Post-thyroidectomy bilateral cervical plexus block relieves pain: a systematic review

PURPOSE

To assess the effectiveness of bilateral superficial cervical plexus block (BSCPB) in treating post-thyroidectomy pain.

METHODS

MEDLINE, Embase, Google Scholar, LILACS, and the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, were extensively searched. The search period extended from 1968 until December 2022. Randomized controlled trials comparing BSCPB to placebo, no block in patients with thyroidectomy for benign or malignant thyroid disease were included. Outcomes were pain in the first 24 h after surgery. Analgesic rescue, period before the first rescue dosage, and 24-h opioid usage were secondary outcomes. The RoB 2 instrument was used to evaluate the risk of bias.

RESULTS

34 of 354 studies were eligible. There were 2,519 patients. BSCPB reduced the intensity of pain postoperatively [SMD: - 1.17 (95% CI: - 1.54 to - 0.81)] and in the first 24 h [- 0.62 (95%: 0.91 to 0.33)]. A considerable delay for the first opioid dose, rescue analgesics, and postoperative opioid usage was also found.

CONCLUSION

BSCPB's 24-h analgesic efficacy minimizes the requirement for rescue analgesia, postoperative opioid intake, and rescue analgesia start time. The choice of anesthetic and different application methods might affect its effectiveness.

Chronic Opioid Prescribing After Common Otolaryngology Procedures in Adults

OBJECTIVE

(1) Describe short and long-term opioid prescribing patterns and variation after common otolaryngologic procedures and (2) assess risk factors for chronic opioid use in this cohort.

STUDY DESIGN

Retrospective cohort.

SETTING

Optum's deidentified Integrated Claims-Clinical data set.

METHODS

An adult cohort of patients undergoing common otolaryngology procedures from 2010 to 2017 was identified. Associations between procedure and other covariates with any initial opioid prescription and continuous opioid prescriptions were assessed with multivariable modeling. Opioid use was defined as continuous if a new prescription was filled within 30 days of the previous prescription. A time-to-event analysis assessed continuous prescriptions from the index procedure to end of the last continuous opioid prescription.

RESULTS

Among a cohort of 19,819 patients undergoing predominately laryngoscopy procedures (12,721, 64.2%), 2585 (13.0%) received an opioid prescription with variation in receiving a prescription, daily dose, and total initially prescribed dose varying by procedure, patient demographics, provider characteristics, and facility type. Opioids were prescribed most frequently after tonsillectomy (45.4%) and least frequently after laryngoscopy with interventions (3.9%), which persisted in the multivariable models. Overall rates of continuous use at 180 and 360 days were 0.48% and 0.27%, respectively. Among patients receiving an initial opioid prescription, maintaining continuous prescriptions was associated with tonsillectomy procedures, age (adjusted hazard ratio [aHR]: 0.997 per year, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.993-0.999), opioid prescriptions 6 months preprocedure (aHR: 0.42, 95% CI: 0.37-0.47), and nonotolaryngology initial prescribers (aHRs: <1, P < .05).

CONCLUSION

There is substantial variation in initial prescribing practices and continuous opioid prescriptions after common Otolaryngology procedures, but the overall rate of maintaining a continuous prescription starting after these procedures is very low.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level 3.

The Effect of Postoperative Naloxone in Certain Otolaryngologic Surgeries

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the association of postoperative naloxone with the development of new substance use disorder (SUD), overdose, and death within 6 months of otolaryngologic surgery.

STUDY DESIGN

Retrospective cohort database study on TriNetX.

METHODS

Adult patients who underwent tonsil surgery (noncancerous), thyroid/parathyroid, septorhinoplasty, otology/neurotology, sinus/anterior skull base, and head and neck cancer surgeries between January 2003 and April 2023. Patients were excluded if they had an instance of SUD or overdose recorded in their charts prior to surgery, or had undergone another surgery within that 6-month time frame. We hypothesized that patients prescribed naloxone postoperatively would have decreased odds for experiencing new SUD, overdose, and/or death within 6 months of surgery compared to patients who did not receive naloxone. P < .01 was considered statistically significant.

RESULTS

There were 2,305,655 patients in this study. The average age was 36.7 ± 19.5 years old, with 46% female patients. Before matching, cohorts showed equivocal odds for developing new SUD, increased odds for overdose, and mixed odds for dying. After matching for demographic variables and comorbidities such as other substance use, opioid use for other pathologies, and psychiatric conditions, these effects diminished (P > .01).

CONCLUSION

Our results suggest that postoperative naloxone may not significantly affect development of new SUD and incident overdose and death in certain otolaryngologic surgeries after controlling for prior SUD and psychiatric conditions. Clinicians should be aware of these comorbidities when considering their postoperative pain management protocol, which may or may not include naloxone.

Pain control is comparable between opioid versus non-opioid management after otolaryngology procedures

Objective

The current study aims to measure patient-reported satisfaction with pain control using opioid and non-opioid medications after undergoing the following otolaryngology procedures: parathyroidectomy, thyroid lobectomy, total thyroidectomy, and bilateral tonsillectomy.

Materials and Methods

A prospective cohort study was performed at an academic medical center that included a telephone questionnaire and chart review. Opioid prescriptions, usage, and patient-reported pain outcomes were recorded. Bivariate analyses were used to compare opioid and non-opioid users.

Results

Of the 107 total patients undergoing otolaryngology procedures included in the study, 49 (45.8%) used an opioid for pain management postoperatively and 58 (54.2%) did not. Among the 81 patients who underwent endocrine procedures (parathyroidectomy, total thyroidectomy/lobectomy), most patients reported being "very satisfied" or "satisfied" with pain control whether they used opioids (n = 27/30, 90%) or not (n = 50/51, 98%). Of the 26 patients who underwent bilateral tonsillectomy, 19 (73%) were prescribed opioids and among these, most (n = 17/19, 89%) reported they were "very satisfied" or "satisfied" with pain control. In the non-opioid usage group, all patients (n = 7/7, 100%) reported they were "satisfied" with pain control. There was no statistically significant difference in patient-reported satisfaction with pain control between opioid and non-opioid users for any of the procedures listed.

Conclusion

The results of our study suggest that patients who did not use opioids have a similar level of satisfaction with pain control compared to those using opioids after thyroid, parathyroid and tonsillectomy surgeries. Considering the magnitude of the opioid crisis, providers should reassess the need for opioid prescriptions following certain ENT procedures.

Level of Evidence

IV.

Assessment of Postoperative Pain and Opioid Consumption Following Laryngeal Surgery: A Pilot Study

The epidemic of opioid use in the United States has been declared a national public health crisis due to the rapid increase in drug overdose mortality. Physician overprescribing has been identified as one of many contributing factors, with most patients receiving excess opioid pain medication. Furthermore, there is a significant correlation between prescribed opioid dosage and mortality. Postoperative pain is a well-recognized clinical problem, but little has been done to advance or standardize pain management protocols. The purpose of this study was to determine the expected postoperative pain severity and quantity of opioid analgesic required for adequate pain management after laryngeal surgery.

METHODS

Adult voice center patients who had recently undergone laryngeal surgery were included in this retrospective review. Tylenol #3 had been prescribed for all patients for pain management and they had been instructed to take additional over-the-counter acetaminophen as needed. In the senior author's (RTS) practice, patients are asked routinely to report pain severity and analgesic use during postoperative visits. All patients who had this information available were included in the cohort. Opioid medication consumed, over-the-counter medication consumed, and pain level (scale of 0-10 with 10 being most severe) were analyzed over the first week postoperatively.

RESULTS

There were 43 patients (19 male, 24 female) included in the retrospective cohort (average age = 46.8 ± 18.6, range = 18-82). Procedures performed included vocal fold mass excision (48.8%), type I thyroplasty (27.9%), laser vaporization of vascular lesions (11.6%), laser stenosis resection (9.3%), and VF medialization injection with abdominal fat harvest (7.0%). Overall, voice surgery patients reported mild to moderate pain (2.1-4.7 out of 10). An average of 13.2 ± 2.8 T3 tablets were prescribed for pain management (range = 10-20), and no patient required more T3 tablets than the number provided. Sixteen patients (37.2%) supplemented or substituted their T3 medication for it with OTC acetaminophen. No patients used non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) for supplemental pain management. Consumption of both T3 pain medication (r = 0.444) and OTC acetaminophen (r = 0.274) was correlated significantly with postoperative pain severity (P < 0.001). When stratified by type of surgical procedure performed, one-way ANOVA (F = 2.749, P = 0.043) and post-hoc Games-Howell test revealed that the patients who underwent type I thyroplasty reported a significantly higher (P = 0.041) pain severity score than patients who underwent vocal fold mass excision (4.7 versus 2.1, respectively). No significant differences in pain severity existed between other procedures (P > 0.05). There were no significant differences between type of procedure performed for number of T3 tablets prescribed, number of T3 tablets taken, or number of OTC tablets taken (P > 0.05). Younger age was correlated significantly with a higher number of OTC tablets consumed (r = -0.316, P = 0.039). Women consumed more OTC pain medications than men.

CONCLUSIONS

Most patients in this study reported mild to moderate postoperative pain. Adequate pain management was achieved using less pain medication tablets than the number prescribed. Type I thyroplasty was associated with more severe pain than other surgeries. Women used more OTC pain medications than men with no significant difference in reported pain level.

Prednisone Decreases Opioid Use in Adults Undergoing Benign Oropharyngeal Surgery

OBJECTIVE

This study sought to analyze the efficacy and safety of postoperative prednisone to reduce reliance on opioids in adult benign oropharyngeal surgery.

STUDY DESIGN

Prospective cohort study.

SETTING

Single tertiary-care facility.

METHODS

Patients undergoing tonsillectomy (T), tonsillectomy and adenoidectomy (T&A), and/or modified uvulopalatopharyngoplasty (UPPP) from December 2020 to January 2023 received the standard of care postoperative management. A prednisone taper was dependent on surgeon preference. Cohorts were based on the prescription of postoperative steroids. Patients completed a survey to assess opioid usage, pain scores, and steroid compliance.

