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Vendemia MA. Sexual objectification versus empowerment: Examining the effects of sexualized women's facial expression on viewers' evaluations of social cognition and self-objectification. Body Image 2024; 50:101721. [PMID: 38781618 DOI: 10.1016/j.bodyim.2024.101721] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2024] [Revised: 04/24/2024] [Accepted: 05/01/2024] [Indexed: 05/25/2024]
Abstract
Objectification scholarship highlights how traditional media portrayals oftentimes direct attention toward women's bodies and away from their faces which communicate important social information. This study sought to investigate how thin-ideal, white women's facial expression potentially attenuates the negative effects of appearing in a sexually objectifying manner using validated imagery. In a 2 × 3 between-subjects experiment (N = 1001 U.S. adult women; Mage = 42.56, SDage = 12.72), portraits of women varied in their sexualization (non-sexualized vs. sexualized) and facial expression (neutral expression, low-intensity smiling, high-intensity smiling) to better understand how these factors influence dimensions of social cognition (competence, warmth, authenticity), self-promotional attributions, and viewers' own self-objectification. Results revealed that viewers rated sexualized (vs. non-sexualized) women lower in competence and authenticity, as well ascribed more self-promotional explanations for their behavior. Moreover, exposure to sexualized women heightened viewers' self-objectification, regardless of facial expression. Results also indicated that smiling intensity positively influenced viewers' ratings of social cognition. However, there is little evidence that smiling intensity overrides the negative effects of sexualization. Implications for the sexual objectification of women are discussed.
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2
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Sherman AM, Tran S, Sy J. Objectification and body esteem: age group patterns in women's psychological functioning. Aging Ment Health 2024; 28:706-716. [PMID: 37916646 DOI: 10.1080/13607863.2023.2273338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2022] [Accepted: 10/10/2023] [Indexed: 11/03/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Sexual objectification is related to negative outcomes for young adult women, but whether sexual objectification operates similarly for women in mid-life or older adulthood is less clear. Our aim was to assess self-objectification and sexually objectifying experiences for women in two different age groups, 18-27 and 48-90 and, further, test the relationship between objectification and psychological functioning. Based on objectification theory, we hypothesized that young adults would report higher self-objectification and sexually objectifying experiences compared to women in the older group. We further expected that these age differences would be related to body esteem and psychological functioning. METHODS We surveyed 218 women regarding their sexually objectifying experiences and self-objectification, as well as body esteem, global self-esteem, and mood/anxiety, all outcomes theoretically expected to be related to sexual objectification and self-objectification. RESULTS Sexually objectifying experiences and self-objectification were correlated with lower body esteem, lower global self-esteem, and higher mood/anxiety symptoms. Further, older women reported lower objectification and better psychological functioning. Tests of serial mediation showed that the relationship between age and two outcomes (self-esteem and mood/anxiety symptoms) was mediated by self-objectification and body esteem, while the model using experiences of sexually objectifying experiences was not supported. CONCLUSION Older women differed from younger women in the impact of self-objectification. We discuss these outcomes referencing age patterns and objectification theory.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Sydney Tran
- Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon, USA
| | - John Sy
- Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon, USA
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3
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Zola A, Engeln R. Brains over beauty: A preregistered test of the effects of objectification on women's cognitive performance. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0291853. [PMID: 37733711 PMCID: PMC10513279 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0291853] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2021] [Accepted: 09/07/2023] [Indexed: 09/23/2023] Open
Abstract
The present study was a preregistered, well-powered experimental test of findings related to the effect of state self-objectification and anticipation of the sexualized male gaze on women's cognitive performance. College women (n = 407) performed a working memory task in one of three randomly assigned conditions. In the experimental conditions (self-objectification and male gaze), women completed the task while being video recorded from the neck down. In the male gaze condition, participants were told their videos would later be evaluated by men as part of a separate dating study. Women in the control condition were not video recorded. Results indicated women experienced a moderate increase in state self-objectification in both experimental conditions. However, compared to the control condition, women in the experimental conditions did not show reduced performance on the working memory task (in either latency or accuracy), decreases in body satisfaction, or increases in negative mood. Across conditions, state self-objectification was not associated with accuracy or latency on the working memory task. Mixed findings concerning objectification's effect on cognitive performance may be attributed to variability in experimental manipulations and dependent variables employed in this area of research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne Zola
- Department of Medical Social Sciences, Psychometrics and Statistics Core, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Renee Engeln
- Department of Psychology, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, United States of America
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4
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Naragon-Gainey K, DeMarree KG, Kyron MJ, McMahon TP, Park J, Biehler KM. Decentering from Emotions in Daily Life: Dynamic Associations with Affect, Symptoms, and Wellbeing. Clin Psychol Sci 2023; 11:841-862. [PMID: 37771501 PMCID: PMC10538949 DOI: 10.1177/21677026221147262] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/30/2023]
Abstract
Decentering is thought to be protective against a range of psychological symptoms, but little is known about the outcomes of decentering as a momentary state in daily life. We used ecological momentary assessment (42 reports across one week) to examine the temporal ordering of the associations of decentering with affect, dysphoria, participant-specific idiographic symptoms, and wellbeing. We also hypothesized that greater decentering predicts less inertia (persistence) of each variable, and weakens the association of affect with dysphoria, idiographic symptoms, and wellbeing. Results in 345 community participants indicated that decentering and these variables were mutually reinforcing over time, and that greater decentering was associated with less inertia of negative affect and dysphoria. Decentering generally predicted reduced impact of positive and negative affect on dysphoria symptoms, but results were mixed when predicting idiographic symptoms or wellbeing. Clinical implications and refinements for theory on decentering are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Kenneth G. DeMarree
- Department of Psychology, University at Buffalo, the State University of New York
| | - Michael J. Kyron
- School of Psychological Science, University of Western Australia
| | - Tierney P. McMahon
- Institute for Innovations in Developmental Sciences, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University
| | | | - Kaitlyn M. Biehler
- Department of Psychology, University at Buffalo, the State University of New York
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5
