1
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Ertl MM, Chu A, Duncan LJ, Fresquez CL. Experiences of sexist discrimination as a potential explanatory factor for alcohol and drug misuse among Latina young adult women. Soc Sci Med 2024; 351 Suppl 1:116455. [PMID: 38825377 DOI: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2023.116455] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2023] [Revised: 11/12/2023] [Accepted: 11/22/2023] [Indexed: 06/04/2024]
Abstract
RATIONALE Marianismo beliefs, or traditional female gender role beliefs among Latinas, have been found to serve as risk or protective factors linked with health risk behaviors in prior studies, including alcohol and drug misuse. However, limited research has examined potential factors that may contribute to or explain these associations. Sexist discrimination, which can serve as a significant stressor that may contribute to substance misuse, is one potential factor that may link marianismo beliefs and substance misuse among Latina young adult women. OBJECTIVE This study examined sexism as a potential mediator of hypothesized negative associations between five marianismo beliefs (Family Pillar, Virtuous and Chaste, Subordinate to Others, Silencing Self to Maintain Harmony, and Spiritual Pillar) and alcohol and drug misuse using structural equation modeling. METHOD Participants included 611 cisgender Latina full-time college student young adult women in the U.S. ages 18-26 who participated in an online cross-sectional survey about their health and behaviors. RESULTS Results delineated experiences of sexism as a significant risk factor for alcohol and drug misuse and as a potential explanatory factor that may partly explain associations between certain marianismo beliefs (i.e., Virtuous and Chaste beliefs) and substance misuse. Specifically, experiences of sexism partially accounted for the negative association between endorsement of the Virtuous and Chaste belief and increased alcohol and drug misuse among Latina young adults. CONCLUSIONS Prevention and intervention efforts should take a culturally responsive, gender-informed approach to address substance misuse among Latina young adults and address the negative influence of sexism on health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melissa M Ertl
- Department of Psychology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA.
| | - Annalisa Chu
- Department of Counseling Psychology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Lauryn J Duncan
- Department of Counseling and Clinical Psychology, Teacher's College, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Cara L Fresquez
- Department of Educational and Counseling Psychology, University at Albany-State University of New York, Albany, NY, USA
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2
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Bhuptani PH, Zhang Y, Danzey L, Bali A, Langdon K, Orchowski LM. Interpersonal trauma, shame, and substance use: A systematic review. Drug Alcohol Depend 2024; 258:111253. [PMID: 38552599 PMCID: PMC11090047 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2024.111253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2023] [Revised: 02/21/2024] [Accepted: 02/24/2024] [Indexed: 05/13/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Interpersonal trauma is a risk factor for a wide array of adverse mental health outcomes, including substance use. Research has begun investigating the role of shame in the intersection between substance use and interpersonal trauma. The current systematic review summarizes the existing literature documenting the relation among shame, substance use, and interpersonal trauma. METHOD Articles were collected using a Boolean search strategy of terms related to interpersonal trauma, substance use, and shame across six databases. Independent search and screening by three researchers led to a final review of 27 articles, 15 of which were qualitative studies. RESULTS Findings highlight robust associations among shame, interpersonal violence, and substance use across varied samples. Findings emphasize that increased shame is associated with greater substance use among survivors of interpersonal violence and elevated shame and greater interpersonal violence are present among individuals who use substances given the high prevalence rates. Burgeoning research suggests that shame mediates the relationship between interpersonal violence and substance use. CONCLUSION Results from our review suggest that shame may be an important treatment target for individuals presenting with substance use and a history of interpersonal violence. Future studies, with longitudinal designs, are needed to parse out the temporal relation among shame, substance use, and interpersonal violence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Prachi H Bhuptani
- Rhode Island Hospital, Providence, RI, USA; Brown University, Providence, RI, USA.
| | | | - Lauren Danzey
- Rhode Island Hospital, Providence, RI, USA; Brown University, Providence, RI, USA
| | - Aanandita Bali
- Rhode Island Hospital, Providence, RI, USA; Brown University, Providence, RI, USA
| | - Kirsten Langdon
- Rhode Island Hospital, Providence, RI, USA; Brown University, Providence, RI, USA
| | - Lindsay M Orchowski
- Rhode Island Hospital, Providence, RI, USA; Brown University, Providence, RI, USA
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3
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Oliver C, Cummings S, Puiras E, Mazmanian D. Technology-Facilitated Sexual Harassment Against Women and Psychological Dysfunction: A Test of Objectification Theory. Violence Against Women 2023:10778012231177998. [PMID: 37272024 DOI: 10.1177/10778012231177998] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Objectification theory was tested to examine the potential mediating role of self-objectification in the relationship between technology-facilitated sexual harassment (TFSH) and psychological functioning in a sample of women (N = 481). The results indicated that TFSH was associated with eating pathology, alcohol use, and sexual functioning. Furthermore, partial support for the objectification theory was achieved, with self-objectification potentially explaining the relationships between TFSH and eating pathology, and TFSH and alcohol use. This research may shed light on the role of objectification processes in the context of TFSH in women, as well as inform mental health interventions for women victims of TFSH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Casey Oliver
- Department of Psychology, Lakehead University, Thunder Bay, Canada
| | - Shayna Cummings
- Department of Psychology, Lakehead University, Thunder Bay, Canada
| | - Erika Puiras
- Department of Psychology, Lakehead University, Thunder Bay, Canada
| | - Dwight Mazmanian
- Department of Psychology, Lakehead University, Thunder Bay, Canada
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4
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Jin Y, Xu S, Chen C, Wilson A, Gao D, Ji Y, Sun X, Wang Y. Symptom association between social anxiety disorder, appearance anxiety, and eating disorders among Chinese University students: A network analysis to conceptualize comorbidity. Front Public Health 2022; 10:1044081. [PMID: 36620231 PMCID: PMC9814491 DOI: 10.3389/fpubh.2022.1044081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2022] [Accepted: 12/02/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Incidences of social anxiety disorder (SAD), appearance anxiety, and eating disorders (ED) show an increased prevalence among young people. However, symptoms' associations between these disorders have not been investigated in depth. Network analysis is an approach that can be used to explain the relationship(s) between symptoms of different psychological disorders. Using network analysis, this study aimed to explore the association and potential interacting mechanisms between SAD, appearance anxiety, and ED. Methods This study included 96,218 University students from Jilin Province, China. SAD, appearance anxiety and ED were assessed using the Social Anxiety Subscale of the Self-Consciousness Scale (SASS), the Appearance Anxiety Scale Brief Version (AASBV), and the Sick, Control, One, Fat, Food questionnaire (SCOFF), Chinese versions. Network analysis was employed to investigate the