RESULTS

Seventy-two patients were included. The nonsteroid cohort (N = 29) received an average of 467 ± 94.1 morphine milligram equivalents (MME), and the steroid cohort (N = 43) received an average of 285 ± 128 MME (P < 0.001). The nonsteroid cohort consumed 1.62 times more opioids than the steroid cohort (P < 0.002). There were no significant differences in complication or refill rates between treatment groups. There were no significant differences in pain scores on the day of surgery or postoperative days 1, 5, or 10 (P = 0.34, P = 0.66, P = 0.62, and P = 0.22, respectively). Patients undergoing T&A (p = 0.019) or who had current psychiatric medication use (P < 0.006) consumed significantly more opioids. Patients who received a total opioid prescription of >300 MME (40 5-mL doses of 5 mg/5 mL liquid oxycodone) consumed 2.27 times more postoperative opioids than patients with opioid prescriptions ≤300 MME (P < 0.001).

CONCLUSION

Patients who did not receive steroids consumed 1.62 times more postoperative opioids compared to those who completed a steroid taper. Corticosteroid use was not associated with changes in pain scores, refill rates, or complication rates and may be considered in a multimodal approach to pain management in adults undergoing benign oropharyngeal surgery, although further study is warranted.

Trajectories and predictors of high-occurrence pain flares in ambulatory cancer patients on opioids

BACKGROUND

Pain flares have a substantive impact on the quality of life and well-being of patients with cancer. We identified longitudinal trajectories (clusters) of cancer pain flares in ambulatory patients and sociodemographic and clinical predictors of these trajectories.

METHODS

In a prospective cohort study using ecological momentary assessment (mEMA), we collected patient-reported daily pain flare ratings data over 5 months and identified predictors and correlates using validated measures.

RESULTS

The mean age of the sample (N = 270) was 60.9 years (SD = 11.2), 64.8% were female, and 32.6% self-identified as African American. Four pain flare clusters were identified. The "high-occurrence" cluster (23% of patients) experienced 5.5 (SD = 5.47) daily flares, whereas low-moderate clusters (77%) reported 2.4 (SD = 2.74) daily flares (P < .000). Those in the high-occurrence cluster reported higher pain scores (P = .000), increased pain-related interference (P = .000), depressive symptoms (P = .023), lower quality of life (P = .001), and reduced pain self-efficacy (P = .006). Notably, 67.2% of those prescribed opioids as needed (PRN only) were in the high-occurrence pain flare cluster, compared with 27.9% with PRN and around-the-clock opioid prescriptions (P = .024). Individual predictors of high-occurrence pain flares were income below $30 000, unemployment, being African American, lower education level, Medicaid insurance, current opioid misuse (COMM), baseline inpatient hospital stay duration, and PRN-only opioid regimen. In the multiple predictor model, lower education level, unemployment, COMM score, extended inpatient duration, and PRN-only opioid regimen remained significant.

CONCLUSION

In ambulatory patients with cancer, high occurrence of pain flares may be mitigated by attention to opioid prescription factors and addressing social determinants of health needs of underserved patients.

Gabapentin and postoperative pain and opioid consumption: A double-blind randomized controlled trial of perioperative pain management for sinus surgery

BACKGROUND

The link between post-operative narcotic prescription and opioid misuse has spurred a nationwide effort to reduce perioperative opioid use. Previous work has suggested that perioperative gabapentin may reduce post-operative pain and opioid consumption across different procedures, although the optimal regimen remains to be defined.

METHODS

Chronic rhinosinusitis (CRS) patients undergoing functional endoscopic sinus surgery (FESS) with or without septoplasty were randomized to receive a 7-day pre- and post-operative course of placebo or gabapentin, starting at 300 mg daily and titrated to 300 mg three times daily, in a double-blind fashion. Primary endpoint was pain level using a validated visual analog scale (VAS). Secondary endpoints included post-operative opioid consumption and side effects, as well as modified Lund-Kennedy endoscopy, Lund-Mackay, and SNOT-22 scores.

RESULTS

Analysis of 35 patients (20 gabapentin, 15 control) showed no significant difference in mean postoperative VAS (p = 0.18) or postoperative opioid consumption between the placebo and gabapentin groups (2.3 and 4.8 oxycodone tablets respectively, p = 0.18). 15 of 35 patients did not require any post-operative oxycodone tablets, and only two patients required more than six tablets.

CONCLUSION

Preliminary results show no significant change in pain after FESS with or without septoplasty in patients taking 7-day pre- and post-operative gabapentin versus placebo. Results also showed no significant difference in opioid consumption between the treatment and placebo groups. Post-operative pain scores and opioid requirements are both quite low following FESS. Many patients do not need opioids at all, suggesting that routine initial post-operative opioid prescriptions can be limited accordingly.

Postoperative Pain Following Coblation of Sinonasal Hereditary Hemorrhagic Telangiectasias

BACKGROUND

Hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia (HHT) is a rare, autosomal dominant disease and epistaxis is the most common symptom. This can be treated conservatively but severe cases may require operative interventions. Endoscopic endonasal coblation of HHT lesions has been used successfully but postoperative pain management has not been well described.

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to assess levels of postoperative pain and opioid use among patients with HHT who underwent coblation of sinonasal lesions.

METHODS

This is a longitudinal, prospective cohort study of adult patients undergoing endoscopic endonasal coblation for treatment of HHT lesions with or without bevacizumab injection between November 2019 and March 2020 at a single academic university hospital. Patients were given preoperative questionnaires and contacted via telephone 48 hours after surgery. If they reported using opioids for pain control, they were called every 2 days until they no longer used these medications.

RESULTS

Fourteen cases, including 13 unique patients, were included in this study. Opioids were ordered on discharge in 4 cases and the average morphine milligram equivalent prescribed on discharge was 41. The median pain score on postoperative day (POD) 2 was 4 of 10. Twelve patients reported using acetaminophen and 4 were using opioid pain medications. Of those using opioid pain medications, only 1 patient was using opioid pain medication by POD 4 and denied any use after POD 10.

CONCLUSION

This study is the first to analyze postoperative pain management and opioid prescribing patterns in HHT patients undergoing endonasal coblation of telangiectasias. Postoperative pain was mild to moderate and most patients stopped using opioid medications by POD 4, although the majority of patients solely used acetaminophen. Future studies with increased sample size will be useful to further identify predictors of need for analgesics postoperatively and other non-opioid adjuncts for pain control.

Does Time of Administration of Intravenous Ketorolac Impact Pain-Related Outcomes in Dacryocystorhinostomy?

PURPOSE

An emerging body of evidence indicates that intravenous ketorolac (IVK) reduces pain scores and the requirement for opioid analgesics in a variety of oculofacial procedures. This study was performed to assess the impact of timing of IVK administration on these benefits after external dacryocystorhinostomy (DCR).

METHODS

Patients were randomized to receive IVK before (n = 50), during (n = 50), or after DCR (n = 50). An additional cohort of control patients did not receive the medication (n = 50). Postoperative pain was measured via a visual analog scale immediately after DCR on the first day after surgery (POD1). Additionally, the need for opioid analgesics to control pain was recorded. Statistical analyses were performed via a dedicated computerized software package.

RESULTS

Immediately after surgery, mean pain scores were 5.26 for control patients, and 2.30, 2.44, and 2.36 for patients that received IVK pre-, intra-, and post-operatively, respectively (p < .001 for each condition, as compared to controls). On POD1, mean pain scores were 3.52 for control patients and 1.38, 1.32, and 1.28 for patients that received IVK pre-, intra-, and post-operatively, respectively (p < .001 for each condition, as compared to controls). 28% of control patients required postoperative opioid analgesics, as compared to 6%, 4%, and 4% among patients that received IVK pre-, intra-, and postoperatively, respectively (p < .05 for each condition, as compared to controls).

CONCLUSIONS

IVK significantly reduces postoperative pain and the requirement for opioid analgesics after DCR, regardless of the timing of administration. This benefit appears to extend into the first postoperative day.

Systemic Steroids for Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery Disorders: An Evidence-Based Primer for Clinicians

OBJECTIVE

To offer pragmatic, evidence-informed guidance on the use of systemic corticosteroids (SCS) for common otolaryngologic disorders.

DATA SOURCES

PubMed, Cochrane Library, and American Academy of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery Foundation clinical practice guidelines.

REVIEW METHODS

A comprehensive search of published literature through November 2021 was conducted on the efficacy of SCS, alone or in combination with other treatments, for managing disorders in otolaryngology and the subdisciplines. Clinical practice guidelines, systematic reviews, and randomized controlled trials, when available, were preferentially retrieved. Interventions and outcomes of SCS use were compiled to generate summary tables and narrative synthesis of findings.

CONCLUSIONS

Evidence on the effectiveness of SCS varies widely across otolaryngology disorders. High-level evidence supports SCS use for Bell's palsy, sinonasal polyposis, and lower airway disease. Conversely, evidence is weak or absent for upper respiratory tract infection, eustachian tube dysfunction, benign paroxysmal positional vertigo, adenotonsillar hypertrophy, or nonallergic rhinitis. Evidence is indeterminate for acute laryngitis, acute pharyngitis, acute sinusitis, angioedema, chronic rhinosinusitis without polyps, Ménière's disease, postviral olfactory loss, postoperative nerve paresis/paralysis, facial pain, and sudden sensorineural hearing loss.

IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE

Clinicians should bring an evidence-informed lens to SCS prescribing to best counsel patients regarding the risks, anticipated benefits, and limited data on long-term effects. Alternate routes of corticosteroid administration-such as sprays, drops, inhalers, and intralesional injections-may be preferable for many disorders, particularly those that are self-limited or require a prolonged duration of therapy. Prudent use of SCS reduces the risk of medication-related adverse effects. Clinicians who are conversant with high-level evidence can achieve optimal outcomes and stewardship when prescribing SCS.

Postoperative opioid protocol: A 5-year resident-led effort to standardize prescribing patterns

OBJECTIVES

The combined impact of variable surgeon prescribing preferences and low resident prescribing comfort level can lead to significant disparity in opioid prescribing patterns. We report an update on the expanded scope of this now 5-year, resident led initiative to standardize postoperative prescription practices within the Department of Otolaryngology.

METHODS

With Institutional Review Board approval, performed a retrospective review of 12 months before (July 2016 - June 2017) and 48 months after (July 2019-June 2021) implementation of the Expanded Postoperative Analgesia Protocol. The Pre-Protocol and Expanded Protocol cohorts were compared using ANOVA, chi-squared and Fisher Exact tests, with ANCOVA and binary logistic regression for covariate analysis. Cost impact was calculated using average medication spending data for 2018-2019.