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Perkins TR, Aleibar D, Leath S, Pittman JC. Black Women’s Sexual Assertiveness and Satisfaction: The Role of the Superwoman Schema. JOURNAL OF BLACK PSYCHOLOGY 2022. [DOI: 10.1177/00957984221147796] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Although extant research highlights the detrimental effects of the Superwoman Schema (SWS) on Black women’s physical and psychological well-being, researchers have yet to examine the implications of SWS endorsement on Black women’s sexual attitudes and behaviors. As a culturally salient racialized gender schema that reifies Black women’s supposed superhuman emotional and physical strength, to what extent does endorsement of the SWS contribute to Black women’s reported sexual assertiveness and satisfaction? In the present work, 406 Black women completed an online survey measuring their endorsement of the SWS, as well as their sexual assertiveness and sexual satisfaction. SWS dimensions moderated the association between sexual assertiveness and sexual satisfaction. Findings from the present study highlight the importance of considering culturally salient racialized gender schemas when examining Black women’s sexual attitudes and behaviors.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Seanna Leath
- Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Jami C. Pittman
- University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
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6
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Sanders CA, Jenkins AT, King LA. Pretty, meaningful lives: physical attractiveness and experienced and perceived meaning in life. THE JOURNAL OF POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 2022. [DOI: 10.1080/17439760.2022.2155222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Laura A. King
- Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, USA
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7
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Compliments on skin tone hamper cognitive performance of Chinese adolescent girls with stronger appearance contingent self-worth. CURRENT PSYCHOLOGY 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s12144-022-03061-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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8
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Leath S, Jones M, Jerald MC, Perkins TR. An investigation of Jezebel stereotype awareness, gendered racial identity and sexual beliefs and behaviours among Black adult women. CULTURE, HEALTH & SEXUALITY 2022; 24:517-532. [PMID: 33512297 DOI: 10.1080/13691058.2020.1863471] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2020] [Accepted: 12/09/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Evidence suggests that the intersectional nature of Black women's race and gender identities influence their awareness of sexual scripts such as the hypersexual, Jezebel stereotype. This study examined the role of the Jezebel stereotype and Black women's identity beliefs on their sexual beliefs and behaviours. Specifically, we investigated the role of gendered racial identity beliefs on the relationship between Jezebel stereotype awareness and Black women's sexual behaviours (sexual assertiveness, sexual satisfaction, sexual guilt and attachment avoidance in relationships). A diverse national sample of Black women completed measures of gendered racial identity beliefs, Jezebel stereotype awareness and sexual behaviours. Black women who felt more positively connected to their Black woman identity reported greater sexual assertiveness and satisfaction. Consistent with past research, more awareness of the Jezebel stereotype was associated with higher sexual guilt and attachment avoidance. We discuss the enduring legacy of the Jezebel stereotype in relation to Black women's gendered racial identity beliefs, as well as the importance of promoting positive sexual beliefs and a sense of sexual agency among Black women in the USA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seanna Leath
- Department of Psychology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, USA
| | - Martinque Jones
- Department of Psychology, University of North Texas, Denton, TX, USA
| | - Morgan C Jerald
- Department of Psychology, Macalester College, Saint Paul, MN, USA
| | - Tiani R Perkins
- Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
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9
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Han M, Pan B, Wang Y, Wilson A, Chen R, Wu R. Development and Psychometric Evaluation of the Gender Identity Scale for Transgender Women in China. Front Psychol 2022; 12:792776. [PMID: 35058853 PMCID: PMC8763696 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.792776] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2021] [Accepted: 11/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Transgender women are an important subgroup of the transgender umbrella and have their own unique gender identity. This article aimed to understand and measure the latent concept of gender identity among Chinese transgender women from a multi-dimensional perspective. Through a two-phase, iterative scale development process, we developed the Gender Identity Scale for Transgender Women (GIS-TW) in Chinese. Literature reviews, expert consultations, and focus groups constitute phrase 1 of the study, which resulted in the first version of GIS-TW with 30 items. In phrase 2, exploratory factor analysis on a sample of 244 Chinese transgender women revealed a six-factor solution across the 22 items. The Bem Sex Role Inventory was included to test for convergent validity, and the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale was used to test discriminant validity. Then we conducted the confirmatory factor analysis with an independent sample of 420 Chinese transgender women, which produced the final version of GIS-TW with 21 items. The internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.71–0.87) and test-retest stability (r = 0.73–0.87) of each factor was good. In conclusion, the GIS-TW is a reliable and valid psychometric tool for the assessment of Chinese transgender women’s gender identity. Future application of the scale will help transgender women obtain better gender confirmative interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meng Han
- Department of Medical Psychology, The School of Health Humanities, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Bailin Pan
- Department of Plastic Surgery, Transgender Clinic, Peking University Third Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Yuanyuan Wang
- Division of Psychology, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, De Montfort University, Leicester United Kingdom
| | - Amanda Wilson
- Division of Psychology, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, De Montfort University, Leicester United Kingdom
| | - Runsen Chen
- Vanke School of Public Health, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
| | - Rengang Wu
- Department of Medical Psychology, The School of Health Humanities, Peking University, Beijing, China
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10
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Harrington AG, Overall NC. Women's attractiveness contingent self-esteem, romantic rejection, and body dissatisfaction. Body Image 2021; 39:77-89. [PMID: 34175783 DOI: 10.1016/j.bodyim.2021.06.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2020] [Revised: 06/14/2021] [Accepted: 06/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
The centrality of attractiveness to social evaluations of women puts women at particular risk of body dissatisfaction. However, it is less clear who these social standards most affect and the situations in which they are most salient. Women whose self-esteem is more contingent on standards of attractiveness (ACSE) should be particularly vulnerable to body dissatisfaction, particularly in contexts that provide negative attractiveness-relevant feedback such as romantic rejection. The current research tested whether women higher in ACSE experienced greater body dissatisfaction in the context of naturally-occurring experiences of romantic rejection. In Study 1, women (N = 168) identified and recalled a range of prior rejection experiences and reported their body dissatisfaction. Women higher in ACSE recalled greater body dissatisfaction in the context of romantic rejection. In Study 2, women (N = 101) recorded daily experiences of romantic rejection and body dissatisfaction (N = 885 daily records). Women higher in ACSE experienced greater within-person increases in body dissatisfaction on days they reported romantic rejection. The results emphasize the relevance of romantic rejection for understanding women's body dissatisfaction and help explain inconsistencies in the literature by illustrating that higher ACSE is associated with greater body dissatisfaction in contexts that provide negative attractiveness-related feedback.
