells), deterioration of oxidative stress damage, and induction of angiogenesis, but the specific mechanism remains ambiguous. Therefore, in this review, we discuss the possible role of macrophage polarization in the pathological processes of vascular skin diseases. In addition, it is proposed that regulation of macrophage polarization may become a potential strategy for controlling these disorders.

Lysophosphatidic Acid Receptor 5 Contributes to Imiquimod-Induced Psoriasis-Like Lesions through NLRP3 Inflammasome Activation in Macrophages

The pathogenesis of psoriasis, an immune-mediated chronic skin barrier disease, is not fully understood yet. Here, we identified lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) receptor 5 (LPA₅)-mediated signaling as a novel pathogenic factor in psoriasis using an imiquimod-induced psoriasis mouse model. Amounts of most LPA species were markedly elevated in injured skin of psoriasis mice, along with LPA₅ upregulation in injured skin. Suppressing the activity of LPA₅ with TCLPA5, a selective LPA₅ antagonist, improved psoriasis symptoms, including ear thickening, skin erythema, and skin scaling in imiquimod-challenged mice. TCLPA5 administration attenuated dermal infiltration of macrophages that were found as the major cell type for LPA₅ upregulation in psoriasis lesions. Notably, TCLPA5 administration attenuated the upregulation of macrophage NLRP3 in injured skin of mice with imiquimod-induced psoriasis. This critical role of LPA₅ in macrophage NLRP3 was further addressed using lipopolysaccharide-primed bone marrow-derived macrophages. LPA exposure activated NLRP3 inflammasome in lipopolysaccharide-primed cells, which was evidenced by NLRP3 upregulation, caspase-1 activation, and IL-1β maturation/secretion. This LPA-driven NLRP3 inflammasome activation in lipopolysaccharide-primed cells was significantly attenuated upon LPA₅ knockdown. Overall, our findings establish a pathogenic role of LPA₅ in psoriasis along with an underlying mechanism, further suggesting LPA₅ antagonism as a potential strategy to treat psoriasis.

Holistic development of coal tar lotion by embedding design of experiments (DoE) technique: preclinical investigations

Background: The research work endeavors to develop a liquid dosage form of an efficacious antipsoriatic drug, i.e., coal tar, but having problems like variability and patient noncompliance.Methods: The emulsion was prepared by the wet gum method from standardized coal tar. The optimized lotion obtained after sequential experimental designs was characterized for various dosage form and/or coal tar-related properties including efficacy.Results: The formulation deposited more coal tar in the unit area of rat skin than marketed lotions. The efficacy of lotion in psoriasis animal models was more or equivalent to marketed lotions. The formulation showed one compartment body model dermatokinetics, nonirritancy after repeated applications, and stability at room conditions for a year.Conclusion: The formulation with desired attributes was successfully developed.

Effects of tumor necrosis factor-like ligand 1A (TL1A) on imiquimod-induced psoriasiform skin inflammation in mice

TL1A, as a master regulatory cytokine, plays a key role in the development of diverse T-cell-mediated inflammatory and autoimmune diseases. Our study is to further understand the roles of TL1A in the pathogenic mechanism of psoriasis and to find a possible new therapeutic strategy in the treatment of psoriasis. The direct effects of TL1A injection in mice skin and the therapeutic effects of TL1A blockade in imiquimod (IMQ)-induced psoriasis-like mouse model were researched in this study. First, we found that the expressions of TL1A in IMQ-treated lesions were significantly higher than Vaseline control group. And then, the results showed that TL1A injection exacerbated the psoriasiform phenotype on IMQ-treated skin (including clinical score, epidermal thickness changes, and Baker score) by increasing the number of T cells, neutrophils, and DCs, and upregulating the mRNA expression of IFN-γ and IL-17. However, anti-TL1A mAb can alleviate psoriasis-like lesions in clinical and effectively improved the histopathologic changes in IMQ-induced psoriasis-like mice after treatment. Moreover, anti-TL1A mAb also reduced the number of infiltrated CD3⁺ T cells, MPO⁺ neutrophils, and CD11c⁺ DCs in psoriasis-like lesions, and obviously decreased the expression of IFN-γ and IL-17 in psoriasis-like lesions. Data suggested that TL1A might be involved in the pathogenesis of psoriasis, and targeting TL1A by anti-TL1A mAb might provide a solid foundation and novel therapeutic sight in the treatment of psoriasis.

