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Lee JY, Ahn H, Lee H. Factors Affecting Secondhand Smoke Avoidance Behavior of Vietnamese Adolescents. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2018; 15:E1632. [PMID: 30072593 PMCID: PMC6121624 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph15081632] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2018] [Revised: 07/17/2018] [Accepted: 07/31/2018] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to examine the stage of secondhand smoke avoidance behavior of adolescents in rural areas of Vietnam and the related factors affecting such behavior. The participants were recruited from two middle schools located in Hai Thuong and Trieu Trach commune, Vietnam. Data were collected in January 2016 by distributing and collecting a self-administrated questionnaire. The collected data were analyzed (n = 166) using SPSS 21.0 for frequency, percentage, and ordinal logistic regression. The largest proportion of secondhand smoke avoidance behavior was classified in maintenance (41.6%), followed by action (19.9%), preparation (15.1%), pre-contemplation (13.3%), and contemplation (10.2%) stages. The factors related to higher secondhand smoke avoidance behavior were higher self-efficacy (p = 0.003) and more frequent discussion with parents about dangers of smoking (p = 0.001). The findings indicated that self-efficacy of avoiding secondhand smoke and discussion with parents were associated with secondhand smoke avoidance behavior of adolescents. These findings can be used for developing education programs to prevent secondhand smoke for adolescents in Vietnam.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ja-Yin Lee
- College of Nursing, Yonsei University, Seoul 03722, Korea.
| | - Hyunmi Ahn
- Department of Nursing, Korean Bible University, Seoul 01757, Korea.
| | - Hyeonkyeong Lee
- College of Nursing, Mo-Im Kim Nursing Research Institute, Yonsei University, Seoul 03722, Korea.
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Shpiegel S, Sussman S, Sherman SE, El Shahawy O. Smoking Behaviors Among Adolescents in Foster Care: A Gender-Based Analysis. Subst Use Misuse 2017; 52:1469-1477. [PMID: 28467231 PMCID: PMC6109448 DOI: 10.1080/10826084.2017.1285315] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES Adolescents in foster care are at high risk for cigarette smoking. However, it is not clear how their smoking behaviors vary by gender. The present study examined lifetime and current smoking among males and females, and explored gender-specific risk factors for engagement in smoking behaviors. METHOD Data from the Multi Site Evaluation of Foster Youth Programs was used to evaluate patterns of smoking among adolescents aged 12-18 years (N = 1121; 489 males, 632 females). RESULTS Males and females did not differ significantly in rates of lifetime and current smoking, or in the age of smoking initiation and number of cigarettes smoked on a typical day. Gender-based analyses revealed that older age and placement in group homes or residential treatment facilities were associated with heightened risk of smoking among males. In contrast, sexual minority status (i.e., nonheterosexual orientation) and increased childhood victimization were associated with heightened risk of smoking among females. A history of running away was linked to smoking in both genders. CONCLUSION Gender should be considered when designing intervention programs to address cigarette smoking among foster youth, as the stressors associated with smoking may differ for males and females.
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Affiliation(s)
- Svetlana Shpiegel
- a Robert D. McCormick Center for Child Advocacy and Policy , Montclair State University , Montclair , New Jersey , USA
| | - Steve Sussman
- b Institute for Health Promotion and Disease Prevention Research (IPR), University of Southern California , Los Angeles , California , USA
| | - Scott E Sherman
- c Population Health Department , New York University School of Medicine , New York , New York , USA
| | - Omar El Shahawy
- c Population Health Department , New York University School of Medicine , New York , New York , USA.,d Public Health Research Center , New York University in Abu Dhabi , Abu Dhabi , UAE