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11
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Ching BHH, Chen TT, He CC. Testing a dual pathway model of appearance-related commentary in gay men: Appearance contingent self-worth as a moderator. CURRENT PSYCHOLOGY 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s12144-021-02033-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
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12
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Joanne Chan SH, Chan K. The Indirect Effects of Self‐Esteem and Future Work Self on Career Adaptability Factors: A Study of Chinese Undergraduate Students. JOURNAL OF EMPLOYMENT COUNSELING 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/joec.12157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Kuan‐Thye Chan
- Department of Business Studies New Era University College
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13
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Huang Q, Teng F, Yang W. Awareness of societal emphasis on appearance decreases women's (but not men's) career aspiration: A serial mediation model. Scand J Psychol 2021; 62:564-573. [PMID: 34013584 DOI: 10.1111/sjop.12740] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2020] [Accepted: 04/21/2021] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
This research examined the association between awareness of societal emphasis on physical appearance and people's career aspiration and the process that linked the two. Specifically, we proposed that perceived societal emphasis on physical attractiveness would decrease women's career aspiration through decreased authenticity and perceived opportunity. A total of 349 college students (227 females) participated in the study. The results revealed that awareness of societal emphasis on physical attractiveness negatively predicted women's authenticity, and authenticity positively predicted perception of opportunity, which in turn predicted their career aspiration. However, this serial mediational model was not found in men. These findings suggest that socially prioritization of attractiveness can undermine women's strive for occupational prospects and add to a better understanding of women's growth and development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qianying Huang
- School of Psychology, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Fei Teng
- School of Psychology, Center for Studies of Psychological Application, Guangdong Key Laboratory of Mental Health and Cognitive Science, The Base of Psychological Services and Counseling for "Happiness" in Guangzhou South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Wenjing Yang
- School of Psychology, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China
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14
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Gilchrist JD, Pila E, Lucibello KM, Sabiston CM, Conroy DE. Body surveillance and affective judgments of physical activity in daily life. Body Image 2021; 36:127-133. [PMID: 33321272 DOI: 10.1016/j.bodyim.2020.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2020] [Revised: 11/10/2020] [Accepted: 11/10/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Affective judgments are one of the strongest predictors of physical activity. Engaging in body surveillance during physical activity is theorized to reduce access to pleasant affective experiences thereby compromising the influence of affective judgments. However, empirical tests of this relationship are lacking. This study examined associations between body surveillance during physical activity and affective judgments (i.e., enjoyment and pleasure) of physical activity. Participants (N = 89; 53 % women, Mage = 20.32 years; SDage = 1.59) completed an experience sampling protocol for 7 days and provided 7 self-reports/day. Participants reported their body surveillance when engaged in physical activity followed by their affective judgments of physical activity. At the within-person level, participants reported more negative affective judgments during instances when body surveillance was higher than usual. At the between-person level, participants higher in body surveillance reported more negative affective judgments on average. These findings extend correlates of body surveillance to include less favorable affective judgments. Although there is support for targeting affective judgments to promote physical activity, the utility of such efforts may be limited if body surveillance is present. These findings point to a new target for potentially enhancing affective judgements and the promotion of physical activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jenna D Gilchrist
- Faculty of Kinesiology and Physical Education, University of Toronto; Department of Kinesiology, The Pennsylvania State University.
| | - Eva Pila
- School of Kinesiology, Western University
| | | | | | - David E Conroy
- Department of Kinesiology, The Pennsylvania State University; Department of Preventive Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL
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15
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A Qualitative Exploration of Jezebel Stereotype Endorsement and Sexual Behaviors Among Black College Women. JOURNAL OF BLACK PSYCHOLOGY 2021. [DOI: 10.1177/0095798421997215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Researchers suggest that the Jezebel stereotype exerts a significant influence on Black women’s sexual decision making. The current qualitative study drew upon narrative data from individual, semistructured interviews with 50 Black women (ages 18-24 years) to explore how the Jezebel stereotype influenced their sexual beliefs and behaviors. Using consensual qualitative research methods, the following four themes emerged from the data: (a) how the Jezebel plays a role in their sexual exploration, (b) how the Jezebel contributes to sexual violence against Black women, (c) how the Jezebel is a hypersexual media representation of Black women’s sexuality, and (d) how the Jezebel is a negative sexual stereotype within family contexts. Our findings contextualize the enduring role of the Jezebel stereotype as a sexual script for Black women, as we found that many participants chose to adapt their clothing choices or sexual behaviors in light of their awareness and endorsement of the stereotype. The authors discuss the implications of study findings for Black women and girls’ sexual socialization and deconstructing deficit-based ideologies of Black women’s sexuality.
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16
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Moya-Garófano A, Rodríguez-Bailón R, Moya M, Megías JL. Stranger Harassment ("Piropo") and Women's Self-Objectification: The Role of Anger, Happiness, and Empowerment. JOURNAL OF INTERPERSONAL VIOLENCE 2021; 36:2306-2326. [PMID: 29502511 DOI: 10.1177/0886260518760258] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
According to objectification theory, women's habitual exposure to sexually objectifying situations can lead them to internalize a third-person perspective of themselves in physical terms, leading women to adopt an observer's viewpoint of themselves as a body or collection of body parts that is valued principally for use or consumption by others (i.e., self-objectification). The frequency and/or intensity of situations of female objectification have generally been studied as precedents of self-objectification. Our research analyzes whether direct exposure to a particular objectifying situation, as in the case of verbal stranger harassment (called piropos in Spain), could have these same effects. We tested the consequences of exposure to piropos (vs. a control situation) on body surveillance and body shame in a sample of 329 Spanish women. The impact of verbal harassment on women's anger, anxiety, happiness, and sense of empowerment was also analyzed. The results of a moderated mediation analysis showed that exposure to piropos increased body shame through body surveillance but only in women who reacted to the piropo with happiness, empowerment, or low levels of anger. The negative effects that objectifying situations (e.g., stranger harassment) may have on women, and the importance of women's reactions and perceptions of such situations are discussed.