symptom associations, while the stability of the network model was analyzed using statistical measures. Results The prevalence of ED among the total sample was 38% (95% CI: 38.1-38.8%), while this figure was 31.2% (95% CI: 30.7-31.6%) in males and 43.6% (95% CI: 43.2-44.0%) in females. Additionally, the total score of SAD was significantly higher in females (11.83 ± 5.37) than it in males (10.02 ± 5.46) (P < 0.001). While the total score of appearance anxiety was also different significantly in gender (39.21 ± 9.49 in females vs. 38 ± 9.42 in males) (P < 0.001). Results showed that ED was associated with all three aspects of appearance anxiety, including "appearance concern," "appearance satisfaction," and "wish for good looks." Appearance anxiety and SAD were also associated; specifically, symptoms of "appearance satisfaction" were significantly associated with the symptoms "easily talk to strangers" and "appearance concern", which was also significantly associated with "embarrassed". Compared with males, females showed significantly stronger associations with appearance anxiety symptoms, while ED symptoms were associated with "troubled by being watched" and "appearance concern". Conclusion Appearance anxiety was associated with both ED and SAD symptoms. ED may have a potential relationship with SAD, affecting appearance anxiety indirectly. Significant differences were found among males and females in symptom associations between appearance anxiety and SAD. This study therefore clarified that young people should have body-positive interventions and challenge the normative body image discourse, which may help alleviate symptoms of SAD and ED.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Jin
- College of Education for the Future, Beijing Normal University, Zhuhai, China
| | - Shicun Xu
- Northeast Asian Research Center, Jilin University, Changchun, China,Department of Population, Resources and Environment, Northeast Asian Studies College, Jilin University, Changchun, China,China Center for Aging Studies and Social-Economic Development, Jilin University, Changchun, China,*Correspondence: Shicun Xu ✉
| | - Chang Chen
- Key Laboratory of Brain, Cognition and Education Sciences, Ministry of Education, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China,Guangdong Key Laboratory of Mental Health and Cognitive Science, School of Psychology, Center for Studies of Psychological Application, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Amanda Wilson
- Division of Psychology, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, De Montfort University, Leicester, United Kingdom
| | - Desheng Gao
- School of Marxism, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, China
| | - Yan Ji
- School of Marxism, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, China
| | - Xi Sun
- Department of Population, Resources and Environment, Northeast Asian Studies College, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Yuanyuan Wang
- Key Laboratory of Brain, Cognition and Education Sciences, Ministry of Education, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China,Guangdong Key Laboratory of Mental Health and Cognitive Science, School of Psychology, Center for Studies of Psychological Application, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China,Yuanyuan Wang ✉
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5
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Carretta RF, Szymanski DM. Self-Objectification and Alcohol Use in Young Adult College Women. SEX ROLES 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s11199-022-01295-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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6
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Ertl MM, Sawyer JS, Martin JL, Brenner RE. The Role of Objectification in College Women's Substance Misuse and Sexual Risk. JOURNAL OF PREVENTION AND HEALTH PROMOTION 2022; 3:68-96. [PMID: 35450297 PMCID: PMC9017399 DOI: 10.1177/26320770211054359] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Sexism and objectification present major challenges for mental and physical health among women. Scholars have called for research to identify mechanisms that underlie these associations as well as to delineate factors to target in prevention and intervention efforts. This study aimed to build on central tenets of objectification theory through its examination of sexist experiences in relation to body surveillance, body shame, depressive symptoms, and the health risk behaviors of substance use (i.e., alcohol and drug misuse) and sexual risk (i.e., condom use and number of sexual partners) among a large sample of college student women. We also examined whether body surveillance, body shame, and depressive symptoms would mediate theorized pathways extended to substance use and sexual risk. A sample of 505 full-time college student women ages 18-26 completed an online survey that assessed their health and behaviors. We used structural equation modeling to test mediation hypotheses. Results largely supported hypotheses, extended objectification theory to sexual risk, and expanded upon past research on objectification in relation to substance use. Notably, results of this study provided a more nuanced knowledge of how objectification may lead to increases in sexual risk when assessed by number of sexual partners (but not condom use). Further research is warranted to understand potential explanatory pathways between sexism, objectification, and sexual risk. Findings can inform prevention and intervention efforts to target body surveillance, body shame, and depressive symptoms to attempt to reduce the burden of sexist experiences on women's health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melissa M. Ertl
- Department of Psychiatry, HIV Center for Clinical and Behavioral Studies at Columbia University, New York, NY, United States
- New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York, NY, USA
| | - Jacob S. Sawyer
- Department of Psychology, Pennsylvania State University, Mont Alto, PA, USA
| | - Jessica L. Martin
- Department of Educational and Counseling Psychology, University at Albany-State University of New York, Albany, NY, USA
| | - Rachel E. Brenner
- Department of Psychology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA
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7
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Siegel JA, Huellemann KL, Calogero RM, Roberts TA. Psychometric properties and validation of the Phenomenological Body Shame Scale - Revised (PBSS-R). Body Image 2021; 39:90-102. [PMID: 34217949 DOI: 10.1016/j.bodyim.2021.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2021] [Revised: 06/03/2021] [Accepted: 06/03/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Body shame is a common experience among women yet a challenging phenomenon to operationalize, and measures of body shame often fail to capture its embodied aspects. In this article, we examined the structural and psychometric properties of an existing measure of body shame that was developed by Fredrickson et al. (1998) to assess the motivational and behavioral components of feeling body shame. Across three studies, women participants completed the Phenomenological Body Shame Scale (PBSS) and measures of theoretically related constructs in counterbalanced order via online survey platforms. The results demonstrate evidence of construct validity for an abbreviated, 8-item measure of phenomenological body shame (PBSS-R). In Study 1 (n = 341 community women), we evaluated and confirmed the scale's structural validity as a unidimensional measure. In Study 2 (n = 204 college women), we demonstrated positive associations between the PBSS-R and negative body image attitudes and behaviors, and negative associations with self-compassion, supporting the scale's external validity. In Study 3 (n = 235 community women), the PBSS-R explained variance in intuitive eating and happiness above theoretically related measures of self-objectification and body shame, supporting the scale's incremental validity. We recommend use of this abbreviated measure to assess the more embodied and less evaluative features of body shame in women.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaclyn A Siegel
- Western University, Department of Psychology, London, ON, Canada.