RESULTS

470 patients were included in the Pre-Protocol cohort (54 % male, mean age 35 years) and 679 in the Expanded Protocol cohort (63 % male, mean age 36 years). The protocol was effectively implemented as reflected in the reduction of combination opioid medications from 429 (91.3 %) to 26 (3.8 %) (87 % reduction, 95 % CI 86 % to 89 %, p < .001). The protocol resulted in a 66 % reduction in average morphine milligram equivalents per patient (333 mg to 114 mg, mean reduction 219 mg, 95 % CI 206 mg to 232 mg, p < .001), a 68 % reduction in medication refills (refill rate 20 % to 6 %; 14 % reduction, 95 % CI 12 % to 16 %, p < .001) and a 74 % reduction in cost of postoperative medications ($93.82 to $24.64 per patient).

CONCLUSION

Through purposeful standardization, this 5-year resident led effort resulted in sustained changes to departmental wide prescribing practices yielding reduced variability, reduced cost, improved opioid management and superior pain control for postoperative patients.

Association of Pain Disorder and Psychiatric Disease With Surgical Management of Obstructive Sleep Apnea

OBJECTIVE

Patients undergoing surgical management for obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) are likely medically distinct from their counterparts not treated surgically. This study examined the associations between psychiatric and pain comorbidities and the likelihood of undergoing sleep surgery.

STUDY DESIGN

A retrospective cohort study of adults with OSA.

SETTING

Large integrated healthcare system.

METHODS

The primary outcome was nonnasal, nonbariatric sleep surgery. The associations of baseline demographic and comorbid conditions with surgery to treat underlying OSA were examined using bivariable and multivariable analyses.

RESULTS

Among 172,854 adults with OSA, 2456 received sleep surgery. Comorbid pain disorder and/or pain medication treatment was associated with 41% higher odds of surgery (95% confidence interval: 1.29-1.54). In bivariable analyses, those with a history of headache (p = .004), particularly migraine (p = .003), disorders of adult personality or behavior (p = .025), or behavioral/emotional disorder (p < .001) were more likely to undergo surgery. Younger adults were also more likely to undergo surgery (mean age at diagnosis 39.8 ± 12.6 vs 54.7 ± 14 years), as were men, Asian/Pacific Islander or Hispanic adults, those with lower body mass index (32 ± 7 vs 34.3 ± 8.1 kg/m² ), or those with Charlson Comorbidity Index of zero (p < .001).

CONCLUSION

Our study suggests a history of pain disorder (including receipt of pain medication), migraine, or certain behavioral and personality disorders are associated with an increased likelihood of undergoing sleep surgery. The findings may better characterize comorbid predictors of sleep surgery and potentially help clinicians tailor expectations, postoperative pain management, and overall sleep outcomes.

Multimodal Analgesia and Patient Education Reduce Postoperative Opioid Consumption in Otology

OBJECTIVE

This study sought to validate alternative pain management strategies that can reduce reliance on opioids for postoperative pain management in otology.

STUDY DESIGN

Prospective cohort study.

SETTING

Single tertiary-care facility.

METHODS

Adult patients who underwent outpatient otologic surgery from September 2021 to July 2022 were randomized into treatment cohorts. The opioid monotherapy cohort received a standard opioid prescription. The multimodal analgesia cohort received the same opioid prescription, prescriptions for acetaminophen and naproxen, and additional pain management education with a flyer on discharge. All patients completed a questionnaire 1 week after surgery to evaluate opioid usage and pain scores.

RESULTS

Eighty-six patients completed the study. The opioid monotherapy cohort (n = 42) and multimodal analgesia cohort (n = 44) were prescribed an average of 42.1 ± 20.4 morphine milligram equivalents (MME) and 38.4 ± 5.7 MME, respectively (p = 0.373). Four patients (9.52%) in the opioid monotherapy cohort required opioid refills compared to 1 patient (2.27%) in the multimodal analgesia cohort (p = 0.156). Multivariate analysis demonstrated that the multimodal analgesia cohort consumed significantly fewer opioids on average than the opioid monotherapy cohort (11.9 ± 15.9 MME vs 22.8 ± 28.0 MME, respectively). There were no significant differences in postoperative rehospitalizations (p = 0.317) or Emergency Department visits (p = 0.150). Pain scores on the day of surgery, postoperative day (POD) 1, POD3, and POD7 were not significantly different between cohorts (p = 0.395, 0.896, 0.844, 0.765, respectively).

CONCLUSION

The addition of patient education, acetaminophen, and naproxen to postoperative opioid prescriptions significantly reduced opioid consumption without affecting pain scores, refill rates, or complication rates after otologic surgery.

Assessing Impact: Implementing an Opioid Prescription Protocol in Otolaryngology

OBJECTIVE

A lack of guidance for pain control after otolaryngology surgery can lead to overprescription of opioids. We implemented a postoperative site-specific opioid prescription protocol and analyzed the impact on opioid prescriptions.

METHODS

This is a retrospective cohort study. A postoperative opioid prescription protocol was implemented within our otolaryngology department at a tertiary academic medical center on January 1, 2020. Retrospective chart review was completed for all patients undergoing otolaryngology surgery from November 1, 2019, to February 29, 2020 (2 months before and after initiation of intervention; n = 1070). The primary outcome was change in the amount of opioid prescribed for the preintervention and postintervention cohorts. Unplanned contact related to pain and opioid refills were tracked to assess pain control.

RESULTS

A total of 940 cases were included; adult and pediatric data were analyzed separately. There were 489 pediatric cases, 250 preintervention and 239 postintervention. There was a significant decrease in the amount of opioid prescribed per pediatric patient in the postintervention cohort (2.7 versus 0.32 morphine milligram equivalents, P = 0.02), and 99% of patients were not prescribed opioids at all. There was no significant change in unplanned contact, and no refills were required. There were 451 adult cases, 200 preintervention and 251 postintervention. There was no statistically significant decrease in the amount of opioid prescribed per adult patient (56.8 versus 51.7 morphine milligram equivalents, P = 0.23). There was no significant increase in unplanned contact or refills.

CONCLUSIONS

A postoperative opioid prescribing protocol can reduce the amount of opioid prescribed without increasing unplanned contact or opioid refills.

Acupuncture Analgesia in Patients with Postoperative Neck Pain: A Protocol for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Background. There is a yearly increase in pain after neck surgery, which is accompanied by high consumption of opioids. However, the opioid addiction epidemic is one of the most serious public health problems worldwide. Therefore, it is important to find suitable alternatives for opioids. Acupuncture therapy has been found effective for some types of pain control. This protocol aims to evaluate the efficacy and safety of acupuncture therapy in the treatment of pain after neck surgery. Methods and Analysis. We will search eight electronic databases from their inception to April 2022. Only randomized controlled trials (RCTs) using manual acupuncture, auricular acupuncture, or electroacupuncture as major therapy will be included, regardless of whether the study was published in Chinese or English. The selection of studies and data extraction will be independently completed by at least two experienced reviewers with a master's degree. The methodological quality of the included studies will be assessed by the Cochrane risk-of-bias tool. For the meta-analysis, Review Manager Statistical (RevMan V.5.3) software will be used. The results will be presented as the risk ratio (RR) for the binary data and the mean difference (MD) or standardized mean difference (SMD) for the continuous data. Ethics and Dissemination. This protocol for a systematic review will be submitted to a peer-reviewed journal for publication and presented at a relevant conference, and there is no need to obtain formal ethical approval. Trial Registration Number. PROSPERO registration number CRD42021281722.

Pain and Pain Control With Opioid and Nonopioid Medications After Otologic Surgery

OBJECTIVE

To prospectively analyze pain and pain medication use following otologic surgery.

STUDY DESIGN

Prospective cohort study with patient reported pain logs and medication use logs.

SETTING

Tertiary academic hospital.Patients: Sixty adults who underwent outpatient otologic surgeries.

INTERVENTIONS

Surveys detailing postoperative pain levels, nonopioid analgesic (NOA) use, and opioid analgesic use.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Self-reported pain scores, use of NOA, and use of opioid medications normalized as milligrams morphine equivalents (MME).

RESULTS

Thirty-two patients had surgery via a transcanal (TC) approach, and 28 patients had surgery via a postauricular (PA) approach. TC surgery had significantly lower reported pain scores than PA surgery on both postoperative day (POD) 1 (median pain score 2.2, IQR 0-5 vs. median pain score 4.8, IQR 3.4-6.3, respectively; p = 0.0013) and at POD5 (median pain score 0, IQR 0-0 vs. median pain score 2.0, IQR 0-3, respectively; p = 0.0002). Patients also used significantly fewer opioid medications with TC approach than patients who underwent PA approach at POD1 (median total MME 0, IQR 0-5 vs. median total MME 5.0, IQR 0-15, respectively; p = 0.03) and at POD5 (median total MME 0, IQR 0-0 vs. median total MME 0, IQR 0-5, respectively; p = 0.0012).

CONCLUSIONS

Surgery with a postauricular approach is associated with higher pain and opioid use following otologic surgery. Patient- and approach-specific opioid prescribing is feasible following otologic surgery.

Implementation of a Standardized Perioperative Pain Management Protocol to Reduce Opioid Prescriptions in Otolaryngologic Surgery

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the efficacy of implementing a standardized multimodal perioperative pain management protocol in reducing opioid prescriptions following otolaryngologic surgery.

STUDY DESIGN

Retrospective cohort study.

SETTING

County hospital otolaryngology practice.

METHODS

A perioperative pain management protocol was implemented in adults undergoing otolaryngologic surgery. This protocol included preoperative patient education and a postoperative multimodal pain regimen stratified by pain level: mild, intermediate, and high. Opioid prescriptions were compared between patient cohorts before and after protocol implementation. Patients in the pain protocol were surveyed regarding pain levels and opioid use.

RESULTS

We analyzed 210 patients (105 preprotocol and 105 postprotocol). Mean ± SD morphine milligram equivalents (MMEs) prescribed decreased from 132.5 ± 117.8 to 53.6 ± 63.9 (P < .05) following protocol implementation. Mean MMEs prescribed significantly decreased (P < .05) for each procedure pain tier: mild (107.4 to 40.5), intermediate (112.8 to 48.1), and high (240.4 to 105.0). Mean MMEs prescribed significantly decreased (P < .05) for each procedure type: endocrine (105.6 to 44.4), facial plastics (225.0 to 50.0), general (160.9 to 105.7), head and neck oncology (138.6 to 77.1), laryngology (53.8 to 12.5), otology (77.5 to 42.9), rhinology (142.2 to 44.4), and trauma (288.0 to 24.5). Protocol patients reported a mean 1-week postoperative pain score of 3.4, used opioids for a mean 3.1 days, and used only 39% of their prescribed opioids.