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17
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18
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The Drawback of Sexual Empowerment: Perceiving Women as Emancipated but Still as Sexual Objects. SEX ROLES 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s11199-020-01192-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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19
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Engeln R, Imundo MN. I (DON'T) LOVE MY BODY: COUNTER-INTUITIVE EFFECTS OF A BODY-AFFIRMING STATEMENT ON COLLEGE WOMEN'S BODY SATISFACTION. JOURNAL OF SOCIAL AND CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY 2020. [DOI: 10.1521/jscp.2020.39.7.617] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Introduction: Messages encouraging women to love their bodies are common elements of positive body image movements, but there are theoretical reasons to suspect that such messages may backfire. Methods: In a sample of 293 college women, we tested the impact of mentally repeating the affirmation “I love my body” on body satisfaction. We prompted participants to think either “I love my body” (affirmation condition) or “I am [age] years old” (control condition) while they completed a five-minute writing task. Results: Relative to the control, the affirmation condition led to significantly lower body satisfaction. Additionally, 53% of affirmation condition participants counterargued the body affirmation by writing something negative about their appearance; only 6% in the control condition wrote a negative appearance comment. Discussion: Results suggest that some messages intended to promote positive body image have the potential to decrease women's body satisfaction, in part because they prompt women to think of flaws in their appearance.
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20
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Shivakumar S, Jafferany M. "The unfair drive to be fair": Psychosocial aspects and implications of the use of skin lightening agents. Dermatol Ther 2020; 33:e14091. [PMID: 32720427 DOI: 10.1111/dth.14091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2020] [Revised: 07/20/2020] [Accepted: 07/22/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The quest to be fair is not a concept of the new world. For centuries untold, having a lighter skin tone has been considered as a trait of beauty and supremacy. Society implicates fairness as a factor for getting a prospective life partner. Media portrays fair skin tone as a predecessor for success. These subtle influences affect young minds and drive them towards wanting fair skin. Physicians observe that it is one of the most common forms of body dysmorphic disorder. This article aims to highlight the psychosocial factors that mold this mentality and the possible ill effects it can have on a person, both psychologically as well as physically.
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21
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Wang X, Chen H, Chen Z, Yang Y. Women’s Intrasexual Competition Results in Beautification. SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGICAL AND PERSONALITY SCIENCE 2020. [DOI: 10.1177/1948550620933403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Psychology research focuses primarily on male competition. This research, however, investigates women’s competition for love and the ideal partner in the mating market and reveals one psychological consequence for women, that is, beautification. This is demonstrated with ecologically valid, real-world archive and online search query data, a quasi-experiment, and a series of controlled experiments with random assignments. Intrasexual competition, indexed by the operational sex ratio (OSR) and income inequality (GINI), predicts women’s beautification reflected by Google search queries for cosmetic surgery terms (Study 1) and the density of certificated plastic surgeons (Study 2). Female college students from faculties with female-biased OSRs exhibit greater appearance focus than women from male-biased faculties (Study 3). A causal relationship, between women’s intrasexual competition and beautification (and even self-objectification), is subsequently demonstrated in experiments (Studies 4–6). Additionally, self-objectification due to intrasexual competition leads to women’s preference for appearance-oriented products (Study 6). Implications are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xijing Wang
- Department of Psychology, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam Road, Hong Kong
| | - Hao Chen
- Department of Social Psychology, Nankai University, Tianjin, China
| | - Zhansheng Chen
- Department of Psychology, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam Road, Hong Kong
| | - Ying Yang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Behavioral Science, Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- Department of Psychology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
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22
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Cox AE, Tylka TL. A conceptual model describing mechanisms for how yoga practice may support positive embodiment. Eat Disord 2020; 28:376-399. [PMID: 32200707 DOI: 10.1080/10640266.2020.1740911] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Yoga practice has been associated with various indices of positive embodiment in correlational and intervention studies. Yet, systematic, theoretically-grounded models detailing specific mechanisms by which yoga supports positive embodiment are lacking. In this article, we present a conceptual model that describes mechanisms (i.e., mediators and moderators) that can be used to guide research to help answer how, for whom, and under what conditions yoga practice may promote positive embodiment. Based on existing theoretical frameworks and empirical findings, this model suggests that (a) yoga practice may cultivate embodying experiences during yoga (e.g., state mindfulness), (b) these embodying experiences may build stable embodying experiences that generalize beyond the yoga context (e.g., trait mindfulness), and (c) these stable embodying experiences may then promote embodying practices (e.g., mindful self-care). This mediational chain is likely moderated by the yoga context (e.g., instructional focus, presence of mirrors, diversity of bodies represented) and yoga practitioners' social identities (e.g., body size, physical limitations), social and personal histories (e.g., experiences with weight stigma and trauma), and personality traits and motives (e.g., body comparison, appearance-focused motives to practice yoga). Using the structure of this conceptual model, we offer researchers ideas for testable models and study designs that can support them.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne E Cox
- Department of Kinesiology and Educational Psychology, Washington State University , Pullman, WA, USA
| | - Tracy L Tylka
- Department of Psychology, Ohio State University , USA
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Trepal H, Cannon Y, Garcia J. Using Photovoice to Promote Body Image Resilience in College Women. JOURNAL OF COLLEGE COUNSELING 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/jocc.12148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Yuliya Cannon
- Department of CounselingUniversity of Texas San Antonio
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Riemer AR, Allen J, Gullickson M, Gervais SJ. “You Can Catch More Flies with Honey than Vinegar”: Objectification Valence Interacts with Women’s Enjoyment of Sexualization to Influence Social Perceptions. SEX ROLES 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s11199-020-01143-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Blake KR, Brooks R, Arthur LC, Denson TF. In the context of romantic attraction, beautification can increase assertiveness in women. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0229162. [PMID: 32155157 PMCID: PMC7064170 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0229162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2019] [Accepted: 01/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Can beautification empower women to act assertively? Some women report that beautification is an agentic and assertive act, whereas others find beautification to be oppressive and disempowering. To disentangle these effects, in the context of romantic attraction we conducted the first experimental tests of beautification—on psychological and behavioral assertiveness. Experiment 1 (N = 145) utilized a between-subjects design in which women used their own clothing, make-up, and accessories to adjust their appearance as they normally would for a “hot date” (beautification condition) or a casual day at home with friends (control condition). We measured implicit, explicit, and behavioral assertiveness, as well as positive affect and sexual motivation. Experiment 2 (N = 40) sought to conceptually replicate Experiment 1 using a within-subject design and different measures of assertiveness. Women completed measures of explicit assertiveness and assertive behavioral intentions in three domains, in whatever clothing they were wearing that day then again after extensively beautifying their appearance. In Experiment 1, we found that women demonstrated higher psychological assertiveness after beautifying their appearance, and that high sexual motivation mediated the effect of beautification on assertive behavior. All effects were independent of positive affect. Experiment 2 partially replicated Experiment 1. These experiments provide novel insight into the effects of women’s appearance-enhancing behaviors on assertiveness by providing evidence that beautification may positively affect assertiveness in women under some circumstances.