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8
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Holmes SC, DaFonseca AM, Johnson DM. Sexual Victimization and Disordered Eating in Bisexual Women: A Test of Objectification Theory. Violence Against Women 2021; 27:2021-2042. [PMID: 33059524 PMCID: PMC8865608 DOI: 10.1177/1077801220963902] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2024]
Abstract
The current study (a) ascertained whether there is a relationship between sexual victimization (SV) and disordered eating (DE) among bisexual women, (b) assessed whether objectification theory explains the relationship, and (c) tested for group differences between bisexual and heterosexual women on SV, DE, and other objectification theory variables. Utilizing a sample of 164 undergraduate bisexual women, there was a significant positive relationship between SV and DE that was serially mediated by self-surveillance and body shame. In addition, bisexual participants endorsed more SV, DE, body shame, and interoceptive deficits than a comparison sample of 335 undergraduate heterosexual women. Implications are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samantha C Holmes
- College of Staten Island, City University of New York, Staten Island, NY, USA
- Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
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9
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Le TP, Iwamoto DK, Samee AA. Examining the association between sexism, self-objectification, empowerment, and alcohol-related problems: Pathways through drinking to cope. Addict Behav 2021; 120:106964. [PMID: 33940338 DOI: 10.1016/j.addbeh.2021.106964] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2020] [Revised: 03/04/2021] [Accepted: 04/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
While research suggests that sexism is associated with college women's hazardous alcohol use, few studies have investigated the psychological factors that underlie the association between sexism and alcohol-related problems. Thus, the purpose of the present study was to examine the direct and indirect effect of gender-relevant sociocultural factors, including sexism, self-objectification, and empowerment, on college women's alcohol-related problems through drinking to cope. 450 women attending a large public university completed a cross-sectional survey that assessed these gender-relevant sociocultural factors and alcohol-related outcomes. Controlling for Greek membership, perceived drinking norms, and alcohol use, sexism and empowerment were both directly associated with alcohol-related problems, while sexism, self-objectification, and empowerment were indirectly associated with alcohol-related problems through the mechanism of drinking to cope. The results of this study highlight the importance of taking into account gender-relevant risk factors for women's alcohol-related problems, as well as the role of psychological processes such as drinking to cope. Pathways for intervention on both individual and systemic levels are discussed.
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10
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Body weight contingent self-worth predicts depression in adolescent girls: The roles of self-esteem instability and interpersonal sexual objectification. Body Image 2021; 36:74-83. [PMID: 33186823 DOI: 10.1016/j.bodyim.2020.10.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2020] [Revised: 10/26/2020] [Accepted: 10/27/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
This 3-year longitudinal study examined the extent to which body weight contingent self-worth (CSW) predicted depressive symptoms in 439 adolescent girls and the roles of unstable self-esteem and interpersonal sexual objectification in this association. Half-longitudinal mediation showed that the indirect effect of body weight CSW on depression via instability of self-esteem was significant. Prior levels of body weight CSW predicted increases in unstable self-esteem, which predicted increments in depressive symptoms over time. However, earlier levels of depression did not significantly predict increases in self-esteem instability. Moderation analyses indicated that the indirect effect was conditional upon individuals' experience of interpersonal sexual objectification. The positive link between body weight CSW and unstable self-esteem was stronger in girls who experienced more interpersonal sexual objectification. The direct effect of body weight CSW on depression was also moderated by interpersonal sexual objectification. Taken together, basing self-worth on body weight appears to be a risk factor for depression through its association with unstable self-esteem in adolescent girls and sexually objectifying experiences serve to exacerbate the connection between body weight CSW and adverse outcomes.
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11
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The Sexual Objectification and Alcohol Use Link: The Mediating Roles of Self-Objectification, Enjoyment of Sexualization, Body Shame, and Drinking Motives. SEX ROLES 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s11199-020-01213-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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12
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Szymanski DM, Strauss Swanson C, Carretta RF. Interpersonal Sexual Objectification, Fear of Rape, and U.S. College Women’s Depression. SEX ROLES 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s11199-020-01194-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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13
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Poon K, Jiang Y. Sexual objectification increases retaliatory aggression. Aggress Behav 2020; 46:291-304. [PMID: 32212173 DOI: 10.1002/ab.21889] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2019] [Revised: 03/04/2020] [Accepted: 03/09/2020] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Two experiments were conducted to investigate whether sexual objectification increases retaliatory aggression serially through increased vulnerability and hostile intent attributions. Female participants were first exposed to the sexual objectification manipulation by receiving compliments from an online male partner (Experiment 1) or imagining a workplace objectification experience (Experiment 2). Afterward, their vulnerability and hostile intent attributions were assessed. Finally, they were given an opportunity to behave aggressively toward the source of objectification. The results of both experiments indicated that, compared with their counterparts in the control conditions, participants in the sexual objectification condition reported higher levels of vulnerability, hostile intent attributions, and aggression. Moreover, vulnerability and hostile intent attributions serially mediated the effect of sexual objectification on aggression. These findings highlight the critical influence of vulnerability and hostile intent attributions in understanding how sexual objectification increases aggression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kai‐Tak Poon
- Department of Psychology and Centre for Psychosocial HealthThe Education University of Hong Kong Tai Po Hong Kong
| | - Yufei Jiang
- Department of Psychology and Centre for Psychosocial HealthThe Education University of Hong Kong Tai Po Hong Kong
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14
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Souleymanov R, Brennan DJ, George C, Utama R, Ceranto A. Experiences of racism, sexual objectification and alcohol use among gay and bisexual men of colour. ETHNICITY & HEALTH 2020; 25:525-541. [PMID: 29457468 DOI: 10.1080/13557858.2018.1439895] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
Objective: Previous research has shown that experiences of racial discrimination and sexual objectification are associated with health risk behaviours among gay and bisexual men of colour. However, little is known about whether racial discrimination and sexual objectification are associated with alcohol use among this population. This community-based study examined the association between racial discrimination, sexual objectification and alcohol use in a sample of 369 gay and bisexual men of colour (Black/African/Caribbean, Latino/Latin American, South Asian, and East and Southeast Asian) in Toronto.Design: Data were drawn from an online survey designed to examine issues of racism, homophobia, health and well-being among gay and bisexual men of colour in Toronto. Regression analysis assessed the relationship between scores on the Racism and Life Experiences Scale, Sexual Objectification Scale, and the CAGE questionnaire (a screen for alcohol use disorder).Results: Multivariable logistic regression analyses revealed that experiences of racism and sexual objectification are significantly and positively associated with a screening for alcohol use disorder. The interactions between Latino/Latin American race/ethnicity and experience of sexual objectification were also positively associated with a screening for alcohol use disorder.Conclusions: Health professionals should consider the role of racial discrimination and sexual objectification within the context of risk and treatment for alcohol use disorders, harm reduction, and HIV prevention for gay and bisexual men of colour.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rusty Souleymanov
- Factor-Inwentash Faculty of Social Work, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - David J Brennan
- Factor-Inwentash Faculty of Social Work, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Clemon George
- Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Ontario Institute of Technology, Oshawa, ON, Canada
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15
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Szymanski DM. Sexual Objectification, Internalization, and College Women’s Depression: The Role of Shame. COUNSELING PSYCHOLOGIST 2019. [DOI: 10.1177/0011000019878847] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
This study examined potential mediators, a moderator, and a moderated mediation of the link between sexual objectification experiences and depression among 489 young adult college women. Findings from the mediation analyses revealed that sexual objectification was directly and indirectly related to depression via greater body surveillance and self-blame. Shame moderated the direct effect of sexual objectification on body surveillance. Sexual objectification predicted body surveillance for women with low but not high or moderate levels of shame. Shame also moderated the direct effect of sexual objectification on self-blame and provided support for moderated mediation via conditional process analyses. Sexual objectification predicted self-blame for women with high and moderate but not low levels of shame. The findings underscore the importance of attending to experiences of objectification when working with women clients presenting with depression and to help them lessen habitual body monitoring, blaming themselves for being sexually objectified, and feelings of shame.