CONCLUSION

Preoperative counseling and standardization of a multimodal perioperative pain regimen for otolaryngology procedures can effectively lower amount of opioid prescriptions while maintaining low levels of postoperative pain.

Peri-Operative Pain and Opioid Use in Opioid-Naïve Patients Following Inpatient Head and Neck Surgery

Pain management is an important consideration for Head and Neck Cancer (HNC) patients as they are at an increased risk of developing chronic opioid use, which can negatively impact both quality of life and survival outcomes. This retrospective cohort study aimed to evaluate pain, opioid use and opioid prescriptions following HNC surgery. Participants included patients undergoing resection of a head and neck tumor from 2019-2020 at a single academic center with a length of admission (LOA) of at least 24 h. Exclusion criteria were a history of chronic pain, substance-use disorder, inability to tolerate multimodal analgesia or a significant post-operative complication. Subjects were compared by primary surgical site: Neck (neck dissection, thyroidectomy or parotidectomy), Mucosal (resection of tumor of upper aerodigestive tract, excluding oropharynx), Oropharyngeal (OP) and Free flap (FF). Average daily pain and total daily opioid consumption (as morphine milligram equivalents, MME) and quantity of opioids prescribed at discharge were compared. A total of 216 patients met criteria. Pain severity and daily opioid consumption were comparable across groups on post-operative day 1, but both metrics were significantly greater in the OP group on the day prior to discharge (DpDC) (5.6 (1.9-8.6), p < 0.05; 49 ± 44 MME/day, p < 0.01). The quantity of opioids prescribed at discharge was associated with opioid consumption on the DpDC only in the Mucosal and FF groups, which had longer LOA (6-7 days) than the Neck and OP groups (1 day, p < 0.001). Overall, 65% of patients required at least one dose of an opioid on the DpDC, yet 76% of patients received a prescription for an opioid medication at discharge. A longer LOA (aOR = 0.82, 95% CI: 0.63-0.98) and higher Charlson Comorbidity Index (aOR = 0.08, 95% CI: 0.01-0.48) were negatively associated with receiving an opioid prescription at the time of discharge despite no opioid use on the DpDC, respectively. HNC patients, particularly those with shorter LOA, may be prescribed opioids in excess of their post-operative needs, highlighting the need the for improved pain management algorithms in this patient population. Future work aims to use prospective surveys to better define post-operative and outpatient pain and opioid requirements following HNC surgery.

The effect of a statewide prescription drug monitoring program on opioid prescribing patterns

PURPOSE

Determine whether opioid prescribing patterns have changed as a result of implementation of a prescription drug monitoring program (PDMP) in the state of Massachusetts.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A multicentered retrospective study was performed including patients who received tonsillectomy, parotidectomy, thyroidectomy or direct laryngoscopy and biopsy with or without rigid esophagoscopy and/or rigid bronchoscopy at Lahey Hospital and Medical Center (Burlington, MA) or Boston Medical Center (Boston, MA). Opioid prescribing patterns were compared for the 12 months prior to implementation of the Massachusetts Prescription Awareness Tool (MassPAT) to 36 months of prescribing patterns post implementation. Quantity of opioids prescribed was based on morphine milligram equivalents (MME). Continuous variables were compared using analysis of variance (ANOVA) while categorical variables were compared using chi-squared test or Fisher's exact test. Multivariate analysis was performed using linear regression.

RESULTS

A total of 2281 patients were included in the study. There was a significant association in mean overall MME prescribed comparing pre-MassPAT and post-MassPAT data [tonsillectomy: 635.9 ± 175.6 vs 463.3 ± 177.7 (p < 0.0001), parotidectomy: 250.4 ± 71.33 vs 169.8 ± 79.26 (p < 0.0001), thyroidectomy: 186.2 ± 81.14 vs 118.3 ± 88.79 (p < 0.0001), direct laryngoscopy with biopsy: 308.3 ± 246.9 vs 308.3 ± 246.9 (p = 0.0201)]. There was also a significant association between length of opioid prescription (days) and implementation of MassPAT, but there was no significant difference in the percent of patients requiring refills pre- MassPAT and post-MassPAT.

CONCLUSION

This study demonstrates that prescribers have been able to significantly decrease the amount of opioids prescribed for tonsillectomy, parotidectomy, thyroidectomy, and direct laryngoscopy and biopsy and patients have not required additional opioid refills.

Adequate short- and long-term pain control with non-opiate analgesics after microdirect laryngoscopy

OBJECTIVE

In otolaryngology, it is important to minimize the use of opioids for post-operative analgesia given the rise in opioid abuse and mortality due to overdose in the United States. We sought to quantitatively determine the efficacy of non-opiate analgesia in postoperative pain management after microdirect laryngoscopy (MDL).

METHODS

This is a single institution prospective study monitoring post-operative pain using a visual analog scale (VAS, 1-10). Patients with a history of vocal fold lesions, paralysis, and stenosis who underwent MDL were surveyed for one month following their procedure (daily for the first week and weekly thereafter). Student's t-test was used to determine whether short (1 week) and long term (1 month) pain was controlled by over-the-counter (OTC) medications. We defined adequate pain control as an average daily VAS score below 4 for the first 4 days and below 1 in the following 3 weeks and hypothesized that patients would report adequate pain control without the use of opioids.

RESULTS

Post-operative pain after MDL was generally mild. The average daily VAS score was 2.16 (95% CI [0.0-5.2], P = 0.0014) in the first 4 days post-procedure and 0.28 (95% CI [0.0-1.3], P = 0.0007) in the 3 weeks post-procedure confirming our hypothesis. On average, patients used 3.14 (CI: [0.0-12.8]) pills of acetaminophen and 0.57 (CI: [0.0-4.7]) pills of an NSAID per day in the first week. Only three patients required opioid analgesia, all of whom used opioids in the first 48 h.

CONCLUSIONS

OTC analgesics provide sufficient pain control after microdirect laryngoscopy for most patients. Given the potential for substance abuse from opioid medications, this study demonstrates that adequate pain control requires, at most, 48 h of opioid medications. Further study is needed to determine factors that contribute to increased pain after laryngoscopy.

Opioid Prescribing Patterns After Skull Base Surgery for Vestibular Schwannoma

OBJECTIVE

Excessive opioid prescription is a source of prescription diversion and could contribute to chronic opioid abuse. This study describes the opioid prescribing patterns and risk factors for additional opioid prescription after surgical resection of vestibular schwannoma (VS).

STUDY DESIGN

Retrospective chart review.

SETTING

Single tertiary referral center.

PATIENTS

Adult VS patients undergoing surgical resection between May 2019 and March 2020.

INTERVENTIONS

Opioid use postoperatively and up to 60 days following surgery were characterized from medical records and by querying the state-wide Controlled Substance Utilization Review and Evaluation System.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

The presence of additional opioid prescriptions within 60 days of surgery.

RESULTS

A total of 109 patients (mean age 50 yrs, 65.5% female) were prescribed an average of 138.2 ± 117.8 mg of morphine equivalents (MME). Twenty-two (20.9%) required additional prescriptions of 163.2 ± 103.2 MME. Age, gender, tumor size, or surgical approach (translabyrinthine, retrosigmoid, versus middle fossa) were not associated with additional prescriptions. Patients with additional prescriptions had higher body mass index (BMI 28.8 vs. 25.8 kg/m2, p = 0.015) and required more opioid medications during hospitalization (51.8 vs. 29.1 MME, p = 0.002). On multivariate logistic regression, higher BMI (odds ratio [OR] 1.32; p = 0.001), history of headaches (OR 11.9, p = 0.011), and history of opioid use (OR 29.3, p = 0.008) were associated with additional prescription.

CONCLUSIONS

Additional opioid prescriptions may be necessary in a portion of VS patients undergoing surgery. The choice of surgical approach is not associated with excess opioid requirements. Patients with higher BMI, history of headaches, or preoperative opioid use may require additional prescriptions.

Are NSAIDs effective enough for postoperative pain control after functional endoscopic sinus surgery and septoplasty: A randomized controlled study

BACKGROUND

Endoscopic sinus surgery (ESS) and septoplasty are commonly performed procedures without standardized post-operative pain regimens. There is reluctance to prescribe opioids for postoperative pain given their potential for abuse. NSAIDS have been previously demonstrated to reduce or even obviate the need for opioid pain medications after otolaryngologic surgeries, but prospective validation is lacking.

METHODS

A randomized controlled study comparing the efficacy of diclofenac sodium to hydrocodone/acetaminophen (APAP) following ESS with or without septoplasty was performed. Participants were given a 100 mm visual analog pain scale (VAS) at postoperative day (POD) 1, 2, 3, and 5 following ESS. Two-sample t-tests were used to compare pain scores between groups.

RESULTS

One hundred patients enrolled, and 74 patients provided pain scores to the survey. Pain was greatest for both groups on postoperative day one. Treatment with diclofenac sodium versus hydrocodone/APAP did not statistically impact pain scores at POD 1, 2, 3, or 5. No cases of epistaxis requiring an emergency room visit or return to the operating room were noted during the study period.

CONCLUSIONS

Diclofenac sodium may be non-inferior to hydrocodone/APAP in treating pain after ESS with or without septoplasty in opioid naïve patients without preexisting pain conditions. Further studies with larger samples are warranted to investigate the potential superiority of diclofenac to hydrocodone/APAP in certain patients after ESS and septoplasty. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Opioid Usage and Pain Control in Benign Oropharyngeal Surgery: An Observational Prospective Study

OBJECTIVES

Little data is available on opioid usage in the adult population for benign oropharyngeal surgery. The objective here is to evaluate opioid prescribing patterns, opioid consumption, and patient pain patterns following benign oropharyngeal surgery, specifically tonsillectomy and adenoidectomy, tonsillectomy alone, and expansion sphincter pharyngoplasty.

METHODS

Patients aged ≥18 years old and received a tonsillectomy, tonsillectomy and adenoidectomy, or expansion sphincter pharyngoplasty between November 2019 and August 2020 were included. Patients were provided a survey which included a visual analog scale for recording their pain postoperatively and the amount of opioid they had remaining.

RESULTS

About 103 patients completed the post-operative questionnaire. Patients were prescribed 38 837 morphine milligram equivalents and used 28 644: approximately 26% went unused, which is the equivalent of 1346 5 mg oxycodone pills. Opioid consumption correlated with the initial dosage: patients consumed 12% more narcotic on average as the initial prescription went upwards by 50 morphine milligram equivalents. Obstructive sleep apnea, history of smoking, and being female predicted increased opioid usage in this cohort. Pain was reported the highest on postoperative day 1. A prescription of approximately 225 morphine milligram equivalents (150 mg oxycodone) was associated with decreased opioid use in this cohort. Larger initial prescriptions did not result in fewer requests for refills.