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Leung LT, Ho SY, Wang MP, Lo WS, Lam TH. Exposure to secondhand smoke from neighbours and respiratory symptoms in never-smoking adolescents in Hong Kong: a cross-sectional study. BMJ Open 2015; 5:e008607. [PMID: 26537497 PMCID: PMC4636600 DOI: 10.1136/bmjopen-2015-008607] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2015] [Revised: 07/04/2015] [Accepted: 07/31/2015] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To investigate secondhand smoke (SHS) exposure at home from neighbours in Hong Kong adolescents and its association with respiratory symptoms in never-smokers. DESIGN A cross-sectional study. SETTING 79 randomly selected secondary schools in Hong Kong. PARTICIPANTS 61,810 secondary 1 (USA grade 7) to 7 students, in which 50,762 never-smokers were identified and included in the analysis of the association between SHS exposure at home from neighbours and respiratory symptoms. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES Smoking status, family smoking status, SHS exposure at home from inside the home and from neighbours in the past 7 days, respiratory symptoms and sociodemographic characteristics were reported. Adjusted ORs (AORs) of respiratory symptoms for SHS exposure from the 2 sources in never-smokers were calculated using logistic regression. RESULTS In all students, 33.2% were exposed to SHS at home, including 16.2% from inside the home only, 10.0% from neighbours only and 7.0% from both. The prevalence of SHS exposure from neighbours was 17.1%, including 13.5% for 1-4 days/week and 3.6% for 5-7 days/week. In never-smokers (n=50,762), respiratory symptoms were significantly associated with SHS exposure from neighbours with AORs (95% CI) of 1.29 (1.20 to 1.39) for any exposure (p<0.001), 1.21 (1.12 to 1.31) for 1-4 days/week (p<0.001) and 1.63 (1.44 to 1.86) for 5-7 days/week (p<0.001) (P for trend <0.001). Compared with no SHS exposure at home from any source, the AORs were 1.16 (1.07 to 1.25) for SHS from inside the home only (p<0.001), 1.20 (1.11 to 1.31) from neighbours only (p<0.001), and 1.74 (1.56 to 1.94) from both (p<0.001). CONCLUSIONS SHS exposure at home from neighbours was prevalent in Hong Kong adolescents, and was associated with respiratory symptoms in never-smokers. SHS exposure at home may be underestimated by ignoring the neighbouring source. Smoke-free housing policy is needed to protect children and adolescents from harms of SHS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lok Tung Leung
- School of Public Health, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
| | - Sai Yin Ho
- School of Public Health, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
| | - Man Ping Wang
- School of Nursing, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
| | - Wing Sze Lo
- School of Public Health, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
| | - Tai Hing Lam
- School of Public Health, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
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Chen YT, Hsiao FH, Lee CM, Wang RH, Chen PL. Effects of a Parent-Child Interactive Program for Families on Reducing the Exposure of School-Aged Children to Household Smoking. Nicotine Tob Res 2015; 18:330-40. [PMID: 25987674 DOI: 10.1093/ntr/ntv105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2014] [Accepted: 05/06/2015] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Parental smoking has been identified as the major source of children's exposure to environmental tobacco smoke (ETS). Therefore, parental involvement is critical in ETS exposure prevention programs. This study examined the effects of a parent-child interactive program on reducing children's exposure to ETS at home and enhancing parents' and children's prevention strategies. METHODS A clustered randomized controlled trial was administered to 75 families of school-aged children from six primary schools in New Taipei City, Taiwan. Families in the intervention group received a parent-child interactive intervention, and parents in the control group received written materials on tobacco hazards. Data on children's exposure and the prevention of children's exposure to ETS at home were obtained at baseline, 8-week, and 20-week or 6-month assessments. RESULTS The percentage of children with urine cotinine levels greater than or equal to 6 ng/ml was significantly lower in the intervention group than it was in the control group at both the 8-week and 6-month assessments. The intervention significantly reduced parental smoking in the presence of children and increased parents' prevention of children's ETS exposure and children's ETS avoidance behavior from the baseline to the 20-week assessment. CONCLUSIONS This is a preliminary study design aimed at creating a program for reducing children's ETS exposure at home. Further research to produce evidence supporting the application of the parent-child interactive program in primary schools is suggested. The theoretical basis of the intervention design can serve as a reference for nursing education and the design of health education programs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Ting Chen
- School of Nursing, College of Medicine, Chang-Gung University, Tao-Yuan, Taiwan; Graduate Institute of Nursing, College of Nursing, Taipei Medical University, Taipei City, Taiwan
| | - Fei-Hsiu Hsiao