Piperlongumine regulates epigenetic modulation and alleviates psoriasis-like skin inflammation via inhibition of hyperproliferation and inflammation

Psoriasis is an autoimmune skin disease, where chronic immune responses due to exaggerated cytokine signaling, abnormal differentiation, and evasion of keratinocytes apoptosis plays a crucial role in mediating abnormal keratinocytes hyperproliferation. From the therapeutic perspective, the molecules with strong anti-proliferative and anti-inflammatory properties could have tremendous relevance. In this study, we demonstrated that piperlongumine (PPL) treatment effectively abrogated the hyperproliferation and differentiation of keratinocytes by inducing ROS-mediated late apoptosis with loss of mitochondrial membrane potential. Besides, the arrest of cell cycle was found at Sub-G1 phase as a result of DNA fragmentation. Molecularly, inhibition of STAT3 and Akt signaling was observed with a decrease in proliferative markers such as PCNA, ki67, and Cyclin D1 along with anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 protein expression. Keratin 17 is a critical regulator of keratinocyte differentiation, and it was found to be downregulated with PPL significantly. Furthermore, prominent anti-inflammatory effects were observed by inhibition of lipopolysaccharide (LPS)/Imiquimod (IMQ)-induced p65 NF-κB signaling cascade and strongly inhibited the production of cytokine storm involved in psoriasis-like skin inflammation, thus led to the restoration of normal epidermal architecture with reduction of epidermal hyperplasia and splenomegaly. In addition, PPL epigenetically inhibited histone-modifying enzymes, which include histone deacetylases (HDACs) of class I (HDAC1-4) and class II (HDAC6) evaluated by immunoblotting and HDAC enzyme assay kit. In addition, our results show that PPL effectively inhibits the nuclear translocation of p65 and a histone modulator HDAC3, thus sequestered in the cytoplasm of macrophages. Furthermore, PPL effectively enhanced the protein-protein interactions of HDAC3 and p65 with IκBα, which was disrupted by LPS stimulation and were evaluated by Co-IP and molecular modeling. Collectively, our findings indicate that piperlongumine may serve as an anti-proliferative and anti-inflammatory agent and could serve as a potential therapeutic option in treating psoriasis.

PSORI-CM02 formula alleviates imiquimod-induced psoriasis via affecting macrophage infiltration and polarization

AIMS

Psoriasis is a refractory skin disease characterized by macrophage cell infiltrated in the dermal layer. Macrophages can simultaneously polarize into two distinct functional subtypes, M1 and M2, and this process is affected by the microenvironment, cytokines and JAK/STAT pathways. Formula PSORI-CM02 is a novel Chinese medicine used to alleviate psoriasis symptoms and regulate T cell differentiation and epithelial cell proliferation. However, the effects of PSORI-CM02 in imiquimod (IMQ)-induced psoriasis and macrophage infiltration and polarization in the dermis remain unknown.

MAIN METHODS

Imiquimod induced psoriasis mice model and M1/M2 polarization model on mice peritoneal macrophages cell line RAW264.7 in vitro were used to observe the therapeutic effect of PSORI-CM02 on skin and its molecular mechanisms.

KEY FINDINGS

PSORI-CM02 can significantly improve skin lesions and reduce macrophage infiltration in mice induced by imiquimod. After treatment with PSORI-CM02 formula, M1 macrophage mediators were significantly reduced, while M2 mediators were significantly increased in mice. Similarly in vitro, M1 macrophage proliferation was suppressed and M2 macrophage proliferation was elevated by PSORI-CM02 in the presence of LPS and IL-4, respectively. The elevated expression of TNF-α, iNOS, and IL-1β induced by LPS was reduced, while the expression of Arg-1, Fizz-1, Ym-1, and IL-10 induced by IL-4 was elevated in PSORI-CM02-treated cells. Finally, we found that the effects of PSORI-CM02 in macrophage polarization were associated with regulation of STAT1 and STAT6 expression, which were activated by LPS and IL-4, respectively.