CONCLUSION

A significant amount of opioid medication went unused in this study. A prescription of 225 morphine milligram equivalents (or 150 mg oxycodone) provided appropriate analgesia for the majority of patients. Larger prescriptions may result in increased opioid consumption and may not reduce the amount of refills. More study is needed to confirm these findings.

Assessment of Opioid Use and Analgesic Requirements After Endoscopic Sinus Surgery: A Randomized Clinical Trial

Importance

The opioid epidemic has generated interest in optimizing opioid prescribing after common surgeries. Recent studies have shown a broad range of analgesic prescription patterns following endoscopic sinus surgery (ESS).

Objective

To compare the efficacy of different analgesic regimens after ESS.

Design, Setting, and Participants

This multi-institutional, nonblinded randomized clinical trial was conducted at 6 tertiary centers across the US and Canada and included participants who underwent ESS for acute or chronic rhinosinusitis. The study was conducted from March 2019 to March 2020, and the data were analyzed in November to December 2020.

Interventions

All participants received acetaminophen, 650 mg, as the first-line analgesic. From there, patients were randomized to either oxycodone rescue (oxycodone, 5 mg, as second-line therapy) or ibuprofen rescue (ibuprofen, 600 mg, as second-line therapy, with oxycodone, 5 mg, reserved for breakthrough pain).

Main Outcomes and Measures

Baseline characteristics and disease severity were collected at enrollment. Medication logs, pain scores, and epistaxis measures were collected until postoperative day 7. The primary outcome was the postoperative visual analog scale score for pain. Brief Pain Inventory Pain Severity and Pain Interference Scores were also collected.

Results

A total of 118 patients were randomized (62 [52.5%] oxycodone rescue, 56 [47.5%] ibuprofen rescue; mean [SD] age, 46.7 [16.3] years; 44 women [44.0%]; 83 White [83.0%], 7 Black [7.0%], and 7 Asian individuals [7.0%]). After exclusions for loss to follow-up and noncompliance, 51 remained in the oxycodone rescue group and 49 in the ibuprofen rescue group. The groups had similar demographic characteristics and disease severity. Thirty-two (63%) in the oxycodone rescue group had adequate pain management with acetaminophen only, while 19 (37%) consumed at least 1 oxycodone dose. In the ibuprofen rescue group, 18 (16%) required only acetaminophen, 28 (57%) used only acetaminophen and ibuprofen, and the remaining 13 (26%) consumed 1 or more oxycodone doses. The groups had similar average acetaminophen (9.69 vs 7.96 doses; difference, 1.73; 95% CI, -1.37 to 4.83) and oxycodone (1.89 vs 0.77 doses; difference, 1.13; 95% CI, -0.11 to 2.36) use. Both groups had similar postoperative visual analog scale scores. A subanalysis that compared opioids users with nonusers showed clinically significant lower pain scores in nonusers at multiple postoperative points.

Conclusions and Relevance

In this randomized clinical trial, most patients who underwent ESS could be treated postoperatively using a nonopioid regimen of either acetaminophen alone or acetaminophen and ibuprofen. Ibuprofen as a second-line therapy did not reduce overall narcotic consumption, but the overall narcotic use was low in both groups.

Trial Registration

ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT03783702.

Are Opioids Necessary in Middle Ear Surgery? Comparing the Transcanal and Postauricular Approach

OBJECTIVE

Understand opioid-prescribing patterns in otologic surgery and the difference in opioid use between transcanal and postauricular surgery.

STUDY DESIGN

Prospective survey.

SETTING

Multihospital network.

PATIENTS

All patients undergoing otologic surgery from March 2017 to January 2019.

INTERVENTION

Patients undergoing otologic surgery were surveyed regarding postoperative opioid use and their level of pain control. Patients were divided by surgical approach (transcanal vs. postauricular). Those who underwent mastoid drilling were excluded. Narcotic amounts were converted to milligram morphine equivalents (MME) for analysis.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Amount of opioid was calculated and compared between the two groups. Mann-Whitney U test and Chi-square testing were used for analysis.

RESULTS

Fifty-five patients were included in the analysis; of these 18 (33%) had a postauricular incision. There was no difference in age (p = 0.85) or gender (p = 0.5) between the two groups. The mean amount of opioid prescribed (MME) in the postauricular and transcanal groups was 206.4 and 143 (p = 0.038) while the mean amount used was 37.7 and 37.5 (p = 0.29) respectively. There was no difference in percentage of opioid used (p = 0.44) or in patient-reported level of pain control (p = 0.49) between the two groups.

CONCLUSION

Patients in both the transcanal and postauricular groups used only a small portion of their prescribed opioid. There was no difference in the amount of opioid used or the patient's reported level of pain control based on the approach. Otologic surgeons should be aware of these factors to reduce narcotic diversion after ear surgery.

American Rhinologic Society expert practice statement: Postoperative pain management and opioid use after sinonasal surgery

The goal of this American Rhinologic Society expert practice statement (EPS) is to provide clinically applicable, evidence-based recommendations regarding pain management in sinonasal surgery. This EPS was developed following the recommended methodology and approval process as previously outlined. The topics of interest included preoperative counseling, local anesthesia, use of opioids for postoperative pain, use of nonopioid medication for postoperative pain, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and bleeding, and use of gabapentin for pain control. Following a modified Delphi approach, 6 statements were developed, 5 of which reached consensus and 1 that did not. These statements and accompanying evidence are summarized along with an assessment of future needs.

Reducing opioid use in post-operative otolaryngology patients: A quality improvement project

PURPOSE

In opioid-naive patients, many low-risk surgical procedures are associated with an increased risk of chronic opioid use. The goal of this quality improvement project was to reduce the amount of opioid prescriptions after commonly performed surgeries in otolaryngology.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Pre-intervention opioid prescribing state was measured using anonymous provider and patient surveys, as well as pharmacy provider prescription data. Next, this information was used to develop an opioid prescription protocol that both standardized opioid prescribing practices and encouraged multimodal analgesia following routine surgery. Finally, post-intervention data were gathered and compared to pre-intervention data to assess changes in prescribing patterns.

RESULTS

By patient survey, the worst pain and average pain after surgery (scale of 1-10) were unchanged after the intervention (5.1 to 4.8, p = 0.52; 4.1 to 3.6, p = 0.35, respectively). Post-intervention, 41% of patients reported receiving no opiates, whereas pre-intervention 100% of patients surveyed received opiates. The amount of ibuprofen and acetaminophen prescribed post-intervention increased 113% and 71%, respectively. By survey, the average number of opioid doses decreased from 24.0 ± 7.0 to 18.4 ± 6.6 (p = 0.018).

CONCLUSIONS

The implementation of a standardized physician opioid prescription protocol did not affect patient pain perceptions, resulted in an increase in multimodal analgesia prescription, and increased provider awareness of opioid over prescription.

Clinical Practice Guideline: Opioid Prescribing for Analgesia After Common Otolaryngology Operations Executive Summary

OBJECTIVE

Opioid use disorder (OUD), which includes the morbidity of dependence and mortality of overdose, has reached epidemic proportions in the United States. Overprescription of opioids can lead to chronic use and misuse, and unused narcotics after surgery can lead to their diversion. Research supports that most patients do not take all the prescribed opioids after surgery and that surgeons are the second largest prescribers of opioids in the United States. The introduction of opioids in those with OUD often begins with prescription opioids. Reducing the number of extra opioids available after surgery through smaller prescriptions, safe storage, and disposal should reduce the risk of opioid use disorder in otolaryngology patients and their families.

PURPOSE

The purpose of this specialty-specific guideline is to identify quality improvement opportunities in postoperative pain management of common otolaryngologic surgical procedures. These opportunities are communicated through clear actionable statements with explanation of the support in the literature, evaluation of the quality of the evidence, and recommendations on implementation. Employing these action statements should reduce the variation in care across the specialty and improve postoperative pain control while reducing risk of OUD. The target patients for the guideline are any patients treated for anticipated or reported pain within the first 30 days after undergoing common otolaryngologic procedures. The target audience of the guideline is otolaryngologists who perform surgery and clinicians who manage pain after surgical procedures. Outcomes to be considered include whether the patient has stopped using opioids, has disposed of unused opioids, and was satisfied with the pain management plan.The guideline addresses assessment of the patient for OUD risk factors, counseling on pain expectations, and identifying factors that can affect pain duration and/or severity. It also discusses the use of multimodal analgesia as first-line treatment and the responsible use of opioids. Last, safe disposal of unused opioids is discussed.This guideline is intended to focus on evidence-based quality improvement opportunities judged most important by the guideline development group. It is not a comprehensive guide on pain management in otolaryngologic procedures. The statements in this guideline are not intended to limit or restrict care provided by clinicians based on their experiences and assessments of individual patients.

ACTION STATEMENTS

The guideline development group made strong recommendations for the following key action statements: (3A) prior to surgery, clinicians should identify risk factors for opioid use disorder when analgesia using opioids is anticipated; (6) clinicians should advocate for nonopioid medications as first-line management of pain after otolaryngologic surgery; (9) clinicians should recommend that patients (or their caregivers) store prescribed opioids securely and dispose of unused opioids through take-back programs or another accepted method.The guideline development group made recommendations for the following key action statements: (1) prior to surgery, clinicians should advise patients and others involved in the postoperative care about the expected duration and severity of pain; (2) prior to surgery, clinicians should gather information specific to the patient that modifies severity and/or duration of pain; (3B) in patients at risk for OUD, clinicians should evaluate the need to modify the analgesia plan; (4) clinicians should promote shared decision making by informing patients of the benefits and risks of postoperative pain treatments that include nonopioid analgesics, opioid analgesics, and nonpharmacologic interventions; (5) clinicians should develop a multimodal treatment plan for managing postoperative pain; (7) when treating postoperative pain with opioids, clinicians should limit therapy to the lowest effective dose and the shortest duration; (8A) clinicians should instruct patients and caregivers how to communicate if pain is not controlled or if medication side effects occur; (8B) clinicians should educate patients to stop opioids when pain is controlled with nonopioids and stop all analgesics when pain has resolved; (10) clinicians should inquire, within 30 days of surgery, whether the patient has stopped using opioids, has disposed of unused opioids, and was satisfied with the pain management plan.