- Department of Nursing, College of Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei City, Taiwan
| | - Ching-Mei Lee
- Department of Health Promotion and Health Education, National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei City, Taiwan
| | - Ruey-Hsia Wang
- School of Nursing, College of Nursing, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Ping-Ling Chen
- Graduate Institute of Injury Prevention and Control, College of Public Health and Nutrition, Taipei Medical University, Taipei City, Taiwan
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Alzeidan RA, Mandil AA, Fayed AA, Wahabi HA. The effectiveness of breath carbon monoxide analyzer in screening for environmental tobacco smoke exposure in Saudi pregnant women. Ann Thorac Med 2013; 8:214-7. [PMID: 24250735 PMCID: PMC3821281 DOI: 10.4103/1817-1737.118505] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2013] [Accepted: 05/24/2013] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND: Exposure to environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) has harmful effects on the pregnancy outcomes similar to those observed in actively smoking pregnant women. The aim of this study was to estimate the sensitivity and specificity of the breath carbon monoxide (BCO) analysis in the assessment of smoking status among Saudi pregnant women, including ETS exposure compared to self-reported tobacco smoke exposure. METHODS: A cross-sectional design was used during January 2012, 560 pregnant women, irrespective of their gestational age, agreed to undergo BCO testing and completed the data collection sheet for the study. Sensitivity, specificity, positive and negative predictive values were calculated to compare the BCO test with self-reported exposure to ETS. RESULTS: Of the study population 151 (27%) women self-reported ETS exposure during the index pregnancy, 409 (73%) self-reported non-exposure. Sensitivity of the test was 32.5% (95% CI; 25.2-40.3%), the Specificity was much higher at 69.2% (95% CI; 64.4-73.5%), the positive predictive value was 28% (95% CI, 21.9-35.1%), and the negative predictive value was 73.5% (95% CI; 68.9-77.7%). CONCLUSION: The BCO test is an ineffective tool to detect the level of ETS exposure among Saudi pregnant women.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rasmieh Ayed Alzeidan
- Sheikh Bahamdan Research Chair of Evidence-based Healthcare and Knowledge Translation, Department of Family and Community Medicine, College of Medicine, King Saud University, Riyadh, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
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Tolvanen M, Lahti S, Miettunen J, Hausen H. Relationship between oral health-related knowledge, attitudes and behavior among 15-16-year-old adolescents: a structural equation modeling approach. Acta Odontol Scand 2012; 70:169-76. [PMID: 21793645 DOI: 10.3109/00016357.2011.600722] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The aim of this study was to confirm the previously observed attitudinal factor structure related to behavioral change and the knowledge-attitude-behavior model on dental health and hygiene among adolescents. MATERIALS AND METHODS The study population consisted of all 8(th) and 9(th) graders (15-16 years) who started the 2004-2005 school year in Rauma, Finland (n = 827). Data on knowledge, attitudes, toothbrushing and using fluoride toothpaste were gathered by questionnaires. Hypothesized structure included four attitudinal factors related to dental health and hygiene: 'importance of toothbrushing when participating in social situations' (F1), 'importance of toothbrushing for health-related reasons and better appearance' (F2), 'being concerned about developing caries lesions' (F3) and 'importance of toothbrushing for feeling accepted' (F4). Structural equation modeling (SEM) was used to test the hypothesized model: pathways lead from knowledge to behavior both directly and via attitudes. The hypothesized model was also modified by removing non-significant pathways and studying the inter-relationships between attitudes. RESULTS A confirmatory factor analysis revealed that factor F4 had to be removed. In the final model, knowledge influenced behavior directly and via two attitude factors, F1 and F2, which were inter-related. 'Concern about developing caries lesions' was a background factor influencing only knowledge. The final factor structure and SEM model were acceptable-to-good fit. Knowledge had a smaller effect on behavior than on attitudes. CONCLUSIONS Our results support theories about the causal knowledge-attitudes-behavior chain, also for adolescents' oral health-related behaviors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mimmi Tolvanen
- Department of Community Dentistry, Institute of Dentistry, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland.