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16
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Opara I, Santos N. A Conceptual Framework Exploring Social Media, Eating Disorders, and Body Dissatisfaction Among Latina Adolescents. HISPANIC JOURNAL OF BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES 2019; 41:363-377. [PMID: 31452577 DOI: 10.1177/0739986319860844] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of this review is to propose a conceptual framework using objectification theory and intersectionality theory to examine social media's influence on body image and its effect on eating disorder predictors among Latina adolescents. To examine and explore how these effects from social media usage can result in mental health disparities that affect this group, emphasis was placed on how Latina ethnic identity mediates body image. Implications for clinicians and researchers include using strengths-based and culturally specific approaches as protective factors for Latina adolescents to strengthen ethnic identity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ijeoma Opara
- School of Social Welfare, Stony Brook University, NY, USA
| | - Noemy Santos
- School of Social Work, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
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17
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Luoma JB, Chwyl C, Kaplan J. Substance use and shame: A systematic and meta-analytic review. Clin Psychol Rev 2019; 70:1-12. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cpr.2019.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2018] [Revised: 02/20/2019] [Accepted: 03/04/2019] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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18
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Luo YJ, Niu GF, Kong FC, Chen H. Online interpersonal sexual objectification experiences and Chinese adolescent girls' intuitive eating: The role of broad conceptualization of beauty and body appreciation. Eat Behav 2019; 33:55-60. [PMID: 30927695 DOI: 10.1016/j.eatbeh.2019.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2018] [Revised: 02/18/2019] [Accepted: 03/21/2019] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Interpersonal sexual objectification experiences are pervasive in online communication contexts, and their influence on positive eating behaviors should not be ignored. Broad conceptualization of beauty refers to how widely women and girls define female beauty in terms of both internal and external characteristics, and body appreciation refers to loving, respecting, and holding a positive attitude toward the body. This study examined the association between online interpersonal sexual objectification (OISO) experiences and intuitive eating, as well as the mediating role of broad conceptualization of beauty and body appreciation. Participants were 1152 Chinese adolescent girls aged 11 to 15 years who completed a questionnaire survey measuring OISO experiences, broad conceptualization of beauty, body appreciation, and intuitive eating. The results showed a negative association of OISO experiences with broad conceptualization of beauty and intuitive eating. Mediation analysis using structural equation modeling showed a negative association of OISO experiences with intuitive eating through broad conceptualization of beauty and body appreciation. These results suggest that programs aiming to improve healthy eating behaviors could direct adolescent girls to criticize the appearance-focused mindset in online interaction and encourage them to focus on body functionality, such as health, creative endeavors, and communication with others.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi-Jun Luo
- Key Laboratory of Cognition and Personality (Ministry of Education), Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China; School of Psychology, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China; School of Psychology, Central China Normal University, Wuhan 430079, China
| | - Geng-Feng Niu
- School of Humanities and Social Science, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710049, China
| | - Fan-Chang Kong
- School of Psychology, Central China Normal University, Wuhan 430079, China
| | - Hong Chen
- Key Laboratory of Cognition and Personality (Ministry of Education), Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China; School of Psychology, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China.
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Maas MK, Bray BC, Noll JG. A Latent Class Analysis of Online Sexual Experiences and Offline Sexual Behaviors Among Female Adolescents. JOURNAL OF RESEARCH ON ADOLESCENCE : THE OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY FOR RESEARCH ON ADOLESCENCE 2018; 28:731-747. [PMID: 29152811 PMCID: PMC5960611 DOI: 10.1111/jora.12364] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
This study used latent class analysis to identify patterns (i.e., classes) across a broad range of online sexual experiences among female adolescents (n = 312) and to explore offline sexual behavior and substance use correlates of as well as maltreatment differences in class membership. The following four classes were identified: Online Abstinent, Online Inclusive, Attractors, and Seekers. Maltreated female adolescents were more likely to be members of the Online Inclusive class and less likely to be members of the Online Abstinent class than nonmaltreated female adolescents. Offline sexual behaviors and substance use differentially predicted class membership. These results suggest online sexual experiences vary greatly and should not be aggregated together as a global risk factor for all female adolescents.
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Holmes SC, Johnson DM. Applying Objectification Theory to the Relationship Between Sexual Victimization and Disordered Eating. COUNSELING PSYCHOLOGIST 2017. [DOI: 10.1177/0011000017745977] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
There is an established relationship between sexual victimization (SV) and disordered eating (DE); however, few theory-based studies exist that adequately examine this relationship. Previous research on objectification theory has insufficiently tested the theory’s application to extreme objectifying experiences such as SV. To address this gap in the literature, we evaluated objectification theory as a means for clarifying the relationship between SV and DE. Specifically, we examined how self-surveillance, a proxy for self-objectification, and two of its psychological correlates, body shame and interoceptive deficits, may clarify the association between SV and DE. Participants were 389 undergraduate women. Path analysis of the model largely supports the application of objectification theory to this relationship but also suggests potential modifications to the theory. Further, the extent to which SV may be uniquely related to DE, above and beyond everyday objectification (e.g., leering, unwanted sexual comments), was explored. Implications are discussed.