Postoperative Opioid-Prescribing Practices in Nasal Surgery: A Prospective Study

Importance: There has been a greater awareness of the opioid epidemic. Studies are needed to better characterize opioid usage after outpatient nasal surgery. Objective: Provide data to guide prescription management for nasal procedures and investigate opioid prescription and subsequent consumption, with the aim of offering analysis to build evidence-based guidelines for postoperative pain management. Design, Setting, and Participants: In this prospective single-center study, morphine milligram equivalents (MME) consumption and pain scores were collected in 69 patients who underwent nasal surgery. Main Measures and Outcomes: Patient demographics, MME use, and pain scores were examined. MME use was compared with patient demographics, surgical procedure type, and postoperative pain scores. Results: In total, 3302 MME were prescribed: 2012 MME (61%) were used, leaving 1290 MME (39%). Patients were prescribed a total average of 47.8 ± 24.0 MME. Four (6%) patients required a second prescription. History of opioid use, benzodiazepine use, and obesity were negative predictors of opioid consumption (p ≤ 0.001). Conclusion and Relevance: Assessing opioid consumption for nasal procedures will guide prescribing practices. Our results indicate that prescription practices can likely be down titrated in patients with a history of certain medication consumption.

Clinical Practice Guideline: Opioid Prescribing for Analgesia After Common Otolaryngology Operations

OBJECTIVE

Opioid use disorder (OUD), which includes the morbidity of dependence and mortality of overdose, has reached epidemic proportions in the United States. Overprescription of opioids can lead to chronic use and misuse, and unused narcotics after surgery can lead to their diversion. Research supports that most patients do not take all the prescribed opioids after surgery and that surgeons are the second largest prescribers of opioids in the United States. The introduction of opioids in those with OUD often begins with prescription opioids. Reducing the number of extra opioids available after surgery through smaller prescriptions, safe storage, and disposal should reduce the risk of opioid use disorder in otolaryngology patients and their families.

PURPOSE

The purpose of this specialty-specific guideline is to identify quality improvement opportunities in postoperative pain management of common otolaryngologic surgical procedures. These opportunities are communicated through clear actionable statements with explanation of the support in the literature, evaluation of the quality of the evidence, and recommendations on implementation. Employing these action statements should reduce the variation in care across the specialty and improve postoperative pain control while reducing risk of OUD. The target patients for the guideline are any patients treated for anticipated or reported pain within the first 30 days after undergoing common otolaryngologic procedures. The target audience of the guideline is otolaryngologists who perform surgery and clinicians who manage pain after surgical procedures. Outcomes to be considered include whether the patient has stopped using opioids, has disposed of unused opioids, and was satisfied with the pain management plan.The guideline addresses assessment of the patient for OUD risk factors, counseling on pain expectations, and identifying factors that can affect pain duration and/or severity. It also discusses the use of multimodal analgesia as first-line treatment and the responsible use of opioids. Last, safe disposal of unused opioids is discussed.This guideline is intended to focus on evidence-based quality improvement opportunities judged most important by the guideline development group. It is not a comprehensive guide on pain management in otolaryngologic procedures. The statements in this guideline are not intended to limit or restrict care provided by clinicians based on their experiences and assessments of individual patients.

ACTION STATEMENTS

The guideline development group made strong recommendations for the following key action statements: (3A) prior to surgery, clinicians should identify risk factors for opioid use disorder when analgesia using opioids is anticipated; (6) clinicians should advocate for nonopioid medications as first-line management of pain after otolaryngologic surgery; (9) clinicians should recommend that patients (or their caregivers) store prescribed opioids securely and dispose of unused opioids through take-back programs or another accepted method.The guideline development group made recommendations for the following key action statements: (1) prior to surgery, clinicians should advise patients and others involved in the postoperative care about the expected duration and severity of pain; (2) prior to surgery, clinicians should gather information specific to the patient that modifies severity and/or duration of pain; (3B) in patients at risk for OUD, clinicians should evaluate the need to modify the analgesia plan; (4) clinicians should promote shared decision making by informing patients of the benefits and risks of postoperative pain treatments that include nonopioid analgesics, opioid analgesics, and nonpharmacologic interventions; (5) clinicians should develop a multimodal treatment plan for managing postoperative pain; (7) when treating postoperative pain with opioids, clinicians should limit therapy to the lowest effective dose and the shortest duration; (8A) clinicians should instruct patients and caregivers how to communicate if pain is not controlled or if medication side effects occur; (8B) clinicians should educate patients to stop opioids when pain is controlled with nonopioids and stop all analgesics when pain has resolved; (10) clinicians should inquire, within 30 days of surgery, whether the patient has stopped using opioids, has disposed of unused opioids, and was satisfied with the pain management plan.

Perioperative pain management and opioid-reduction in head and neck endocrine surgery: An American Head and Neck Society Endocrine Surgery Section consensus statement

BACKGROUND

This American Head and Neck Society (AHNS) consensus statement focuses on evidence-based comprehensive pain management practices for thyroid and parathyroid surgery. Overutilization of opioids for postoperative pain management is a major contributing factor to the opioid addiction epidemic however evidence-based guidelines for pain management after routine head and neck endocrine procedures are lacking.

METHODS

An expert panel was convened from the membership of the AHNS, its Endocrine Surgical Section, and ThyCa. An extensive literature review was performed, and recommendations addressing several pain management subtopics were constructed based on best available evidence. A modified Delphi survey was then utilized to evaluate group consensus of these statements.

CONCLUSIONS

This expert consensus provides evidence-based recommendations for effective postoperative pain management following head and neck endocrine procedures with a focus on limiting unnecessary use of opioid analgesics.

Comparison of Opioid Prescription Patterns and Consumption Following Otologic Surgery

OBJECTIVE

To examine opioid prescribing patterns and consumption among patients undergoing common otologic surgeries.

STUDY DESIGN

Retrospective cohort study with chart review and telephone survey.

SETTING

Tertiary academic medical center.

METHODS

Retrospective chart review and telephone survey of those undergoing tympanoplasty, tympanomastoidectomy, stapedectomy, and cochlear implantation in 2018. The survey consisted of questions regarding the details of the number of pills taken, duration of opioid use, subjective pain control, the use of over-the-counter pain medications, opioid disposal, and their history of substance abuse.

RESULTS

Sixty-one patients were able to be contacted and agreed to participate in the study. Fifty-nine (96.7%) stated that their pain was controlled, and 10 (16.4%) did not take any opioids postoperatively despite their prescription. The mean morphine milligram equivalent (MME) prescribed was 99.9 (44.3) and MME taken was 45.2 (SD 46.3) (p < 0.001). Similarly, the mean number of pills prescribed was 17.8 (SD 8.6) and mean taken was 7.9 (SD 8.3) (p < 0.001). Comparison between males and females regarding MME and pills prescribed and taken were not statistically significantly different (p > 0.05). Analysis of the MME and pills prescribed and taken among the different surgeries (tympanoplasty, stapes surgery, tympanomastoidectomy, and cochlear implantation) revealed no statistically significant interactions (p > 0.05). Pain control was achieved for 50% of patients with 5 pills (MME = 25 mg), for 75% with 12 pills (MME = 60 mg), and for 90% with 24 pills (MME = 135 mg).

CONCLUSION

The opioid epidemic continues to be an ongoing issue in the United States, and prescription opioid abuse is a large contributor. There is increasing literature to suggest a practice of overprescribing in multiple surgical specialties. This same finding appears to be present in common otologic surgeries, where on average patients took less than half of the prescribed MME/pills, and 75% of patients had their pain controlled with 12 pills or fewer. Otolaryngologists performing otologic surgery should strongly consider adjusting their postoperative regimens to reflect these findings.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

2b.

Postoperative Opioid Pain Medication Usage Following Adult Tonsillectomy

INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this study was to determine if short-term, high-quantity opioid use following adult tonsillectomy in active duty military members results in opioid misuse, using a proxy measure of referrals to substance abuse rehabilitation programs.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

An Institutional Review Board-approved retrospective chart review was performed of 741 active duty patients who underwent tonsillectomy between 2012 and 2017. Data collection included preoperative medications within 60 days of surgery, all postoperative opioid prescriptions up to 12 months following surgery, and referrals to substance abuse rehabilitation within a year of surgery.

RESULTS

Out of 741 patients, 658 met inclusion criteria. Fifty-one percent were women and the average age was 26 years. Fifty-nine percent of patients received 5 mg/325 mg oxycodone/acetaminophen as their initial postoperative pain medication. The average number of opioid tablets prescribed was 70 ± 18. Ninety three percent of patients received at least 60 tabs. The refill rate within 30 days of tonsillectomy was 38.6%. In the year following surgery, 25.4% of patients received additional doses of outpatient opioids for other indications. Nineteen patients (2.9%) were referred for substance abuse treatment within 1 year of tonsillectomy: seventeen for alcohol abuse, one for marijuana, and one for alcohol/marijuana. There were no referrals for opiate misuse or abuse.

CONCLUSION

Short-term, high-quantity opioid treatment of post-tonsillectomy pain in active duty adults does not result in long-term opioid misuse, as measured by substance abuse treatment program referrals within a year after surgery. This finding supports the appropriateness of adequate short-term narcotic medication treatment. The long-term readiness of these patients appears unaffected by long-term opioid misuse or abuse. Even with this finding, there is an institutional shift to multi-modality pain management and appropriate opioid reduction to further mitigate the risk of opioid misuse. Extrapolation of these findings to all adult tonsillectomy patients should be done with caution, as there are several protective factors in the active duty population such as stable full-time employment with mandatory random drug screening.

Opioid Prescribing Patterns After Head and Neck Surgery

OBJECTIVE

Postoperative prescription narcotics increase access to opioids and associated abuse among patients, family, and acquaintances. Judicious opioid stewardship is required. Best practice questions remain for larger head and neck surgeries. We aim to review opioid utilization patterns in an urban patient population to identify patients at risk for poor postoperative pain control.

STUDY DESIGN

Case series with planned chart review for patients undergoing head and neck surgery (2015-2018).

SETTING

Single urban hospital.

METHODS

Outcome measures included postoperative phone calls and emergency room visits as markers for inadequate pain control. Age, sex, race, body mass index (BMI), smoking status, comorbidities, prior narcotic filling behavior, surgery type, and duration were evaluated as potential risk factors for pain control. Chi-square and Wilcoxon tests were used for group comparisons.

