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Oliveira M, Sarker PP, Skovorodkin I, Kalantarifard A, Haskavuk T, Mac Intyre J, Nallukunnel Raju E, Nooranian S, Shioda H, Nishikawa M, Sakai Y, Vainio SJ, Elbuken C, Raykhel I. From ex ovo to in vitro: xenotransplantation and vascularization of mouse embryonic kidneys in a microfluidic chip. LAB ON A CHIP 2024; 24:4816-4826. [PMID: 39290081 PMCID: PMC11408908 DOI: 10.1039/d4lc00547c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2024] [Accepted: 09/01/2024] [Indexed: 09/19/2024]
Abstract
Organoids are emerging as a powerful tool to investigate complex biological structures in vitro. Vascularization of organoids is crucial to recapitulate the morphology and function of the represented human organ, especially in the case of the kidney, whose primary function of blood filtration is closely associated with blood circulation. Current in vitro microfluidic approaches have only provided initial vascularization of kidney organoids, whereas in vivo transplantation to animal models is problematic due to ethical problems, with the exception of xenotransplantation onto a chicken chorioallantoic membrane (CAM). Although CAM can serve as a good environment for vascularization, it can only be used for a fixed length of time, limited by development of the embryo. Here, we propose a novel lab on a chip design that allows organoids of different origin to be cultured and vascularized on a CAM, as well as to be transferred to in vitro conditions when required. Mouse embryonic kidneys cultured on the CAM showed enhanced vascularization by intrinsic endothelial cells, and made connections with the chicken vasculature, as evidenced by blood flowing through them. After the chips were transferred to in vitro conditions, the vasculature inside the organoids was successfully maintained. To our knowledge, this is the first demonstration of the combination of in vivo and in vitro approaches applied to microfluidic chip design.
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Affiliation(s)
- Micaela Oliveira
- Microfluidics and Biosensor Research Group, Disease Networks Research Unit, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, University of Oulu, Finland.
| | - Partha Protim Sarker
- Microfluidics and Biosensor Research Group, Disease Networks Research Unit, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, University of Oulu, Finland.
- Developmental Biology Laboratory, Disease Networks Research Unit, Faculty of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland.
| | - Ilya Skovorodkin
- Microfluidics and Biosensor Research Group, Disease Networks Research Unit, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, University of Oulu, Finland.
- Developmental Biology Laboratory, Disease Networks Research Unit, Faculty of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland.
| | - Ali Kalantarifard
- Microfluidics and Biosensor Research Group, Disease Networks Research Unit, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, University of Oulu, Finland.
| | - Tugce Haskavuk
- Microfluidics and Biosensor Research Group, Disease Networks Research Unit, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, University of Oulu, Finland.
- Developmental Biology Laboratory, Disease Networks Research Unit, Faculty of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland.
| | - Jonatan Mac Intyre
- Microfluidics and Biosensor Research Group, Disease Networks Research Unit, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, University of Oulu, Finland.
| | - Elizabath Nallukunnel Raju
- Microfluidics and Biosensor Research Group, Disease Networks Research Unit, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, University of Oulu, Finland.
| | - Samin Nooranian
- Microfluidics and Biosensor Research Group, Disease Networks Research Unit, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, University of Oulu, Finland.
| | - Hiroki Shioda
- Laboratory of Organs and Biosystems Engineering, Department of Chemical System Engineering, University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Masaki Nishikawa
- Laboratory of Organs and Biosystems Engineering, Department of Chemical System Engineering, University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yasuyuki Sakai
- Laboratory of Organs and Biosystems Engineering, Department of Chemical System Engineering, University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Seppo J Vainio
- Developmental Biology Laboratory, Disease Networks Research Unit, Faculty of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland.
- Infotech Oulu, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland
- Kvantum Institute, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland
| | - Caglar Elbuken
- Microfluidics and Biosensor Research Group, Disease Networks Research Unit, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, University of Oulu, Finland.
- VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland Ltd., Finland
| | - Irina Raykhel
- Developmental Biology Laboratory, Disease Networks Research Unit, Faculty of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland.