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Calogero RM, Tylka TL, Donnelly LC, McGetrick A, Leger AM. Trappings of femininity: A test of the "beauty as currency" hypothesis in shaping college women's gender activism. Body Image 2017; 21:66-70. [PMID: 28315810 DOI: 10.1016/j.bodyim.2017.02.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2016] [Revised: 02/22/2017] [Accepted: 02/22/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
This study investigated whether believing beauty is a primary currency for women operates as an antecedent force in the relation between self-objectification and gender activism. Ninety-four ethnically diverse women attending a small liberal arts college in the southeastern United States completed the study questionnaires online for course credit. Preliminary results demonstrated beauty as currency belief, self-objectification, and support for the gender status quo were negatively associated with gender activism. A serial mediation analysis revealed support for the proposed model: Beauty as currency belief was indirectly and inversely linked to gender activism through self-objectification and support for the gender status quo, offering initial evidence for our beauty as currency hypothesis. These findings suggest belief in the notion women will reap more benefits from their bodies than other attributes or pursuits may be an important legitimizing feature of feminine beauty ideology that works through self-objectification against gender social change.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Tracy L Tylka
- Department of Psychology, The Ohio State University, USA
| | | | - Amber McGetrick
- Department of Industrial Organizational Psychology, Radford University, USA
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Likis-Werle E, Borders LD. College Women's Gender Identity and Their Drinking Choices. JOURNAL OF ADDICTIONS & OFFENDER COUNSELING 2017. [DOI: 10.1002/jaoc.12026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - L. DiAnne Borders
- Department of Counseling and Educational Development; The University of North Carolina at Greensboro
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Haikalis M, DiLillo D, Gervais SJ. Up for Grabs? Sexual Objectification as a Mediator Between Women's Alcohol Use and Sexual Victimization. JOURNAL OF INTERPERSONAL VIOLENCE 2017; 32:467-488. [PMID: 26045500 DOI: 10.1177/0886260515586364] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Sexual objectification, the tendency to reduce women to their bodies, body parts, or sexual functions for use by others, has been theorized to set the stage for more severe acts of violence but has been largely absent from the existing sexual victimization literature. The purpose of this study was to explore the role of sexual objectification in mediating the well-established link between women's alcohol use and sexual victimization. A large sample of undergraduate women ( N = 673) reported their alcohol use (frequency and quantity), experiences of sexual objectification (body evaluation and unwanted explicit sexual advances), and sexual victimization. Results indicated positive bivariate correlations among all study variables. Path analyses showed that mild forms of sexual objectification (body evaluation) mediated the link between the frequency of alcohol use and more extreme forms of sexual objectification (unwanted advances). Furthermore, the combined effect of sexual objectification (body evaluation and unwanted advances) mediated the link between alcohol use (frequency and quantity) and sexual victimization. The current findings are among the first to evaluate sexual objectification as a mechanism in the link between alcohol use and sexual victimization. Results suggest that efforts to prevent alcohol-related sexual violence may benefit from addressing sexual objectification.
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Davidson MM, Gervais SJ. Violence against women through the lens of objectification theory. Violence Against Women 2016; 21:330-54. [PMID: 25680800 DOI: 10.1177/1077801214568031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of this research was to examine the effects of violence on body image variables for college women. Undergraduate women participated in an online study assessing sexual violence (SV), intimate partner violence (IPV), self-objectification, body surveillance, and body shame experiences. Findings suggest that both SV and IPV contribute to women's body shame. In addition, the associations between IPV and body shame appear to be explained through self-objectification processes, but not the associations between SV and body shame. Thus, important differences between IPV and SV regarding self-objectification processes emerged. Theoretical and practical implications, as well as directions for future research, are discussed.
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Velez BL, Campos ID, Moradi B. Relations of Sexual Objectification and Racist Discrimination with Latina Women’s Body Image and Mental Health. COUNSELING PSYCHOLOGIST 2015. [DOI: 10.1177/0011000015591287] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
In the current study, we tested direct and mediated associations of objectification theory constructs and racist discrimination with eating disorder and depressive symptomatology in a sample of 180 Latina women (age range = 18-66). Results of a path analysis indicated that internalization of sociocultural standards of attractiveness was related to greater eating disorder and depressive symptomatology in part through the mediating roles of body shame and body surveillance, and body surveillance was related to greater eating disorder and depressive symptomatology through the mediating role of body shame. Sexual objectification did not yield hypothesized direct and indirect unique relations with criterion variables. However, racist discrimination was directly associated with greater depressive symptomatology and indirectly associated, through the mediating role of body shame, with greater eating disorder and depressive symptomatology. These results extend tenets of objectification theory to Latina women and point to the role of racist discrimination within this framework.
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Vencill JA, Tebbe EA, Garos S. It’s Not the Size of the Boat or the Motion of the Ocean. PSYCHOLOGY OF WOMEN QUARTERLY 2015. [DOI: 10.1177/0361684315587703] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Research on psychological factors related to female sexual functioning has been growing in recent years. Our study draws on the existing sexual health literature and objectification theory to test a model of female sexual functioning. Using structural equation modeling, we examined the associations of body surveillance and internalization of cultural standards of beauty with appearance anxiety, depression, and sexual health (i.e., physical sexual functioning and subjective sexual well-being) in a sample of 426 sexually active, heterosexual, cisgender women. Further, we investigated the role of depression and appearance anxiety as mediators of the associations of body surveillance and internalization of cultural standards of beauty with sexual health. Our findings contribute to the growing body of empirical research that examines the role of sociocultural and psychological factors in female sexual functioning. Results suggest that depression and appearance anxiety fully mediated the relations of body surveillance with sexual well-being. However, internalization of cultural standards of beauty was not significant with any study outcomes. These findings expand on existing objectification theory literature by elucidating the associations of body surveillance and internalization of cultural standards of beauty with sexual functioning as well as by highlighting the importance of attending to body image, appearance anxiety, and depression when working clinically with women reporting concerns with their sexual functioning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer A. Vencill
- Department of Family Medicine and Community Health, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - Elliot A. Tebbe
- Department of Psychology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Sheila Garos
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX, USA
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Carr ER, Green B, Ponce AN. Women and the Experience of Serious Mental Illness and Sexual Objectification: Multicultural Feminist Theoretical Frameworks and Therapy Recommendations. WOMEN & THERAPY 2015. [DOI: 10.1080/02703149.2014.978216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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Jones BA, Griffiths KM. Self-objectification and depression: an integrative systematic review. J Affect Disord 2015; 171:22-32. [PMID: 25282146 DOI: 10.1016/j.jad.2014.09.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2014] [Revised: 09/06/2014] [Accepted: 09/14/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Objectification Theory positions self-objectification as a cause of depression. In particular, the authors offer Objectification Theory as a partial explanation for the higher prevalence of depression among women than men. To investigate the validity of this theory, we undertook a systematic review of quantitative studies that have investigated self-objectification as a predictor of depression. METHODS Studies were identified by searching the PsycINFO, Medline, EMBASE and Cochrane Library databases. Search terms were 'objectif⁎' OR 'body conscious⁎' AND 'depressi⁎' OR 'dysthymi⁎' OR 'mood disorder'. To be eligible, studies were required to be in the English-language, to include a measure of depression and a measure of self-objectification. Studies were excluded if they did not explicitly examine the association between these variables. RESULTS Among women most studies found a mediated effect for self-objectification on depression. All studies including adolescents found a direct effect. Each of the two prospective longitudinal studies found that an increase in self-objectification over time was associated with a concomitant increase in depression, suggesting a causal relationship. Among men the results were mixed. LIMITATIONS The review did not include a quantitative synthesis due to the heterogeneity of the included observational studies. The majority of the studies were cross-sectional precluding conclusions concerning causality. Generalisations to culturally and linguistically diverse populations must be made with caution given the limited cultural diversity within the studies CONCLUSIONS Self-objectification may be a useful predictor of depression, particularly among women and adolescents, and may have clinical relevance among these populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bethany A Jones
- National Institute for Mental Health Research, Research School of Population Health, Australian National University, Building 63, Eggleston Road, 2601 ACT, Australia.