RESULTS

In total, 215 patients met inclusion criteria: male (22%), white/Hispanic (47%), and African American (44%). Median BMI was 31.6 kg/m²; median age was 52 years. Surgeries included total thyroidectomy (41%), hemithyroidectomy (27%), and parathyroidectomy (15%). The 23-hour observation patients (n = 175, 81%) had a median of 20 morphine milligram equivalents (MMEs). Sixteen patients experienced inadequate pain control. Female sex (P = .03), younger age (P = .02), current smoker (P = .03), and higher inpatient MME (P = .006) were associated with inadequate pain control.

CONCLUSION

Female sex, younger age, smokers, and high inpatient opioid dose requirements are associated with inadequately controlled pain. These patients may benefit from additional education, earlier postoperative visits, and a more comprehensive nonopioid regimen.

National Trends in Opioid Prescriptions Following Outpatient Otologic Surgery, 2005-2017

OBJECTIVE

To describe opioid stewardship in ambulatory otologic surgery from 2005 to 2017.

STUDY DESIGN

Descriptive study of US private insurance claims.

SETTING

Nationwide deidentified private insurance claims database (Clinformatics DataMart; Optum).

METHODS

A total of 17,431 adult opioid-naïve outpatients were included in the study. Patients were identified from CPT-4 codes (Current Procedural Terminology, Fourth Edition) as having undergone middle ear or mastoid surgery. Multiple regression was used to determine sociodemographic and geographic predictors of postoperative morphine milligram equivalents (MMEs) prescribed, including procedure type, year of procedure, age, sex, education, income level, and geographic region of the United States.

RESULTS

The mean prescribed perioperative dose over the examined period was 203.03 MMEs (95% CI, 200.27-205.79; 5-mg hydrocodone pill equivalents, 40.61). In multivariate analysis, patients undergoing mastoid surgery were prescribed more opioids than those undergoing middle ear surgery (mean difference, 39.89 MME [95% CI, 34.37-45.41], P < .01; 5-mg hydrocodone pill equivalents, 8.0). Men were prescribed higher doses than women (mean difference, 15.39 [95% CI, 9.87-20.90], P < .01; 5-mg hydrocodone pill equivalents, 3.1). Overall MMEs prescribed by year demonstrates a sharp drop in MMEs from 2015 to 2017.

CONCLUSION

While the amount of opioids prescribed perioperatively has declined in recent years, otologists should continue to be cognizant of potential overprescribing in light of previous studies of patients' relatively low opioid intake.

The Impact of MassPAT on Opioid Prescribing Patterns for Otolaryngology Surgeries

OBJECTIVE

Determine whether opioid prescriber patterns have changed for tonsillectomy, parotidectomy, and thyroidectomy after implementation of the Massachusetts Prescription Awareness Tool (MassPAT).

STUDY DESIGN

Retrospective cohort study.

SETTING

Single-center tertiary care hospital.

METHODS

Patients were included if they received tonsillectomy, parotidectomy, or thyroid surgery at Lahey Hospital and Medical Center (Burlington, Massachusetts) between October 1, 2015, and October 1, 2019. Prescribing patterns were compared prior to implementation of MassPAT, October 1, 2015, to October 14, 2016, to postimplementation of MassPAT, October 15, 2016, to October 1, 2019. Quantity of opioids prescribed was described using total morphine milligram equivalents (MME). Data were analyzed using univariate analysis, multivariate analysis, and trend line using line of best fit.

RESULTS

A total of 737 subjects were included in the study. There was a downward trend in the quantity of opioids prescribed for all 3 surgeries during the study period. There was a significant difference in the quantity of opioids prescribed pre- and postimplementation of MassPAT for tonsillectomy (647.70 ± 218.50 MME vs 474.60 ± 185.90 MME, P < .001), parotidectomy (241.20 ± 57.66 MME vs 156.70 ± 72.99 MME, P < .001), and thyroidectomy (171.20 ± 93.77 MME vs 108.50 ± 63.84 MME, P < .001). There was also a decrease in the number of patients who did not receive opioids for thyroidectomy pre- and post-MassPAT (7.56% vs 24.14%).

CONCLUSION

We have demonstrated that there is an association with state drug monitoring programs and decrease in the amount of opioids prescribed for acute postoperative pain control for common otolaryngology surgeries.

Chronic opioid use after laryngeal cancer treatment

BACKGROUND

Survivors of head and neck cancer may be at increased risk for chronic opioid use and questions remain about risk factors.

METHODS

Retrospective study of patients with laryngeal cancer prescribed opioids utilizing the Truven Health Marketscan database. Patients had laryngeal cancer, underwent treatment, filled an opioid prescription, and were enrolled in this private insurance plan 1 year prior to and after treatment.

RESULTS

In this study, 7484 patients were included; 17.2% developed chronic opioid use, defined as consecutive opioid fills at least 90 days after treatment cessation. Early opioid use (OR = 3.607, 95% CI [3.125-4.163]), tobacco use (OR = 1.28, 95% CI [1.117-1.467]), median morphine milligram equivalent (MME; OR = 1.001, 95% CI [1.000-1.0001]), and radiation alone (OR = 1.435, 95% CI [1.199-1.717]) were predictive of chronic opioid use.

CONCLUSIONS

Nearly one in five patients prescribed opioids during treatment developed chronic use. Providers should discuss the risk of chronic opioid use, set expectations for opioid weaning, and consider adjunct pain regimens to develop effective pain management strategies.

Opioid Usage and Prescribing Predictors Following Transoral Robotic Surgery for Oropharyngeal Cancer

OBJECTIVE/HYPOTHESIS

Pain management following transoral robotic surgery (TORS) varies widely. We aim to quantify opioid usage following TORS for oropharyngeal squamous cell carcinoma (OPSCC) and identify prescribing predictors.

STUDY DESIGN

Retrospective cohort study.

METHODS

A consecutive series of 138 patients undergoing TORS for OPSCC were reviewed from 2016 to 2019. Opioid usage (standardized to morphine milligram equivalents [MME]) was gathered for 12 months post-surgery via prescribing record cross-check with the Massachusetts Prescription Awareness Tool.

RESULTS

Of 138 OPSCC TORS patients, 92.8% were human papillomavirus (HPV) positive. Adjuvant therapy included radiation (XRT;67.4%) and chemoradiation (cXRT;6.5%). Total MME usage from start of treatment averaged 1395.7 MMEs with 76.4% receiving three prescriptions or less. Categorical analysis showed age <65, male sex, overweight BMI, lower frailty, former smokers, HPV+, higher T stage, and BOT subsite to be associated with increased MMEs. Adjuvant therapy significantly increased MMEs (TORS+XRT:1646.2; TORS+cXRT:2385.0; TORS alone:554.7 [P < .001]) and 12-month opioid prescription totals (TORS+XRT:3.2; TORS+cXRT:5.5; TORS alone:1.6 [P < .001]). Adjuvant therapy increased time to taper (total MME in TORS alone versus TORS+XRT/cXRT: 0 to 3 months:428.2 versus 845.5, 4 to 6 months:46.8 versus 541.8, 7 to 9 months:12.4 versus 178.6, 10 to 12 months:11.0 versus 4.4,[P < .001]). Positive predictors of opioid prescribing at the 4- to 6-month and 4- to 12-month intervals included adjuvant therapy (odds ratio [OR]:5.56 and 4.51) and mFI-5 score ≥3 (OR:36.67 and 31.94). Following TORS at 6-, 9-, and 12-month, 15.7%, 6.6%, and 4.1% were still using opioids.

CONCLUSIONS

In OPSCC treated with TORS, opioid use tapers faster for surgery alone versus with adjuvant therapy. Opioid prescribing risks include adjuvant therapy and higher frailty index.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

4 Laryngoscope, 131:E1888-E1894, 2021.

Feasibility of Implementing Opioid Stewardship Recommendations for Sinonasal Surgery

OBJECTIVE

The objective of our study was to review the current literature pertaining to perioperative opioids in sinus surgery and to determine the effects of implementing opioid stewardship recommendations in the setting of endoscopic sinonasal surgery.

STUDY DESIGN

Single-institution retrospective case-control study.

SETTING

Academic medical center outpatient area.

METHODS

This retrospective review comprised 163 patients who underwent routine functional endoscopic sinus surgery, septoplasty, and/or inferior turbinate reduction before and after implementation of a standardized pain control regimen based on published opioid stewardship recommendations. The regimen consisted of an oral dose of gabapentin (400 mg) and acetaminophen (1000 mg) at least 30 minutes prior to surgery, absorbable nasal packing soaked in 0.5% tetracaine intraoperatively, and a postoperative regimen of acetaminophen and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory medications. Tramadol tablets (50 mg) were prescribed postoperatively for breakthrough pain. The primary outcome measure for the study was the average number of hydrocodone equivalents (5 mg) prescribed before and after the new protocol.

RESULTS

The average number of opioid medications prescribed, measured as hydrocodone equivalents (5 mg), decreased from 24.59 preprotocol to 18.08 after the initiation of the new perioperative regimen (P < .001). There was no significant difference between the periods (P > .05) in number of postoperative phone calls regarding pain or in patient satisfaction scores.

CONCLUSION

Opioid stewardship recommendations can be instituted for sinonasal surgery, including multimodal perioperative pain management and substitution of tramadol for breakthrough pain, as a method to decrease the volume of opioids prescribed, without increasing patient phone calls or affecting the likelihood of physician recommendation Press Ganey scores.

Opioid Prescribing Patterns Following Pediatric Tonsillectomy in the United States, 2009-2017

OBJECTIVES

Assess national trends in opioid prescription following pediatric tonsillectomy: 1) overall percentage receiving opioids and mean quantity, 2) changes during 2009-2017, and 3) determinants of prescription patterns.

METHODS

Cross-sectional analysis using 2009-2017 Optum claims data to identify opioid-naïve children aged 1-18 with claims codes for tonsillectomy (n = 82,842). Quantities of opioids filled in outpatient pharmacies during the perioperative period were extracted and converted into milligram morphine equivalents (MMEs) for statistical comparison. Demographic, clinical, and socioeconomic predictors of opioid fill rate and quantity were determined using regression analyses.

RESULTS

In 2009, 83.3% of children received opioids, decreasing to 58.3% by 2017. Rates of all-cause readmissions and post-tonsillectomy hemorrhages were similar over time. Mean quantity received was 153.47MME (95% confidence intervals [95%CI]: 151.19, 155.76) and did not significantly change during 2009-2017. Opioids were more likely in older children and those with higher household income, but less likely in children with obstructive sleep apnea, other comorbidities, and Hispanic race. Higher quantities of opioids were more likely in older children, while lower quantities were associated with female sex, Hispanic race, and higher household income. Outpatient steroids were prescribed to 8.04% of patients, who were less likely to receive opioids.