- Laboratory of Organs and Biosystems Engineering, Department of Chemical System Engineering, University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
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Taylor DJ, Saxton H, Halliday I, Newman T, Hose DR, Kassab GS, Gunn JP, Morris PD. Systematic review and meta-analysis of Murray's law in the coronary arterial circulation. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2024; 327:H182-H190. [PMID: 38787386 PMCID: PMC11380967 DOI: 10.1152/ajpheart.00142.2024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2024] [Revised: 05/01/2024] [Accepted: 05/20/2024] [Indexed: 05/25/2024]
Abstract
Murray's law has been viewed as a fundamental law of physiology. Relating blood flow ([Formula: see text]) to vessel diameter (D) ([Formula: see text]·∝·D3), it dictates minimum lumen area (MLA) targets for coronary bifurcation percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI). The cubic exponent (3.0), however, has long been disputed, with alternative theoretical derivations, arguing this should be closer to 2.33 (7/3). The aim of this meta-analysis was to quantify the optimum flow-diameter exponent in human and mammalian coronary arteries. We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis of all articles quantifying an optimum flow-diameter exponent for mammalian coronary arteries within the Cochrane library, PubMed Medline, Scopus, and Embase databases on 20 March 2023. A random-effects meta-analysis was used to determine a pooled flow-diameter exponent. Risk of bias was assessed with the National Institutes of Health (NIH) quality assessment tool, funnel plots, and Egger regression. From a total of 4,772 articles, 18 were suitable for meta-analysis. Studies included data from 1,070 unique coronary trees, taken from 372 humans and 112 animals. The pooled flow diameter exponent across both epicardial and transmural arteries was 2.39 (95% confidence interval: 2.24-2.54; I2 = 99%). The pooled exponent of 2.39 showed very close agreement with the theoretical exponent of 2.33 (7/3) reported by Kassab and colleagues. This exponent may provide a more accurate description of coronary morphometric scaling in human and mammalian coronary arteries, as compared with Murray's original law. This has important implications for the assessment, diagnosis, and interventional treatment of coronary artery disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel J Taylor
- Division of Clinical Medicine, School of Medicine and Population Health, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom
- Insigneo Institute for In Silico Medicine, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom
- NIHR Sheffield Biomedical Research Centre, Sheffield Teaching Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Sheffield, United Kingdom
| | - Harry Saxton
- Materials and Engineering Research Institute, Sheffield Hallam University, Sheffield, United Kingdom
| | - Ian Halliday
- Division of Clinical Medicine, School of Medicine and Population Health, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom
- Insigneo Institute for In Silico Medicine, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom
| | - Tom Newman
- Division of Clinical Medicine, School of Medicine and Population Health, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom
- Insigneo Institute for In Silico Medicine, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom
- Department of Cardiology, Sheffield Teaching Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Sheffield, United Kingdom
- NIHR Sheffield Biomedical Research Centre, Sheffield Teaching Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Sheffield, United Kingdom
| | - D R Hose
- Division of Clinical Medicine, School of Medicine and Population Health, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom
- Insigneo Institute for In Silico Medicine, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom
| | - Ghassan S Kassab
- California Medical Innovations Institute, San Diego, California, United States
| | - Julian P Gunn
- Division of Clinical Medicine, School of Medicine and Population Health, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom
- Insigneo Institute for In Silico Medicine, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom
- Department of Cardiology, Sheffield Teaching Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Sheffield, United Kingdom
- NIHR Sheffield Biomedical Research Centre, Sheffield Teaching Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Sheffield, United Kingdom
| | - Paul D Morris
- Division of Clinical Medicine, School of Medicine and Population Health, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom
- Insigneo Institute for In Silico Medicine, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom
- Department of Cardiology, Sheffield Teaching Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Sheffield, United Kingdom
- NIHR Sheffield Biomedical Research Centre, Sheffield Teaching Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Sheffield, United Kingdom
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Grebenyuk S, Ranga A. Engineering Organoid Vascularization. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2019; 7:39. [PMID: 30941347 PMCID: PMC6433749 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2019.00039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 177] [Impact Index Per Article: 35.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2018] [Accepted: 02/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The development of increasingly biomimetic human tissue analogs has been a long-standing goal in two important biomedical applications: drug discovery and regenerative medicine. In seeking to understand the safety and effectiveness of newly developed pharmacological therapies and replacement tissues for severely injured non-regenerating tissues and organs, there remains a tremendous unmet need in generating tissues with both functional complexity and scale. Over the last decade, the advent of organoids has demonstrated that cells have the ability to reorganize into complex tissue-specific structures given minimal inductive factors. However, a major limitation in achieving truly in vivo-like functionality has been the lack of structured organization and reasonable tissue size. In vivo, developing tissues are interpenetrated by and interact with a complex network of vasculature which allows not only oxygen, nutrient and waste exchange, but also provide for inductive biochemical exchange and a structural template for growth. Conversely, in vitro, this aspect of organoid development has remained largely missing, suggesting that these may be the critical cues required for large-scale and more reproducible tissue organization. Here, we review recent technical progress in generating in vitro vasculature, and seek to provide a framework for understanding how such technologies, together with theoretical and developmentally inspired insights, can be harnessed to enhance next generation organoid development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sergei Grebenyuk