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Affiliation(s)
- Khandis R. Blake
- Evolution and Ecology Research Centre, School of Biological, Environmental and Earth Sciences, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
- Melbourne School of Psychological Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- * E-mail:
| | - Robert Brooks
- Evolution and Ecology Research Centre, School of Biological, Environmental and Earth Sciences, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Lindsie C. Arthur
- Department of Psychological and Behavioural Science, London School of Economics, London, United Kingdom
| | - Thomas F. Denson
- School of Psychology, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
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Body image states in everyday life: Evidence from ecological momentary assessment methodology. Body Image 2019; 31:245-272. [PMID: 30852080 DOI: 10.1016/j.bodyim.2019.02.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2018] [Revised: 02/19/2019] [Accepted: 02/21/2019] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
This review highlights the contributions of Professor Thomas Cash to the scholarship of body image experiences in daily life, including his influence on subsequent research in this field. Cash's arguments for capturing a broad range of state-based body image experiences have been heeded, with recent studies exploring positive body image constructs as well as the more studied negative body image experiences. Appearance comparisons are the most commonly studied contextual influence on body image, and they seem to have a consistent effect. However, the experiences of body image in sexual contexts, and among adolescents, those who are pregnant, or have other physical characteristics that may increase the salience of appearance warrant further attention. Findings generally support Cash's contention that trait body image relates to likelihood and level of experience of body image in daily life, though the moderating effects of trait aspects on state-based relationships remains unclear. The discussion concludes with consideration of the impact of assessment schedules on obtained results. It is also discussed how accumulated knowledge regarding state-based body image experiences may be leveraged in treatment contexts, particularly in light of clear evidence that repeated assessment of body image in daily life increases self-awareness of one's body image characteristics.
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Prause N. Porn Is for Masturbation. ARCHIVES OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOR 2019; 48:2271-2277. [PMID: 30847758 DOI: 10.1007/s10508-019-1397-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2019] [Accepted: 01/07/2019] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Nicole Prause
- , 7083 Hollywood Blvd., Los Angeles, CA, 90028, USA.
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Leonhardt ND, Spencer TJ, Butler MH, Theobald AC. Sexual Media and Sexual Quality: Aims, Distinctions, and Reflexivity-Response to Commentaries. ARCHIVES OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOR 2019; 48:2291-2303. [PMID: 31529222 DOI: 10.1007/s10508-019-01551-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2019] [Revised: 09/07/2019] [Accepted: 09/09/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Nathan D Leonhardt
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto, 3359 Mississauga Road North, Toronto, ON, L5L1C6, Canada.
| | - Travis J Spencer
- Marriage and Family Therapy, Utah State University, Logan, UT, USA
| | - Mark H Butler
- School of Family Life, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, USA
| | - Alex C Theobald
- Marriage and Family Therapy, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX, USA
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Gervais SJ, Sáez G, Riemer AR, Klein O. The Social Interaction Model of Objectification: A process model of goal-based objectifying exchanges between men and women. BRITISH JOURNAL OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2019; 59:248-283. [PMID: 31448823 DOI: 10.1111/bjso.12339] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2018] [Revised: 06/27/2019] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
People perceive and treat women as sex objects in social exchanges. The interaction processes through which women are objectified, however, have rarely been considered. To address this gap in the literature, we propose the Social Interaction Model of Objectification (SIMO). Rooted in social exchange and objectification theories, the SIMO predicts objectifying behaviours stemming from sexual goals between men and women. We propose that the behavioural dynamics of objectification can be understood through a series of goal-based exchange processes that are shaped by patriarchy. Articulating the SIMO and its predictions for behaviour in social interactions, we describe the scant social psychological studies in this area. Not only is the SIMO useful for understanding objectifying interaction processes, but it can be used to understand why women sometimes evaluate objectification positively as well as instances of sexual violence. Finally, we discuss critical directions for future research and provide promising methodological approaches for testing the SIMO.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah J Gervais
- Department of Psychology, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Nebraska, USA
| | - Gemma Sáez
- Departamento de Psicología, Universidad Loyola Andalucía, Seville, Spain
| | - Abigail R Riemer
- Department of Life Sciences, Carroll University, Waukesha, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Olivier Klein
- Center for Social and Cultural Psychology, Université Libre de Bruxelles, Bruxelles, Belgium
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Moya-Garófano A, Moya M. Focusing on one's own appearance leads to body shame in women but not men: The mediating role of body surveillance and appearance-contingent self-worth. Body Image 2019; 29:58-64. [PMID: 30831335 DOI: 10.1016/j.bodyim.2019.02.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2018] [Revised: 02/14/2019] [Accepted: 02/14/2019] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Previous research has shown that some appearance-focused situations lead to increased self-objectification, especially among women. The present research explored, with an experimental design, whether the simple fact of thinking about one's own physical appearance increases body shame through body surveillance and appearance-contingent self-worth in men and women. Our main prediction was that focusing on one's own appearance would increase both women's body surveillance and appearance-contingent self-worth, and that both variables in turn would increase women's body shame. Among men, while we expected body surveillance and appearance-contingent self-worth to be related to body shame, we believed that thinking about their physical appearance would be less likely to increase their body surveillance and appearance-contingent self-worth. Spanish young men (n = 123) and women (n = 140) were randomly assigned to an appearance group, in which they wrote about their appearance, or a personality group, in which they wrote about their personality. The results confirmed our prediction for women. Among men, the indirect effects were not significant, and focusing on one's own appearance did not increase body surveillance or appearance-contingent self-worth. Since body shame has been associated with pervasive negative consequences, knowledge about its antecedents has practical and theoretical significance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alba Moya-Garófano
- Mind, Brain and Behavior Research Center (CIMCYC), Department of Social Psychology, University of Granada, Spain
| | - Miguel Moya
- Mind, Brain and Behavior Research Center (CIMCYC), Department of Social Psychology, University of Granada, Spain.