| | - Kathleen M Griffiths
- National Institute for Mental Health Research, Research School of Population Health, Australian National University, Building 63, Eggleston Road, 2601 ACT, Australia
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Szymanski DM, Feltman CE. Linking Sexually Objectifying Work Environments Among Waitresses to Psychological and Job-Related Outcomes. PSYCHOLOGY OF WOMEN QUARTERLY 2014. [DOI: 10.1177/0361684314565345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
The purpose of our study was to examine the relationships between experiences of working in sexually objectifying environments (SOEs) and psychological and job-related outcomes in a sample of 253 waitresses working in U.S. restaurants. Supporting our hypotheses, results indicated that SOEs were significantly positively correlated with waitresses’ experiences of interpersonal sexual objectification at work, internalization of cultural standards of beauty, and depression as well as negatively correlated with job satisfaction. Contrary to our hypotheses, SOEs were not directly related to self-objectification, body shame, self-esteem, or health habits. Furthermore, our findings revealed support for a theorized five-chain serial mediation model in which SOEs were related to job satisfaction both directly and indirectly via classic objectification theory processes (i.e., interpersonal experiences of sexual objectification in the restaurant environment, self-objectification, body shame, and depression). Finally, a direct positive link was found between interpersonal experiences of sexual objectification and depression. Our findings underscore the need to implement both individual- and system-level interventions to combat the existence of SOEs and the negative effects they may have on women.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dawn M. Szymanski
- Department of Psychology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, USA
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Miles-McLean H, Liss M, Erchull MJ, Robertson CM, Hagerman C, Gnoleba MA, Papp LJ. “Stop Looking at Me!”. PSYCHOLOGY OF WOMEN QUARTERLY 2014. [DOI: 10.1177/0361684314561018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Objectification has been conceptualized as a form of insidious trauma, but the specific relationships among objectification experiences, self-objectification, and trauma symptoms have not yet been investigated. Participants were women with ( n = 136) and without ( n = 201) a history of sexual trauma. They completed a survey measuring trauma history, objectification experiences (body evaluation and unwanted sexual advances), constructs associated with self-objectification (body surveillance and body shame), and trauma symptoms. The relationships among the variables were consistent for both women with and without a history of sexual trauma. Our hypothesized path model fit equally well for both groups. Examination of the indirect effects showed that experiencing unwanted sexual advances was indirectly related to trauma symptoms through body shame for those with and without a history of sexual trauma. Additionally, for women with a history of sexual trauma, the experience of body evaluation was indirectly related to trauma symptoms through the mediating variables of body surveillance and body shame. The data indicate that the experience of sexual objectification is a type of gender-based discrimination with sequelae that can be conceptualized as insidious trauma. Clinicians may consider the impact of these everyday traumatic experiences when working with women who have clinical symptoms but no overt trauma history.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haley Miles-McLean
- Department of Psychology, University of Mary Washington, Fredericksburg, VA, USA
| | - Miriam Liss
- Department of Psychology, University of Mary Washington, Fredericksburg, VA, USA
| | - Mindy J. Erchull
- Department of Psychology, University of Mary Washington, Fredericksburg, VA, USA
| | - Caitlin M. Robertson
- Department of Psychology, University of Mary Washington, Fredericksburg, VA, USA
| | - Charlotte Hagerman
- Department of Psychology, University of Mary Washington, Fredericksburg, VA, USA
| | - Michelle A. Gnoleba
- Department of Psychology, University of Mary Washington, Fredericksburg, VA, USA
| | - Leanna J. Papp
- Department of Psychology, University of Mary Washington, Fredericksburg, VA, USA
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Belknap J, Sharma N. The Significant Frequency and Impact of Stealth (Nonviolent) Gender-Based Abuse Among College Women. TRAUMA, VIOLENCE & ABUSE 2014; 15:181-190. [PMID: 24874993 DOI: 10.1177/1524838014520725] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
The prevalence, incidence, and impact of the gender-based abuse (GBA) of college women have been increasingly documented since the 1980s, with growing precision in the measurements and expanding identification of tactics. Although there is an obvious class bias in focusing on college women (compared to women of similar ages not attending college), it is important to address GBA among this population as they are at serious risk of sexual abuse (particularly incapacitated rape), intimate partner abuse (IPA), and stalking. This article addresses the stealth nature of the nonviolent GBAs of college women and how these abuses frequently operate under the radar of acknowledgment by society, the abusers, campus officials, the criminal legal system, and sometimes, the survivors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanne Belknap
- Department of Sociology, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA
| | - Nitika Sharma
- Department of Sociology, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA
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Varnes JR, Stellefson ML, Miller MD, Janelle CM, Dodd V, Pigg RM. Body Esteem and Self-Objectification Among Collegiate Female Athletes. PSYCHOLOGY OF WOMEN QUARTERLY 2014. [DOI: 10.1177/0361684314531097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of our study was to use select constructs from objectification theory to investigate how society’s sexual objectification of female athletes is related to differences in body esteem and self-objectification among collegiate female athletes and non-athletes. Using a cross-sectional survey, we sampled three groups at a Division I National Collegiate Athletic Association university: 322 non-athletes, 58 athletes participating in sports that are considered more objectified, and 27 athletes participating in sports that are considered less objectified. Participants completed survey measures assessing body esteem (sexual attractiveness, weight concern, and physical condition), body surveillance, thin-ideal internalization, and body shame. As predicted, all athletes experienced better body esteem than non-athletes. Surprisingly, both more and less objectified athletes also reported lower rates of body surveillance than non-athletes. Other findings varied by grouping. Overall, study findings suggested that athletes in more objectified sports experience greater thin-ideal internalization, thereby enhancing body shame without increasing body surveillance or body image concerns. Researchers and interventionists should put more focus on sexual- and self-objectification of collegiate female athletes participating in the more objectified sports because their psychological and mental health risks appear to be associated with objectification and not necessarily poor body image.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia R. Varnes
- GatorWell Health Promotion Services, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Michael L. Stellefson