SIGNIFICANCE

Our novel findings reveal that PSORI-CM02 may possess therapeutic action in psoriasis treatment by regulating the infiltration and polarization of macrophages in the dermal layer.

Function and Regulation of IL-36 Signaling in Inflammatory Diseases and Cancer Development

The IL-36 subfamily of cytokines belongs to the IL-1 superfamily and consists of three pro-inflammatory agonists IL-36α, IL-36β, IL-36γ, and an IL-36 receptor (IL-36R) antagonist, IL-36Ra. These IL-36 cytokines function through a common receptor to modulate innate and adaptive immune responses. IL-36 cytokines are expressed as inactive precursors and require proteolytic processing to become fully active. Upon binding to IL-36R, IL-36 agonists augment the expression and production of inflammatory cytokines via activating signaling pathways. IL-36 is mainly expressed in epidermal, bronchial, and intestinal epithelial cells that form the barrier structures of the body and regulates the balance between pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokine production at these tissue sites. Dysregulation of IL-36 signaling is a major etiological factor in the development of autoimmune and inflammatory diseases. Besides its critical role in inflammatory skin diseases such as psoriasis, emerging evidence suggests that aberrant IL-36 activities also promote inflammatory diseases in the lung, kidneys, and intestines, underscoring the potential of IL-36 as a therapeutic target for common inflammatory diseases. The role of IL-36 signaling in cancer development is also under investigation, with limited studies suggesting a potential anti-tumor effect. In this comprehensive review, we summarize current knowledge regarding the expression, activation, regulatory mechanisms, and biological functions of IL-36 signaling in immunity, inflammatory diseases, and cancer development.

Convallatoxin induces HaCaT cell necroptosis and ameliorates skin lesions in psoriasis-like mouse models

Psoriasis is considered an immune-mediated inflammatory skin disorder that affects the quality of life of nearly four percent of the world population. Considering the side effects of existing therapeutic drugs and the urgent need for new drug development, we screened more than 250 traditional Chinese medicine compounds to identify drugs that significantly reduced the viability of human HaCaT keratinocytes, a psoriasis-related model cell line. Convallatoxin (CNT) was found to be a highly effective inhibitor of HaCaT cell viability. Subsequent mechanistic studies revealed that CNT induced HaCaT cell death by necroptosis rather than by apoptosis. CNT destroyed the membrane integrity of HaCaT cells, as detected by nuclear propidium iodide (PI) staining and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) release. Additionally, the intercellular levels of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) were lower in HaCaT cells treated with CNT than in control HaCaT cells, and typical necroptosis-associated characteristics were observed by electron microscopy in cells treated with CNT. Furthermore, compared with control HaCaT cells, CNT-treated HaCaT cells produced more reactive oxygen species (ROS), but this effect was inhibited by the antioxidants N-acetyl-cysteine (NAC), diphenyleneiodonium chloride (DPI), and apocynin and the necroptosis inhibitor Nec-1. In addition, antioxidant treatment attenuated necroptotic cell death, suggesting that CNT-induced HaCaT necroptosis is mediated by oxidative stress. More importantly, CNT ameliorated skin lesions and inflammation in imiquimod (IMQ)- and 12-O-tetradecanoyl-phorbol-13-acetate (TPA)-induced psoriasis-like mouse models. In conclusion, our results demonstrate that CNT is cytotoxic against HaCaT cells in vitro and exerts antipsoriatic activities in two mouse models of psoriasis in vivo, making CNT a potential promising candidate drug for future research.