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Huang HL, Yen YY, Lin PL, Chiu CH, Hsu CC, Chen T, Hu CY, Lin YY, Lee CH, Chen FL. Household secondhand smoke exposure of elementary schoolchildren in Southern Taiwan and factors associated with their confidence in avoiding exposure: a cross-sectional study. BMC Public Health 2012; 12:40. [PMID: 22251625 PMCID: PMC3316143 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2458-12-40] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2011] [Accepted: 01/17/2012] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Exposure to household Secondhand Smoke (SHS) poses a major health threat to children after an indoor smoking ban was imposed in Taiwan. This study aimed to assess the household SHS exposure in elementary school children in southern Taiwan and the factors associated with their avoidance of SHS exposure before and after the implementation of Taiwan's new Tobacco Hazards Prevention Act in 2009. Methods In this cross-sectional school-based study, data on household SHS exposure, avoidance of SHS and related variables was obtained from the 2008 and 2009 Control of School-aged Children Smoking Study Survey. A random sample of 52 elementary schools was included. A total of 4450 3-6 graders (aged 8-13) completed the questionnaire. Regression models analyzed factors of children's self-confidence to avoid household SHS exposure. Results Over 50% of children were found to have lived with a family member who smoked in front of them after the new law enacted, and 35% of them were exposed to household SHS more than 4 days a week. Having a positive attitude toward smoking (β = -0.05 to -0.06) and high household SHS exposure (β = -0.34 to -0.47) were significantly associated with a lower avoidance of SHS exposure. Comparing to girls, boys had lower scores in their knowledge of tobacco hazards; and this factor was significantly related to their SHS avoidance (β = 0.13-0.14). Conclusions The intervention program should enhance school children do actively avoid exposure to SHS in home settings, and more importantly, provide tobacco hazard knowledge to male students to avoid exposure to household SHS for themselves. The results also provide further evidence that Tobacco Hazards Prevention Act should perhaps be extended to the family environment in order to protect children from the hazards of household SHS exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hsiao-Ling Huang
- Department of Public Health, Fu-Jen Catholic University, Sinjhuang District, New Taipei City, Taiwan
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Exploration of parental smokers' experience, perceptions, and family's influences on their smoking in the presence of children. ANS Adv Nurs Sci 2012; 35:E1-13. [PMID: 22293613 DOI: 10.1097/ans.0b013e3182445525] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to explore parents' experience and perceptions of smoking in the presence of children. Findings regarding patterns of parents' smoking in the presence of children were situation specific. When thinking of smoking with children around, parents engaged in a process of weighing the importance of the need to smoke and adverse effects from exposure to environmental tobacco smoke, a consideration based mostly on their experience. A pattern of correspondence was identified between family's level of concern and promoting change among smokers. Many strategies participants used to prevent children's environmental tobacco smoke exposure were relatively ineffective and needed to be addressed.
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Knowledge, attitudes, and behavior in avoiding secondhand smoke exposure among non-smoking employed women with higher education in Jordan. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2011; 8:4207-19. [PMID: 22163203 PMCID: PMC3228567 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph8114207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2011] [Revised: 10/25/2011] [Accepted: 11/03/2011] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Secondhand smoke (SHS) exposure is a serious public health threat worldwide; in the developing world there are less serious efforts towards controlling women's and children's exposure to SHS. Knowledge, attitudes and avoidance practices among Jordanian women have never been thoroughly studied. The purpose of this study was to assess the knowledge, attitudes, and avoidance behavior towards SHS exposure among employed Jordanian women with higher education. METHODS A survey was conducted among employed Jordanian women at two universities. A total of 209 women were included in the analysis. Two questionnaires regarding SHS exposure were used to measure knowledge, attitudes and avoidance practices. RESULTS Most respondents were regularly exposed to SHS in various locations during daily life, even though they were very knowledgeable about the dangers of SHS exposure for women and children. However, the subject's attitudes and avoidance behavior did not reflect the level of knowledge about SHS risks. The results suggests there is a large discrepancy between SHS exposure, knowledge, attitudes and avoidance behavior among highly educated Jordanian women that is likely influenced by culture and traditional gender roles. Public health initiatives are needed in Jordan to address public policy, institutional practices and to empowerment of women to reduce SHS exposure.