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32
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Wollast R, Riemer AR, Bernard P, Leys C, Kotsou I, Klein O. How self‐compassion moderates the effect of body surveillance on subjective happiness and depression among women. Scand J Psychol 2019; 60:464-472. [DOI: 10.1111/sjop.12553] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2018] [Accepted: 04/16/2019] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Robin Wollast
- Center for Social and Cultural Psychology Université libre de Bruxelles Bruxelles Belgium
| | | | - Philippe Bernard
- Center for Social and Cultural Psychology Université libre de Bruxelles Bruxelles Belgium
| | - Christophe Leys
- Center for Social and Cultural Psychology Université libre de Bruxelles Bruxelles Belgium
| | - Ilios Kotsou
- Center for Social and Cultural Psychology Université libre de Bruxelles Bruxelles Belgium
| | - Olivier Klein
- Center for Social and Cultural Psychology Université libre de Bruxelles Bruxelles Belgium
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33
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Sáez G, Valor-Segura I, Expósito F. Interpersonal Sexual Objectification Experiences: Psychological and Social Well-Being Consequences for Women. JOURNAL OF INTERPERSONAL VIOLENCE 2019; 34:741-762. [PMID: 27121386 DOI: 10.1177/0886260516645813] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
Sexual objectification as a form of sexist discrimination accounts for the higher prevalence of psychological problems among women. More specifically, sexual objectification manifests itself in different ways with different intensities, in turn affecting women's psychological well-being differently. On one hand, experiences of body evaluation are more subtle and work by perpetuating sexist attitudes among women themselves. On the other hand, more explicit forms of sexual objectification (unwanted explicit sexual advances) are linked to higher levels of anxiety and lower levels of self-esteem. The first study, on a sample of 343 Spanish women, aims to analyze the consequences of different forms of sexual objectification on women's psychological well-being and the effect of sexism and enjoyment of objectification on these consequences. The second study, on a sample of 144 Spanish women, focuses on analyzing the ideological variables that have an effect on response to acts of sexist discrimination. Both studies reveal the significance of the more subtle experiences of sexual objectification as a mechanism that plays a part in keeping women in a subordinate position, where they end up feeling that this process is positive or pleasing.
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34
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Carrotte E, Anderson JR. A systematic review of the relationship between trait self-objectification and personality traits. PERSONALITY AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.paid.2018.05.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/16/2022]
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Kahalon R, Shnabel N, Becker JC. Experimental Studies on State Self-Objectification: A Review and an Integrative Process Model. Front Psychol 2018; 9:1268. [PMID: 30150946 PMCID: PMC6099106 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01268] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2017] [Accepted: 07/02/2018] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
This paper provides an organizing framework for the experimental research on the effects of state self-objectification on women. We explain why this body of work, which had grown rapidly in the last 20 years, departs from the original formulation of objectification theory (Fredrickson and Roberts, 1997). We compare the different operationalizations of state self-objectification and examine how they map onto its theoretical definition, concluding that the operationalizations have focused mostly on one component of this construct (concerns about one's physical appearance) while neglecting others (adopting a third-person perspective and treating oneself as a dehumanized object). We review the main findings of studies that experimentally induced state self-objectification and examined its affective, motivational, behavioral, cognitive, and physiological outcomes. We note that three core outcomes of this state as specified by objectification theory (safety anxiety, reduced flow experiences, and awareness of internal body states) have hardly been examined so far. Most importantly, we introduce an integrative process model, suggesting that the reported effects are triggered by four different mechanisms: appearance monitoring, experience of discrepancy from appearance standards, stereotype threat, and activation of the "sex object" schema. We propose strategies for distinguishing between these mechanisms and explain the theoretical and practical importance of doing so.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rotem Kahalon
- Tel-Aviv University, The School of Psychological Science, Tel-Aviv, Israel
| | - Nurit Shnabel
- Tel-Aviv University, The School of Psychological Science, Tel-Aviv, Israel
| | - Julia C. Becker
- School of Human Science, Institute of Psychology, Osnabrück University, Osnabrück, Germany
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36
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Carrotte E, Anderson J. Risk Factor or Protective Feature? The Roles of Grandiose and Hypersensitive Narcissism in Explaining the Relationship between Self-Objectification and Body Image Concerns. SEX ROLES 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s11199-018-0948-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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37
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Muñoz-Laboy M, Severson N. Exploring the Roles of Race, Ethnicity, Nationality, and Skin Color in the Sexual Partner Choices of Bisexual Latino Men. ARCHIVES OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOR 2018; 47:1231-1239. [PMID: 28929397 DOI: 10.1007/s10508-017-1043-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2014] [Revised: 05/09/2017] [Accepted: 07/14/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Racial and ethnic differences are well-documented social factors shaping sexual interactions. However, these racial/ethnic dynamics have been mostly overlooked in the context of sexual fluidity, specifically for bisexual individuals. Furthermore, there is limited literature on how sexual objectification based on skin color and ethnicity, factors well documented to influence individual's sexual partnering decision, might be different for male, female, and/or transgender partners of bisexual individuals. From 2009 to 2014, we conducted a mixed methods study examining how bisexual Latino men construct and participate in their sex markets. In the qualitative component of the study, we asked behaviorally bisexual Latino men (n = 148) how race/ethnicity, prejudice, stereotyping, and objectification intersected with their sexuality, specifically perceptions of their sexual experiences, decision making regarding sexual partners, and their reflection of their own race/ethnicity in their sexuality. We conducted a content analysis and identified three recurrent themes that are fully described in this article: (1) Bisexual Latino men objectify other men based on skin color, ethnicity, and race; (2) the race and ethnicity of women and transgender partners were not a dominant factor in sexual partnering decision making; and (3) sexual objectification based on skin color and ethnicity was a frequent, dominant experience throughout the sexual histories of our study participants. In summary, our findings suggest that bisexual Latino men participate in sex markets where race, ethnic, and nationality differences play a role in shaping men's desires for other men as sexual partners and they themselves are objects of desire.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miguel Muñoz-Laboy
- School of Social Work, College of Public Health, Temple University, 1301 Cecil B. Moore Ave., 5th Floor Ritter Annex, Rm 553, Philadelphia, PA, 19122, USA.