Construction of a Macrophage-Targeting Bio-nanocapsule-Based Nanocarrier

The construction protocol of bio-nanocapsule (BNC)-based nanocarriers, named GL-BNC and GL-virosome, for targeted drug delivery to macrophages is described here. First, genes encoding the Streptococcus sp. protein G-derived C2 domain (binds to IgG Fc) and Finegoldia magna protein L-derived B1 domain (binds to Igκ light chain) are prepared by PCR amplification. Subsequently, the genes encoding hepatic cell-specific binding domain of hepatitis B virus envelope L protein are replaced by these PCR products. The expression plasmid for this fused gene (encoding GL-fused L protein) can be used to transform Saccharomyces cerevisiae AH22R^- cells. To obtain GL-BNC, the transformed yeast cells are disrupted with glass beads, treated with heat, and then subjected to IgG affinity column chromatography followed by size exclusion column chromatography. In addition, GL-BNCs can be fused with liposomes to form GL-virosome. The targeted delivery of GL-BNC and GL-virosome to macrophages can be confirmed by in vitro phagocytosis assays using the murine macrophage cell line RAW264.7.

The Significance of IL-36 Hyperactivation and IL-36R Targeting in Psoriasis

Psoriasis is an immune-mediated inflammatory skin disease that involves mainly T helper (Th)17, Th1 and Th22 lymphocytes, which cause hyper-proliferation of the epidermis with aberrant differentiation of keratinocytes, and local production of chemokines and cytokines. These fuel a self-amplifying loop where these products act on T cells to perpetuate cutaneous inflammatory processes. Among the various inflammatory mediators involved, interleukin (IL)-36 cytokines are important for the recruitment and activation of neutrophils and Th17 cells in psoriatic skin. In particular, IL-36s induce chemokines and cytokines interfere with differentiation/cornification programs in the epidermis, as well as promote pathological angiogenesis and endothelial cell activation. IL-36 cytokines belong to the IL-1 family, and comprise IL-36α, IL-36β, and IL-36γ agonists as well as IL-36 receptor antagonist and IL-38 antagonists. IL-36 cytokines are up-regulated in psoriatic epidermis, and their expression is strongly induced by TNF-α and IL-17. Contrarily, IL-38 antagonist is downregulated, and its impaired expression may be relevant to the dysregulated inflammatory processes induced by IL-36. Here, we discuss on the pathogenic mechanisms leading to the altered balance of IL-36 agonists/antagonists and the significance of this dysregulation in psoriasis. Collection of the information will provide a theoretical basis for the development of novel therapeutic strategies based on IL-36 agonist/antagonist manipulation in psoriasis.

Inhibition of NLRP3 inflammasome-mediated pyroptosis in macrophage by cycloastragenol contributes to amelioration of imiquimod-induced psoriasis-like skin inflammation in mice

Psoriasis is a common chronic inflammatory skin disease, and the infiltrated macrophages in psoriatic skin lesions play a key role in the progression of this uncontrolled cutaneous inflammation. However, the current therapeutic strategies for patients with psoriasis are not satisfactory. Here, we report that cycloastragenol (CAG), a natural active small compound isolated from Astragalus membranaceus, significantly ameliorated imiquimod (IMQ)-induced psoriasiform dermatitis in mice by targeting proinflammatory macrophages. CAG significantly reduced the clinical scores, decreased the epidermal thickness, and ameliorated the deteriorating histopathology observed in IMQ-induced mice. CAG treatment specifically reduced the dermal infiltration of macrophages, rather than of dendritic cells, neutrophils, or T lymphocytes, into psoriatic skin. CAG dose-dependently decreased the level of proinflammatory cytokines, including IL-1β, TNF-α and IL-6, in murine psoriatic skin and serum, as well as in IMQ-stimulated, bone-marrow-derived macrophages. When compared to the control group, CAG significantly decreased IMQ-triggered NLRP3 inflammasome activation and gasdermin D-mediated cell pyroptosis in these proinflammatory macrophages. CAG also suppressed the assembly of the NLRP3 inflammasome complex. Taken together, the results show that CAG selectively modulates macrophage function by inhibiting NLRP3 inflammasome-mediated pyroptosis to ameliorate IMQ-induced psoriasis-like skin inflammation in mice. Our findings also identify an effective drug candidate for the treatment of psoriasis.

cis-Khellactone Inhibited the Proinflammatory Macrophages via Promoting Autophagy to Ameliorate Imiquimod-Induced Psoriasis