- Department of Health Education and Behavior, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - M. David Miller
- Department of Research and Evaluation Methodology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Christopher M. Janelle
- Department of Applied Physiology and Kinesiology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Virginia Dodd
- Department of Community Dentistry and Behavioral Science, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - R. Morgan Pigg
- Department of Health Education and Behavior, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
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Abstract
We examined whether subtle exposure to sexually objectifying cues increases women’s intentions to have cosmetic surgery. Undergraduate women ( N = 116) were randomly assigned to a condition in which they unscrambled sentences containing words associated with sexual objectification, non-self-objectifying physicality, or neutral content. Following a manipulation check of these primes, participants reported their body shame and intentions to have cosmetic surgery in the future. Results revealed that priming a state of self-objectification, compared to the two non-self-objectifying conditions, increased both body shame and intentions to have cosmetic surgery. In a mediational model, the link between self-objectification and intentions to have cosmetic surgery was partially mediated by body shame. Controlling for other key intrapersonal and social motives linked to interest in cosmetic surgery did not alter these patterns. These findings highlight the potential for the consumption of cosmetic surgery to stand as another harmful micro-level consequence of self-objectification that may be perpetuated via subtle exposure to sexually objectifying words, even in the absence of visual depictions or more explicit encounters of sexual objectification.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Afroditi Pina
- School of Psychology, University of Kent at Canterbury, United Kingdom
| | - Robbie M. Sutton
- School of Psychology, University of Kent at Canterbury, United Kingdom
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Varnes JR, Stellefson ML, Janelle CM, Dorman SM, Dodd V, Miller MD. A systematic review of studies comparing body image concerns among female college athletes and non-athletes, 1997-2012. Body Image 2013; 10:421-32. [PMID: 23856303 DOI: 10.1016/j.bodyim.2013.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2012] [Revised: 06/05/2013] [Accepted: 06/06/2013] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Research prior to 2001 indicated that athletes experienced better body image than non-athletes, with no differences among sport types. Since then, female athletes have become increasingly sexually objectified in the media, and the sociocultural beauty ideal has shifted to emphasize appearing both athletic and thin. Part I of this paper explores the literature describing these changes. Part II presents a systematic and comprehensive literature review of 10 recent studies comparing body image concerns (BIC) among collegiate female athletes and non-athletes to identify the current status of BIC in female athletes. Findings indicate that involvement in collegiate athletics provides some protection from BIC; however, this protection appears attenuated for athletes in more feminine sports (e.g., gymnastics), and higher level athletes (Division I). Researchers should examine how sociocultural pressures unrelated to competition predict female athletes' BIC using measures that focus on objectification, positive body image, body functionality, and thin- and athletic-ideal internalization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia R Varnes
- Department of Health Education and Behavior, College of Health and Human Performance, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States.
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Carr ER, Szymanski DM, Taha F, West LM, Kaslow NJ. Understanding the Link Between Multiple Oppressions and Depression Among African American Women. PSYCHOLOGY OF WOMEN QUARTERLY 2013. [DOI: 10.1177/0361684313499900] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of our study was to examine the multiple oppression experiences of sexual objectification, racism, and gendered racism as predictors of depressive symptoms among a clinical sample of low-income African American women. In addition, we examined coping with oppression via internalization (i.e., the tendency to attribute responsibility or the cause of an oppressive event to oneself) as a mediator between these three intersecting forms of oppression and depressive symptoms. Participants included 144 African American women who sought some type of mental health treatment at a U.S. southeastern, public, urban, university-affiliated hospital that attends to a primarily indigent and underserved population. The results of our mediational analysis using bootstrapping provided support for a theorized model in which coping with oppressive events via internalization mediated the links between sexual objectification and depression and between racist events and depression but not between gendered racism and depression. In addition, a unique and direct effect of racist events on depression was found. Finally, the four variables in the model accounted for 42% of variance in depression scores. The study includes implications for future research and clinical work such as exploration of other mediators and the importance of comprehensive intake assessments and multicultural/feminist coping interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Dawn M. Szymanski
- Department of Psychology, University of Tennessee–Knoxville, Knoxville, TN, USA
| | - Farah Taha
- Psychology Department, City University of New York–Queens College, New York, NY, USA
| | - Lindsey M. West
- Department of Psychology, Georgia Regents University, Augusta, GA, USA
| | - Nadine J. Kaslow
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
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Gervais SJ, Davidson MM. Objectification among college women in the context of intimate partner violence. VIOLENCE AND VICTIMS 2013; 28:36-49. [PMID: 23520831 DOI: 10.1891/0886-6708.28.1.36] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
This study examined intimate partner violence (IPV) and objectification. Specifically, the associations between psychological and physical abuse and self-objectification, body surveillance, and body shame for college women were considered through the lens of objectification theory. Consistent with Hypothesis 1, bivariate correlations showed that more psychological abuse was associated with more self-objectification, more body surveillance, and more body shame. As well, more physical abuse was associated with more body surveillance and more body shame. However, when the unique effects of psychological and physical abuse were considered in a path model, the links between psychological abuse and objectification remained while the links between physical abuse and objectification became nonsignificant. In addition, consistent with Hypothesis 2 and the model proposed by objectification theory, body surveillance and the combined effect of self-objectification and body surveillance explained relations between psychological abuse and body shame. This work fills an important gap in the current literature because it is the only study to date that examines relations between both psychological and physical abuse and self-objectification, body surveillance, and body shame. Implications and future directions are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah J Gervais
- University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Department of Psychology, Lincoln, NE 68588, USA.