CONCLUSION

While the percentage of children receiving post-tonsillectomy opioids decreased during 2009-2017, prescribed quantities remain high and have not decreased over time. Prescription practices were also influenced by clinical and sociodemographic factors. These results highlight the need for guidance, particularly with regard to opioid quantity, in children after tonsillectomy.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

N/A Laryngoscope, 131:E1722-E1729, 2021.

Opioid Prescribing in Patients Undergoing Neck Dissections With Short Hospitalizations

Objective

To evaluate postoperative opioid prescribing in patients undergoing neck dissections with short hospitalizations.

Study Design

Retrospective cohort study.

Setting

Tertiary academic hospital.

Methods

The study population included patients who underwent lateral neck dissections with or without an associated head and neck procedure and required hospitalization for ≤3 days from 2012 to 2019. Interventions to decrease opioid utilization, including preoperative counseling, multimodality pain management, and multidisciplinary collaboration, were implemented in September 2016. Patients were divided into 2 groups: preintervention (group 1) and postintervention (group 2). The mean quantity of opioids prescribed during hospitalization, at discharge, and in refills was calculated in morphine milligram equivalents (MME).

Results

A total of 407 patients were included in the analysis: 223 patients in group 1 and 184 patients in group 2 (42.3% female, 89.4% white; average age, 55.2 years [95% CI, 53.6-56.9]). The mean opioid quantity prescribed in unilateral neck dissection alone decreased from 353.9 MME (95% CI, 266.7-441.2) in group 1 to 113.3 MME (95% CI, 87.8-138.7) in group 2 ( P < .001; effect size, 1.0). Statistically significant decreases in mean opioid quantity prescribed were also observed in unilateral neck dissection in combination with thyroidectomy, parotidectomy, glossectomy, or tonsillectomy. The percentage of patients requiring opioid prescription refills was not statistically different between the groups.

Conclusion

This study demonstrates that the quantity of opioids prescribed in patients undergoing neck dissections and associated head and neck procedures with short hospitalizations can be reduced to as low as 100 to 125 MME with preoperative counseling, multimodality pain management, and multidisciplinary collaboration.

Postoperative Analgesia Protocol: A Resident-Led Effort to Standardize Opioid Prescribing Patterns

OBJECTIVES

The combined impact of variable surgeon prescribing preferences and low resident prescribing comfort level can lead to significant disparity in opioid prescribing patterns for the same surgery in the same academic surgical practice. We report the results of a resident led initiative to standardize postoperative prescription practices within the Department of Otolaryngology at a single tertiary-care academic hospital in order to reduce overall opioid distribution.

STUDY DESIGN

Retrospective cohort study.

METHODS

Following approval by the Institutional Review Board, performed a retrospective review of 12 months before (July 2016-June 2017) and after (July 2017-June 2018) implementation of the Postoperative Analgesia Protocol, which included all adults undergoing tonsillectomy, septoplasty, thyroidectomy, parathyroidectomy, tympanoplasty, middle ear exploration, stapedectomy, and ossicular chain reconstruction.

RESULTS

Seven hundred and thirty eight procedures met inclusion criteria. Following implementation, total morphine milligram equivalents decreased by 26% (P < .0001). The number of patients requiring opioid refills decreased by 49%, and morphine milligram equivalents received as refills decreased by 16% (P < .001). Thyroid and parathyroid surgery had the greatest reduction in morphine milligram equivalents prescribed (84%, P < .001), followed by septoplasty (30%, P = .001) and tonsillectomy (18%, P < .001). The number of patients receiving refills of opioid medications decreased for all procedures (tonsillectomy 54%; septoplasty 67%; thyroid/parathyroid surgery 80%, middle ear surgery 100%).

CONCLUSIONS

While every patient and surgery must be treated individually, this study demonstrates that a resident led standardization of pain control regimes can result in significant reductions in total quantity of opioids prescribed.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

IV Laryngoscope, 131:982-988, 2021.

Nonopioid, Multimodal Analgesia as First-line Therapy After Otolaryngology Operations: Primer on Nonsteroidal Anti-inflammatory Drugs (NSAIDs)

OBJECTIVE

To offer pragmatic, evidence-informed advice on nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) as first-line therapy after surgery. This companion to the American Academy of Otolaryngology-Head & Neck Surgery (AAO-HNS) clinical practice guideline (CPG), "Opioid Prescribing for Analgesia After Common Otolaryngology Operations," presents data on potency, bleeding risk, and adverse effects for ibuprofen, naproxen, ketorolac, meloxicam, and celecoxib.

DATA SOURCES

National Guidelines Clearinghouse, CMA Infobase, National Library of Guidelines, NICE, SIGN, New Zealand Guidelines Group, Australian National Health and Medical, Research Council, TRIP database, PubMed, Guidelines International Network, Cochrane Library, EMBASE, CINAHL, BIOSIS Previews, ISI Web of Science, AHRQ, and HSTAT.

REVIEW METHODS

AAO-HNS opioid CPG literature search strategy, supplemented by PubMed/MEDLINE searches on NSAIDs, emphasizing systematic reviews and randomized controlled trials.

CONCLUSION

NSAIDs provide highly effective analgesia for postoperative pain, particularly when combined with acetaminophen. Inconsistent use of nonopioid regimens arises from common misconceptions that NSAIDs are less potent analgesics than opioids and have an unacceptable risk of bleeding. To the contrary, multimodal analgesia (combining 500 mg acetaminophen and 200 mg ibuprofen) is significantly more effective analgesia than opioid regimens (15 mg oxycodone with acetaminophen). Furthermore, selective cyclooxygenase-2 inhibition reliably circumvents antiplatelet effects.

IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE

The combination of NSAIDs and acetaminophen provides more effective postoperative pain control with greater safety than opioid-based regimens. The AAO-HNS opioid prescribing CPG therefore prioritizes multimodal, nonopioid analgesia as first-line therapy, recommending that opioids be reserved for severe or refractory pain. This state-of-the-art review provides strategies for safely incorporating NSAIDs into acute postoperative pain regimens.

Perioperative Analgesia for Sinus and Skull-Base Surgery

Perioperative analgesic management is multifaceted, and an individualized approach should be taken with each patient. Preoperative discussion of the plan for pain control and the patient's postoperative expectations is a necessary facet for optimal outcomes of analgesia. There is the potential for significant abuse and development of dependence on opioids. Nonopioids, such as nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, acetaminophen, and gabapentinoids, provide reliable alternatives for analgesic management following sinus and skull-base surgery. There is a paucity of literature regarding perioperative pain regimens for sinus and skull-base surgery, and the authors hope that this review serves as a valuable tool for otolaryngologists.

Acute Pain Management Following Head and Neck Surgery

Acute pain management following major head and neck (HN) surgery is complex. Multimodal analgesia (MMA) regimens including acetaminophen, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, gabapentinoids, and locoregional anesthetics are safe and effective in this population (including patients undergoing HN free flap surgery). Special considerations for patients undergoing HN free flap surgery include judicious use of steroids and attention to donor site pain. Evidence for specific analgesic regimens following transoral robotic surgery is limited but should include MMA and perioperative dexamethasone. Further study is required to optimize combinations, dosages, and duration of perioperative analgesia medications, opioid and nonopioid, for patients undergoing major HN surgery.

Management of postoperative pain in ophthalmic plastic surgery: a major review

PURPOSE

Clinicians are becoming increasingly aware of the risks of opioid analgesics, and, consequently, are searching for alternatives to these agents. This review considers the existing literature regarding the management of pain after ophthalmic plastic surgery.

METHODS

A literature search was performed through the PubMed database. Articles were assessed for relevance, and the appropriate data was extracted from the medical literature regarding pain management strategies after oculoplastic procedures.

RESULTS

An emerging body of literature suggests the efficacy of a variety of non-narcotic agents in post-operative pain management. Many of these medications prevent the development of pain, and several have been studied in randomized trials. Specifically, pregabalin, ketorolac, acetaminophen, memantine, local anesthetics, and alternative therapies all have documented benefit in this setting.

CONCLUSIONS

Several medications may prevent and treat pain after ophthalmic plastic surgery. These agents are well-tolerated, and many decrease the requirement for opioid analgesics. Clinicians should be aware of these therapies when considering non-narcotic pain management.

Pain and Opioid Analgesic Use After Otorhinolaryngologic Surgery

Objective

To quantify pain and opioid use after otorhinolaryngologic surgery. To determine the effect of patient and surgical factors on primary outcomes.

Study Design

Prospective cohort.

Setting

Tertiary academic hospital.

Subjects and Methods

Patients undergoing elective otorhinolaryngologic surgery were prospectively enrolled. Patients completed demographic surveys and psychometric questionnaires assessing attitudes toward pain and baseline anxiety and depression before surgery. After surgery, patients documented peak pain levels (0-100 mm, visual analog scale) and daily prescription and nonprescription analgesic requirements over a 2-week period. Average daily and cumulative pain and opioid use were calculated and compared among patient cohorts stratified by procedure and preoperative factors.

Results

A total of 134 patients were enrolled. Total tonsillectomy was associated with significantly higher pain scores and opioid consumption, as compared to all other procedures. There was moderate correlation between average cumulative pain and opioid use. Older patients required significantly fewer doses of opioids. There was no effect of sex, marital status, or education level on postoperative pain or opioid use. Psychometric instrument scores and chronic pain or analgesic use were not associated with significant differences in pain or opioid requirements. Most patients were prescribed substantially more opioids than they actually required.

Conclusion

Postoperative pain following elective otorhinolaryngologic surgery decreases dramatically within the first week and requires only few days of opioid analgesia, with the exception of tonsillectomy. Almost all patients required fewer than 15 doses of opioids.

Assessment and Management of Postoperative Pain Associated with Sleep Apnea Surgery

A literature review was conducted regarding the assessment and treatment of postoperative pain following surgery for obstructive sleep apnea (OSA). Given the risks of opioid use by patients with OSA, special attention to opioid risk reduction and avoidance is warranted in this population. The results of this review demonstrate the existence of a body of evidence that supports the use of nonopioid analgesics and nonpharmacologic approaches pain management. Strategies for managing postoperative pain should emphasize the use of local anesthetic infiltration, nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs, acetaminophen, topical analgesics, surgical wound cooling, and when necessary, safer opioid medications, such as tramadol and intranasal butorphanol.