| | - Nicolette Severson
- School of Social Work, College of Public Health, Temple University, 1301 Cecil B. Moore Ave., 5th Floor Ritter Annex, Rm 553, Philadelphia, PA, 19122, USA
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38
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Abstract
We examined whether appearance compliments, despite their flattery, undermine cognitive performance. In Study 1, women participants ( N = 88 Israeli university students) who wrote about past situations in which they had received appearance compliments (but not competence-related compliments) showed worse math performance than women in a control/no compliment condition—especially if they scored high on trait self-objectification (TSO). In Study 2, men and women participants ( nwomen = 73, nmen = 75 Israeli university students) received bogus occupational evaluation feedback, which did or did not include an appearance compliment. Although appearance compliments led to mood improvement among participants with high TSO, they also undermined math performance among both women and men. Because receiving appearance compliments is a common experience for women (whereas men are typically complimented for their competencies), our findings suggest that appearance compliments serve as a mechanism that might subtly perpetuate gender inequality. For the promotion of societal gender equality, it is important that the public is aware that appearance compliments, even if meant well, may create sexist environments. Online slides for instructors who want to use this article for teaching are available on PWQ's website at http://journals.sagepub.com/page/pwq/suppl/index
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Affiliation(s)
- Rotem Kahalon
- The School of Psychological Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Nurit Shnabel
- The School of Psychological Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Julia C. Becker
- Institute of Psychology, Osnabrück University, Osnabrück, Germany
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The Effects of System Justifying Beliefs on Skin-Tone Surveillance, Skin-Color Dissatisfaction, and Skin-Bleaching Behavior. PSYCHOLOGY OF WOMEN QUARTERLY 2018. [DOI: 10.1177/0361684317747845] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
In two studies with women living in India (Study 1, n = 177) and African American women in the United States (Study 2, n = 120), we investigated whether skin-tone surveillance, which theoretically is a manifestation of self-objectification, predicted greater skin-color dissatisfaction and greater skin-bleaching behavior. Given the existence of colorism in Indian and American societies, we expected that ideologies that rationalize and perpetuate the status quo would moderate the proposed relations. Results were consistent with objectification theory and system justification theory. The positive relation between skin-tone surveillance and skin-color dissatisfaction was weaker among women of color who more strongly (vs. weakly) endorsed system justifying ideologies, and the positive relation between skin-tone surveillance and skin-bleaching behavior was stronger among women of color who more strongly (vs. weakly) endorsed system justifying ideologies. Our results suggest that self-objectification theorists and researchers should consider culturally specific manifestations of self-objectification as well as protective and legitimating effects of system justifying ideologies. We encourage clinicians and policy makers to use public campaigns and individual-level interventions to target the norms and motivations underlying skin-bleaching. Online slides for instructors who want to use this article for teaching are available on PWQ's website at http://journals.sagepub.com/page/pwq/suppl/index
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40
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Adams KE, Tyler JM, Calogero R, Lee J. Exploring the relationship between appearance-contingent self-worth and self-esteem: The roles of self-objectification and appearance anxiety. Body Image 2017; 23:176-182. [PMID: 29055772 DOI: 10.1016/j.bodyim.2017.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2017] [Revised: 10/05/2017] [Accepted: 10/09/2017] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Previous work has shown that both an appearance-contingent self-worth (i.e., staking one's overall self-evaluation on one's physical appearance) and self-objectification are associated with higher appearance anxiety and lower self-esteem among women. Although prior evidence separately links both appearance-contingent self-worth and self-objectification to these negative outcomes, no work has examined the mediating processes that may underlie this relationship. With the current project, we examined the relationship between appearance-contingent self-worth and self-objectification, and the degree to which this relationship is associated with higher appearance anxiety and lower overall self-esteem. We hypothesized that appearance-contingent self-worth would be positively associated with self-objectification; in turn, we expected self-objectification to be related to higher appearance anxiety, and ultimately, lower self-esteem. Across two studies, one cross-sectional (N=208) and one short-term longitudinal (N=191), we found compelling support for this hypothesis. These findings have practical and theoretical significance for both the self-objectification and contingent self-worth literatures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine E Adams
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Purdue University, 703 3rd St., West Lafayette, United States.
| | - James M Tyler
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Purdue University, 703 3rd St., West Lafayette, United States.
| | - Rachel Calogero
- Department of Psychology, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada.
| | - Jenifer Lee
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Purdue University, 703 3rd St., West Lafayette, United States.
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41
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Menstrual Knowledge and Taboo TV Commercials: Effects on Self-Objectification among Italian and Swedish Women. SEX ROLES 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/s11199-017-0825-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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42
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Teng F, Wang X, Yang Y. Sexual objectification decreases women’s experiential consumption (but not material consumption). SOCIAL INFLUENCE 2017. [DOI: 10.1080/15534510.2017.1378126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Fei Teng
- School of Psychology, Center for Studies of Psychological Application, Guangdong Key Laboratory of Mental Health and Cognitive Science, The Base of Psychological Services and Counseling for ‘Happiness’ in Guangzhou, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xue Wang
- Department of Marketing, CUHK Business School, Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, Hong Kong
| | - Ye Yang
- School of Humanities, Changshu Institute of Technology, Changshu, China
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Moya-Garófano A, Megías JL, Rodríguez-Bailón R, Moya M. Spanish version of the Objectified Body Consciousness Scale (OBCS): results from two samples of female university students / Versión española de la Objectified Body Consciousness Scale (OBCS): resultados correspondientes a dos muestras de estudiantes universitarias. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2017. [DOI: 10.1080/02134748.2017.1292700] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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Briñol P, Petty RE, Belding J. Objectification of people and thoughts: An attitude change perspective. BRITISH JOURNAL OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2017; 56:233-249. [PMID: 28188637 DOI: 10.1111/bjso.12183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2016] [Revised: 12/22/2016] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Many objectification phenomena can be understood from a mind-body dualism perspective in which the more people focus on their bodies, the less they focus on their minds. Instead of viewing mind and body in opposition to each other, we advocate for a more reciprocal view in which mind and body work in conjunction. Consistent with an integrated mind-body approach, we begin our review by describing research on embodied persuasion revealing that focusing on our own body can reduce but also increase thinking (elaboration), as well as affecting the use of thoughts in forming evaluations (validation). Next, we extend our integrated view to a new domain and suggest that physical objects can influence thoughts and that one's thoughts can also be objectified. The first portion of this section focuses on research on enclothed cognition revealing that wearing physical objects can operate through the same processes of elaboration (increasing and decreasing thinking) and validation (increasing and decreasing thought usage) as the body. The second portion reveals that thoughts can be understood and treated as if they were physical objects affecting evaluative processes by influencing elaboration and validation processes. The final section provides some practical guidance relevant to campaigns designed to reduce the objectification of women and the infrahumanization of stigmatized groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pablo Briñol