Psoriasis is a chronic inflammatory skin disease with unresolved pathogenesis. Studies on the pathogenesis of psoriasis have been extensively carried out, but treatments are still not satisfactory. In this study, we found improvement after treatment with cis-khellactone, a small molecular natural product, in imiquimod-challenged C57BL/6 mice. cis-Khellactone clearly reduced the level of cytokines in psoriatic skin, including IL-23, TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6, while limiting the inhibition of IL-17A, which is produced by T helper type 17 cells. cis-Khellactone treatment specifically decreased dermal macrophage infiltration in psoriatic skin but not in neutrophils or T cells. Additionally, compared with the control group, cis-khellactone significantly decreased the activation of NF-κB p65 in these infiltrated macrophages. Further study showed that cis-khellactone suppressed proinflammatory phenotypic macrophages by promoting autophagy. Blocking autophagy by silencing Beclin1 or Atg7 abrogated the effect of cis-khellactone on macrophages. The autophagy-dependent improvement in psoriasis from cis-khellactone treatment was further manifested by its limited effects on skin lesions in chloroquine-treated mice. Moreover, cis-khellactone showed lower toxicity levels than methotrexate in macrophages and primary hepatocytes. Taken together, cis-khellactone selectively modulated macrophage function and phenotype by inducing autophagy to ameliorate imiquimod-induced psoriasis in mice. Our research provides an effective strategy for the treatment of psoriasis.

Phosphatidylglycerol Inhibits Toll-Like Receptor-Mediated Inflammation by Danger-Associated Molecular Patterns

Psoriasis is a common skin disorder characterized by hyperproliferation and aberrant differentiation of epidermal keratinocytes and inflammation. We previously showed that phosphatidylglycerol (PG) can regulate keratinocyte function and suppress skin inflammation. Based on data suggesting that PG can inhibit toll-like receptor (TLR) activation induced by microorganisms and their components, we determined whether PG can inhibit TLR activation in response to antimicrobial peptides. These peptides, which are up-regulated in psoriasis, are known to function as danger-associated molecular patterns (i.e., DAMPs) to activate TLRs and the innate immune system. Because S100A9 is elevated in psoriatic skin and in animal models of psoriasis, we selected S100A9 as a representative antimicrobial peptide DAMP. We showed that in primary keratinocytes and a macrophage cell line, PG suppressed inflammatory mediator production induced by recombinant S100A9 functioning through both TLR2 and TLR4. In addition, PG, but not phosphatidylcholine, inhibited downstream S100A9-elicited TLR2 and NF-κB activation. These results, to our knowledge previously unreported, show PG's ability to inhibit DAMP-induced TLR activation, thereby reducing inflammatory signals. In addition, topical PG ameliorated skin lesions and inflammation in a mouse model of psoriasis. Together, these results suggest the possibility of developing PG as a therapy for psoriasis.

Protein biomarker for psoriasis: A systematic review on their role in the pathomechanism, diagnosis, potential targets and treatment of psoriasis

Psoriasis is defined as a long-lasting multifactorial inflammatory autoimmune skin condition precisely characterized by delimited, erythematic papules with adherent shiny scales. The conditions are led by hyperproliferative responses of epidermis due to hyperactivation and immature keratinocytes production. The psoriatic skin consists of the thickened epidermal layer, in concurrence with inflammatory exudates in the dermis mainly of dendritic cells, neutrophils, T cells, and macrophages, contributing to the distinct manifestation of psoriatic lesions. It consents to multifaceted and discrete pathology due to the genetic and immunological alteration resulting from abnormal expression of various regulatory and structural proteins. These proteins are associated with various cellular and sub-cellular activities. Therefore, the presence of protein in a pathological cellular environment in the psoriatic lesions as well as in serum could be a great avenue for the insight of pathomechanism, anticipation and diagnosis of psoriasis. Research of protein biomarker in psoriasis is yet a developing realm to be explored by both fundamental and clinical researchers. This review is an attempt to assimilate the current discoveries and revelations of different proteins as a biomarker and their importance in pathogenesis, diagnosis, treatment, and anticipation of both the inflammatory and other dermatological aspects of psoriasis.