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Ding D, Wahlgren DR, Liles S, Jones JA, Hughes SC, Hovell MF. Secondhand smoke avoidance by preteens living with smokers: to leave or stay? Addict Behav 2010; 35:989-94. [PMID: 20634003 PMCID: PMC2951386 DOI: 10.1016/j.addbeh.2010.06.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2009] [Revised: 05/04/2010] [Accepted: 06/14/2010] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Secondhand smoke (SHS) is hazardous to children's health. Designing interventions to reduce exposure requires understanding children's behavior in the presence of smokers, yet little is known about this behavior. PURPOSE To determine whether children's avoidance of SHS is associated with lower exposure and to explore predictors of avoidance based on a behavioral ecological model. METHOD Preteens aged 8-13 (N=358) living with a smoker identified their primary source of SHS exposure, and reported whether they left (avoided exposure) or stayed the last time they were exposed to that person's smoke. The SHS avoidance measure was validated by examining associations with SHS exposure. Multiple Logistic Regression was used to determine predictors of SHS avoidance. RESULTS Based on urine cotinine and reported exposure, preteens who left the presence of SHS had lower exposure than those who stayed. Preteens were more likely to leave SHS if they were less physically mature, had not tried smoking, had a firm commitment not to smoke, did not assist family smoking, had family/friends who discouraged breathing SHS, or had friends who disliked smoking. DISCUSSION Most SHS exposure reduction interventions have targeted changes in smokers' behavior. Reductions can also be achieved by changing exposed nonsmokers' behavior, such as avoiding the exposure. Future studies should measure young people's SHS avoidance and test interventions to increase their avoidance practices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ding Ding
- Center for Behavioral Epidemiology & Community Health, San Diego State University, 9245 Sky Park Court, Suite 230, San Diego, CA, USA, 92123-4388
| | - Dennis R. Wahlgren
- Center for Behavioral Epidemiology & Community Health, San Diego State University, 9245 Sky Park Court, Suite 230, San Diego, CA, USA, 92123-4388
| | - Sandy Liles
- Center for Behavioral Epidemiology & Community Health, San Diego State University, 9245 Sky Park Court, Suite 230, San Diego, CA, USA, 92123-4388
| | - Jennifer A. Jones
- Center for Behavioral Epidemiology & Community Health, San Diego State University, 9245 Sky Park Court, Suite 230, San Diego, CA, USA, 92123-4388
| | - Suzanne C. Hughes
- Center for Behavioral Epidemiology & Community Health, San Diego State University, 9245 Sky Park Court, Suite 230, San Diego, CA, USA, 92123-4388
| | - Melbourne F. Hovell
- Center for Behavioral Epidemiology & Community Health, San Diego State University, 9245 Sky Park Court, Suite 230, San Diego, CA, USA, 92123-4388
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Lin PL, Huang HL, Lu KY, Chen T, Lin WT, Lee CH, Hsu HM. Second-hand smoke exposure and the factors associated with avoidance behavior among the mothers of pre-school children: a school-based cross-sectional study. BMC Public Health 2010; 10:606. [PMID: 20942977 PMCID: PMC2972241 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2458-10-606] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2010] [Accepted: 10/14/2010] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Second-hand Smoke (SHS) exposure is a significant public health problem that may be responsible for serious health hazards for child. This study aimed to examine the exposure status of SHS and the factors associated with SHS avoidance behavior among the mothers of pre-school children. METHODS A cross-sectional study was used to obtain a sample of the mothers of pre-school children (n = 1,020) in 30 registered kindergartens in eastern Taiwan. Overall, 919 (a response rate of 90%) completed the questionnaires. Regression models were used to identify factors with respect to the avoidance behavior of SHS. RESULTS The prevalence of exposure to SHS was 70% and 50% for the mothers and their children, respectively. After adjusting for other variables, mothers who were current smokers (β = -0.260, p < 0.001), had spouses who smoked (β = -0.060, p < 0.05), SHS exposure (β = -0.138, p < 0.001), and/or children with exposure to SHS (β = -0.084, p < 0.05) were found to be less likely to avoid SHS, whereas mothers with a high knowledge score about SHS (β = 0.082, p < 0.01), positive attitudes (β = 0.274, p < 0.001) and a high self-efficacy level in regard to the avoidance of SHS (β = 0.397, p < 0.001) were observed to be more likely to avoid SHS. Regression analyses confirmed that the significantly factors associated with the avoidance behavior of SHS were self-efficacy, being a current smoker, and the attitude toward the avoidance of SHS to be that of 55.5% of the total variance explained (p < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS The high prevalence rate of exposure to SHS for mothers and their children suggests that a well-designed future intervention program should be implemented in regard to pre-school children's mothers in order to prevent these mothers and their children from SHS exposure hazards, more particularly, to strengthen the knowledge base, to enhance self-efficacy and to foster a more positive attitude toward the avoidance of SHS in the mothers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pi-Li Lin
- Department of Public Health, Tzu Chi University, Hualien, 97004, Taiwan
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