- Psychology Department, Autonomous University of Madrid, Spain
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45
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Fitzsimmons-Craft EE, Bardone-Cone AM, Crosby RD, Engel SG, Wonderlich SA, Bulik CM. Mediators of the relationship between thin-ideal internalization and body dissatisfaction in the natural environment. Body Image 2016; 18:113-22. [PMID: 27391791 PMCID: PMC5012939 DOI: 10.1016/j.bodyim.2016.06.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2016] [Accepted: 06/16/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Social comparisons (i.e., body, eating, exercise) and body surveillance were tested as mediators of the thin-ideal internalization-body dissatisfaction relationship using ecological momentary assessment (EMA). Participants were 232 college women who completed a 2-week EMA protocol, responding to questions three times per day. Multilevel path analysis was used to examine a 2-1-1 mediation model (thin-ideal internalization assessed as trait; between-person effects examined) and a 1-1-1 model (component of thin-ideal internalization [thin-ideal importance] assessed momentarily; within- and between-person effects examined). For the 2-1-1 model, only body comparison and body surveillance were significant specific mediators of the between-person effect. For the 1-1-1 model, all four variables were significant specific mediators of the within-person effect. Only body comparison was a significant specific mediator of the between-person effect. At the state level, many processes explain the thin-ideal internalization-body dissatisfaction relationship. However, at the trait level, body comparison and body surveillance are more important explanatory factors.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Anna M Bardone-Cone
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, United States
| | - Ross D Crosby
- Neuropsychiatric Research Institute and Department of Clinical Neuroscience, University of North Dakota School of Medicine & Health Sciences, Fargo, ND, United States
| | - Scott G Engel
- Neuropsychiatric Research Institute and Department of Clinical Neuroscience, University of North Dakota School of Medicine & Health Sciences, Fargo, ND, United States
| | - Stephen A Wonderlich
- Neuropsychiatric Research Institute and Department of Clinical Neuroscience, University of North Dakota School of Medicine & Health Sciences, Fargo, ND, United States
| | - Cynthia M Bulik
- Departments of Psychiatry and Nutrition, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, United States; Department of Medical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Karolinska Institutet, Solna, Sweden
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Teng F, You J, Poon KT, Yang Y, You J, Jiang Y. Materialism Predicts Young Chinese Women’s Self-Objectification and Body Surveillance. SEX ROLES 2016. [DOI: 10.1007/s11199-016-0671-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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Holland E, Koval P, Stratemeyer M, Thomson F, Haslam N. Sexual objectification in women's daily lives: A smartphone ecological momentary assessment study. BRITISH JOURNAL OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2016; 56:314-333. [DOI: 10.1111/bjso.12152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2016] [Revised: 06/29/2016] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Elise Holland
- Melbourne School of Psychological Sciences University of Melbourne ParkvilleVictoria Australia
| | - Peter Koval
- School of Psychology Australian Catholic University Fitzroy Victoria Australia
- Research Group of Quantitative Psychology and Individual Differences KU Leuven Belgium
| | - Michelle Stratemeyer
- Melbourne School of Psychological Sciences University of Melbourne ParkvilleVictoria Australia
| | - Fiona Thomson
- School of Psychology Australian Catholic University Fitzroy Victoria Australia
| | - Nick Haslam
- Melbourne School of Psychological Sciences University of Melbourne ParkvilleVictoria Australia
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Abstract
Although the process of sexual objectification is theorized to occur within interpersonal interactions, we believe this is the first study to examine sexual objectification and self-objectification in actual (nonconfederate) interpersonal encounters. Men and women were brought into the laboratory and interacted in mixed-sex dyads. We used dyadic analysis to detect whether partners’ objectification of each other affected state self-objectification, and the resulting feelings of comfort and authenticity during the interaction. After the interaction, participants completed a cognitive performance task, a measure of career aspirations, and a measure of relationship agency. Results showed that for women only, being objectified by their male interaction partner was associated with an increase in state self-objectification, and state self-objectification led to perceptions that the interaction was less comfortable and less authentic. Furthermore, for women but not for men, having authentic interactions was found to relate positively to relationship agency, career aspirations, and cognitive performance. This research shows that self-objectification is not only a self-process but an interpersonal process heightened by the real-time sexual objectification of a male interaction partner. Online slides for instructors who want to use this article for teaching are available to PWQ subscribers on PWQ's website at http://pwq.sagepub.com/supplemental
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Affiliation(s)
- Randi L. Garcia
- Department of Psychology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, USA
- Department of Psychology, Clark University, Worcester, MA, USA
| | - Valerie A. Earnshaw
- Department of Psychology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, USA
- Boston Children’s Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Diane M. Quinn
- Department of Psychology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, USA
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49
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The protective role of body appreciation against media-induced body dissatisfaction. Body Image 2015; 15:98-104. [PMID: 26311661 DOI: 10.1016/j.bodyim.2015.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2015] [Revised: 07/01/2015] [Accepted: 07/28/2015] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
This study aimed to examine the protective role of positive body image against negative effects produced by viewing thin-idealised media. University women (N=68) completed trait measures of body appreciation and media protective strategies. At a subsequent session, participants viewed 11 thin-ideal advertisements. Body dissatisfaction was assessed before and after advertisement exposure, and state measures of self-objectification, appearance comparison, and media protective strategies were completed. Results indicated that body appreciation predicted less change in body dissatisfaction following exposure, such that participants with low body appreciation experienced increased body dissatisfaction, while those with high body appreciation did not. Although state appearance comparison predicted increased body dissatisfaction, neither state self-objectification nor appearance comparison accounted for body appreciation's protective effect. Trait and state media protective strategies positively correlated with body appreciation, but also did not account for body appreciation's protective effect. The results point to intervention targets and highlight future research directions.
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The Collateral Damage of Ambient Sexism: Observing Sexism Impacts Bystander Self-Esteem and Career Aspirations. SEX ROLES 2015. [DOI: 10.1007/s11199-015-0512-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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