- Laboratory of Bioengineering and Morphogenesis, Department of Mechanical Engineering, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Adrian Ranga
- Laboratory of Bioengineering and Morphogenesis, Department of Mechanical Engineering, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
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Kumar P, Ul Islam T, Majumder M, Gandhi PS. A scalable, lithography-less fabrication process for generating a bio-inspired, multi-scale channel network in polymers. Biomed Phys Eng Express 2017. [DOI: 10.1088/2057-1976/aa763b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
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Damiri HS, Bardaweel HK. Numerical design and optimization of hydraulic resistance and wall shear stress inside pressure-driven microfluidic networks. LAB ON A CHIP 2015; 15:4187-4196. [PMID: 26351133 DOI: 10.1039/c5lc00578g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Microfluidic networks represent the milestone of microfluidic devices. Recent advancements in microfluidic technologies mandate complex designs where both hydraulic resistance and pressure drop across the microfluidic network are minimized, while wall shear stress is precisely mapped throughout the network. In this work, a combination of theoretical and modeling techniques is used to construct a microfluidic network that operates under minimum hydraulic resistance and minimum pressure drop while constraining wall shear stress throughout the network. The results show that in order to minimize the hydraulic resistance and pressure drop throughout the network while maintaining constant wall shear stress throughout the network, geometric and shape conditions related to the compactness and aspect ratio of the parent and daughter branches must be followed. Also, results suggest that while a "local" minimum hydraulic resistance can be achieved for a geometry with an arbitrary aspect ratio, a "global" minimum hydraulic resistance occurs only when the aspect ratio of that geometry is set to unity. Thus, it is concluded that square and equilateral triangular cross-sectional area microfluidic networks have the least resistance compared to all rectangular and isosceles triangular cross-sectional microfluidic networks, respectively. Precise control over wall shear stress through the bifurcations of the microfluidic network is demonstrated in this work. Three multi-generation microfluidic network designs are considered. In these three designs, wall shear stress in the microfluidic network is successfully kept constant, increased in the daughter-branch direction, or decreased in the daughter-branch direction, respectively. For the multi-generation microfluidic network with constant wall shear stress, the design guidelines presented in this work result in identical profiles of wall shear stresses not only within a single generation but also through all the generations of the microfluidic network under investigation. The results obtained in this work are consistent with previously reported data and suitable for a wide range of lab-on-chip applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hazem Salim Damiri
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Technology, The University of Jordan, Amman, Jordan
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Poursaid A, Price R, Tiede A, Olson E, Huo E, McGill L, Ghandehari H, Cappello J. In situ gelling silk-elastinlike protein polymer for transarterial chemoembolization. Biomaterials 2015; 57:142-52. [PMID: 25916502 PMCID: PMC4429515 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2015.04.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2015] [Revised: 04/03/2015] [Accepted: 04/08/2015] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Hepatocellular carcinoma annually affects over 700,000 people worldwide and trends indicate increasing prevalence. Patients ineligible for surgery undergo loco-regional treatments such as transarterial chemoembolization (TACE) to selectively target tumoral blood supply. Using a microcatheter, chemotherapeutics are infused followed by an embolic agent, or the drug is encapsulated by the embolic moiety; simultaneously inducing stasis while delivering localized chemotherapy. Presently, several products are used, but no universally accepted system is promoted because very disparate limitations exist. The goal of this investigation was to design and develop in situ gelling recombinant silk-elastinlike protein polymers (SELPs) for TACE. Two SELP compositions, SELP-47K and SELP-815K, with varying lengths of silk and elastin blocks, were investigated to formulate a new embolic that was injectable through commercially available microcatheters. The goal was to develop a composition providing maximal permeation of tumor vasculature while exhibiting effective embolic activity. The SELPs evaluated remain soluble until reaching 37 °C, when irreversible transition ensues forming a solid hydrogel network. SELP-815K formulated at 12% w/w with shear processing demonstrated acceptable rheological properties and clear embolic capability under flow conditions in vitro. A rabbit model showed feasibility of embolization in vivo allowing selective occlusion of lobar hepatic arterial branches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Azadeh Poursaid
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Utah, 36 S. Wasatch Dr., Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA; Utah Center for Nanomedicine, Nano Institute of Utah, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA
| | - Robert Price
- Department of Pharmaceutics and Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA; Utah Center for Nanomedicine, Nano Institute of Utah, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA
| | - Andrea Tiede
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Utah, 36 S. Wasatch Dr., Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA
| | - Erik Olson
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Utah, 36 S. Wasatch Dr., Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA
| | - Eugene Huo
- Veterans Affairs Hospital, Salt Lake City, UT 84108, USA
| | - Lawrence McGill
- Associated Regional and University Pathologists, Salt Lake City, UT 84107, USA
| | - Hamidreza Ghandehari
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Utah, 36 S. Wasatch Dr., Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA; Department of Pharmaceutics and Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA; Utah Center for Nanomedicine, Nano Institute of Utah, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA.