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On Objects and Actions: Situating Self-Objectification in a System Justification Context. NEBRASKA SYMPOSIUM ON MOTIVATION 2013; 60:97-126. [DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4614-6959-9_5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/06/2022]
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Watson LB, Matheny KB, Gagné P, Brack G, Ancis JR. A Model Linking Diverse Women’s Child Sexual Abuse History With Sexual Risk Taking. PSYCHOLOGY OF WOMEN QUARTERLY 2012. [DOI: 10.1177/0361684312454535] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of our study was to examine the role that child sexual abuse may play in body surveillance and sexual risk behaviors among undergraduate women. First, a measured variable path analysis was conducted, which assessed the relations among a history of child sexual abuse, body surveillance, and sexual risk behaviors. Furthermore, body shame, sexual self-efficacy, and alexithymia were examined as intervening variables. Second, a multigroup path analysis was conducted comparing the hypothesized models applied to data from 556 ethnically diverse women. Within the overall model, results revealed that a history of child sexual abuse and body surveillance were not related to one another, but both variables were directly related to sexual risk behaviors. Moreover, body shame mediated the relationship between body surveillance and alexithymia, and alexithymia mediated the relationship between body shame and sexual self-efficacy. Child sexual abuse history was related directly with body shame and alexithymia. Results from the multigroup path analysis revealed that the model was invariant between African American and White women, although one difference emerged: body surveillance significantly predicted alexithymia in White, but not African American, women. Furthermore, White, Asian/Pacific Islander, and Hispanic/Latina women demonstrated more body shame than African American women, and White women endorsed higher levels of sexual self-efficacy than African American and Asian/Pacific Islander women. Counseling interventions that seek to decrease alexithymic symptoms, body surveillance, and body shame, while also increasing sexual self-efficacy, seem especially warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laurel B. Watson
- Department of Psychology, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, USA
- Department of Counseling and Educational Psychology, University of Missouri, Kansas City, MO, USA
| | - Kenneth B. Matheny
- Department of Educational Policy Studies, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Phill Gagné
- Department of Psychology, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Greg Brack
- Department of Psychology, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Julie R. Ancis
- Department of Psychology, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, USA
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Littleton HL, Grills-Taquechel AE, Buck KS, Rosman L, Dodd JC. Health Risk Behavior and Sexual Assault Among Ethnically Diverse Women. PSYCHOLOGY OF WOMEN QUARTERLY 2012; 37:7-21. [PMID: 24223467 DOI: 10.1177/0361684312451842] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Sexual assault is associated with a number of health risk behaviors in women. It has been hypothesized that these risk behaviors, such as hazardous drinking, may represent women's attempts to cope with psychological distress, such as symptoms of depression and anxiety. However, extant research has failed to evaluate these relationships among ethnic minority samples or identify the mechanisms responsible for this association. The current study examined sexual assault history and two health risk behaviors (hazardous drinking and engaging in sexual behavior to regulate negative affect) in a diverse sample of 1,620 college women. Depression and anxiety were examined as mediators of the relationship between sexual assault and health risk behaviors. There was evidence of moderated mediation, such that for European American women, but not for ethnic minority women, both forms of psychological distress were significant mediators of the sexual assault/hazardous drinking relationship. In contrast, among all ethnic groups, the relationship between sexual assault and both forms of psychological distress was mediated by the use of sexual behavior as an affect regulation strategy. Results support a need to evaluate the assault experiences of ethnically diverse women, as well as the impact of the assault on their postassault experiences including health risk behaviors and psychological adjustment. Additionally, results suggest that practitioners should carefully assess health risk behaviors among victims of sexual assault and be aware that there may be differences in the risk factors and motives for these behaviors among women of various ethnic backgrounds.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Katherine S Buck
- Department of Psychology, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC, USA
| | - Lindsey Rosman
- Department of Psychology, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC, USA
| | - Julia C Dodd
- Department of Psychology, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC, USA
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Fredrickson BL, Hendler LM, Nilsen S, O’Barr JF, Roberts TA. Bringing Back the Body. PSYCHOLOGY OF WOMEN QUARTERLY 2011. [DOI: 10.1177/0361684311426690] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Abstract
The preceding articles provide an excellent overview of relatively recent theory and research on sexual objectification of women from a psychological perspective. Importantly, the authors have contributed to the literature through their conceptual extensions and research applications of objectification theory. In this reaction piece, our goals are to direct attention to an underplayed aspect of objectification theory, offer applause and a caveat about specifying criteria for sexually objectifying environments, critically analyze false parallels and common yes, but challenges to objectification theory, encourage further consideration of sociopolitical dimensions of sexual objectification, and suggest avenues for continued work.
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Heimerdinger-Edwards SR, Vogel DL, Hammer JH. Extending Sexual Objectification Theory and Research to Minority Populations, Couples, and Men. COUNSELING PSYCHOLOGIST 2010. [DOI: 10.1177/0011000010383894] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
This reaction highlights several strengths of this major contribution and discusses some future directions in this line of research.The authors offer research ideas in the areas of cultural and cross-cultural issues, couples and relationships, as well as direct and indirect effects of sexual objectification on men. In terms of providing increasing support for the model of sexual objectification and substance use, the authors suggest more exhaustive studies that can look at the causal order of variables and consider such possibilities as a reciprocal effect of depression and substance use or a combined effect of depression and eating disorders leading to substance use, as well as examine possible moderating variables that could serve as risk or protective factors for negative outcomes. Furthermore, the authors also offer future directions for research on the interpersonal effects of sexual objectification. Specifically, they offer research ideas related to sexual objectification and relationship disruptions, continued gender stereotyping, as well as negative direct and indirect consequences for men, such as conveying unrealistic messages about how to establish and maintain genuine intimate relationships with women.
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Szymanski DM, Carr ER. Underscoring the Need for Social Justice Initiatives Concerning the Sexual Objectification of Women. COUNSELING PSYCHOLOGIST 2010. [DOI: 10.1177/0011000010384512] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
In this article, we emphasize the need to continually think outside the traditional therapy box in ways that we can intervene (and empower clients to intervene) to more directly address social problems, such as the sexual objectification of women, and to develop our own and our students’ advocacy skills to intervene at the level of organizations, processes, systems, and social policy. In addition, we encourage psychologists to actively take steps to increase the ways in which they turn their social justice agendas into action.
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Abstract
This article elaborates on three themes related to Szymanski, Moffitt, and Carr’s major contribution aims. First, the article describes the promise of objectification theory as a grounding framework in research and practice, outlining how this theory integrates key aspects of several other important theoretical models. Second, this article suggests areas for theoretical refinement and clarification related to the conceptualization and operationalization of self-objectification, sexually objectifying environments, and the mechanisms linking sexual objectification with substance use. Third, this article offers considerations regarding the state of objectification theory—based intervention recommendations. The article concludes with a discussion of potential roles of counseling psychologists in advancing research, practice, and advocacy informed by objectification theory.
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Szymanski DM, Moffitt LB, Carr ER. Sexual Objectification of Women: Advances to Theory and Research 1ψ7. COUNSELING PSYCHOLOGIST 2010. [DOI: 10.1177/0011000010378402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 172] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Objectification theory provides an important framework for understanding, researching, and intervening to improve women’s lives in a sociocultural context that sexually objectifies the female body and equates a woman’s worth with her body’s appearance and sexual functions. The purpose of this Major Contribution is to advance theory, research, practice, and training related to the sexual objectification of women. The purpose of this article is to introduce readers to objectification theory and related research, extend objectification theory to our understanding of women’s substance use and/or abuse and immersed forms of sexual objectification via sexually objectifying environments, and provide an overview of this Major Contribution on Sexual Objectification of Women.
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Szymanski DM, Carr ER, Moffitt LB. Sexual Objectification of Women: Clinical Implications and Training Considerations. COUNSELING PSYCHOLOGIST 2010. [DOI: 10.1177/0011000010378450] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
This article focuses on the implications of theory and empirical research on the sexual objectification of women. Drawing largely from the American Psychological Association’s 2007 Guidelines for Psychological Practice With Girls and Women, the 2007 Report of the American Psychological Association’s Task Force on the Sexualization of Girls, key feminist therapy texts, and the findings from empirical research on Fredrickson and Robert’s (1997) objectification theory, the authors provide suggestions for practice with female clients struggling with issues related to sexual objectification and ideas for the training of psychologists.
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