| | - Joseph Cappello
- Department of Pharmaceutics and Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA
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Gui L, Niklason LE. Vascular Tissue Engineering: Building Perfusable Vasculature for Implantation. Curr Opin Chem Eng 2014; 3:68-74. [PMID: 24533306 DOI: 10.1016/j.coche.2013.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Tissue and organ replacement is required when there are no alternative therapies available. Although vascular tissue engineering was originally developed to meet the clinical demands of small-diameter vascular conduits as bypass grafts, it has evolved into a highly advanced field where perfusable vasculatures are generated for implantation. Herein, we review several cutting-edge techniques that have led to implantable human blood vessels in clinical trials, the novel approaches that build complex perfusable microvascular networks in functional tissues, the use of stem cells to generate endothelial cells for vascularization, as well as the challenges in bringing vascular tissue engineering technologies into the clinics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liqiong Gui
- Department of Anesthesiology, Yale University, New Haven, CT ; The Vascular Biology and Therapeutics Program, Yale University, New Haven, CT
| | - Laura E Niklason
- Department of Anesthesiology, Yale University, New Haven, CT ; The Vascular Biology and Therapeutics Program, Yale University, New Haven, CT ; Department of Biomedical Engineering, Yale University, New Haven, CT
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Whisler JA, Chen MB, Kamm RD. Control of perfusable microvascular network morphology using a multiculture microfluidic system. Tissue Eng Part C Methods 2013; 20:543-52. [PMID: 24151838 DOI: 10.1089/ten.tec.2013.0370] [Citation(s) in RCA: 163] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The mechanical and biochemical microenvironment influences the morphological characteristics of microvascular networks (MVNs) formed by endothelial cells (ECs) undergoing the process of vasculogenesis. The objective of this study was to quantify the role of individual factors in determining key network parameters in an effort to construct a set of design principles for engineering vascular networks with prescribed morphologies. To achieve this goal, we developed a multiculture microfluidic platform enabling precise control over paracrine signaling, cell-seeding densities, and hydrogel mechanical properties. Human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) were seeded in fibrin gels and cultured alongside human lung fibroblasts (HLFs). The engineered vessels formed in our device contained patent, perfusable lumens. Communication between the two cell types was found to be critical in avoiding network regression and maintaining stable morphology beyond 4 days. The number of branches, average branch length, percent vascularized area, and average vessel diameter were found to depend uniquely on several input parameters. Importantly, multiple inputs were found to control any given output network parameter. For example, the vessel diameter can be decreased either by applying angiogenic growth factors--vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and sphingosine-1-phsophate (S1P)--or by increasing the fibrinogen concentration in the hydrogel. These findings introduce control into the design of MVNs with specified morphological properties for tissue-specific engineering applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jordan A Whisler
- 1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology , Cambridge, Massachusetts
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Simón-yarza T, Garbayo E, Tamayo E, Prósper F, Blanco-prieto* MJ. Drug Delivery in Tissue Engineering: General Concepts. NANOSTRUCTURED BIOMATERIALS FOR OVERCOMING BIOLOGICAL BARRIERS 2012. [DOI: 10.1039/9781849735292-00501] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
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Zorlutuna P, Annabi N, Camci-Unal G, Nikkhah M, Cha JM, Nichol JW, Manbachi A, Bae H, Chen S, Khademhosseini A. Microfabricated biomaterials for engineering 3D tissues. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2012; 24:1782-804. [PMID: 22410857 PMCID: PMC3432416 DOI: 10.1002/adma.201104631] [Citation(s) in RCA: 269] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2011] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Mimicking natural tissue structure is crucial for engineered tissues with intended applications ranging from regenerative medicine to biorobotics. Native tissues are highly organized at the microscale, thus making these natural characteristics an integral part of creating effective biomimetic tissue structures. There exists a growing appreciation that the incorporation of similar highly organized microscale structures in tissue engineering may yield a remedy for problems ranging from vascularization to cell function control/determination. In this review, we highlight the recent progress in the field of microscale tissue engineering and discuss the use of various biomaterials for generating engineered tissue structures with microscale features. In particular, we will discuss the use of microscale approaches to engineer the architecture of scaffolds, generate artificial vasculature, and control cellular orientation and differentiation. In addition, the emergence of microfabricated tissue units and the modular assembly to emulate hierarchical tissues will be discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pinar Zorlutuna
- Center for Biomedical Engineering, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
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Prabhakarpandian B, Shen MC, Pant K, Kiani MF. Microfluidic devices for modeling cell-cell and particle-cell interactions in the microvasculature. Microvasc Res 2011; 82:210-20. [PMID: 21763328 DOI: 10.1016/j.mvr.2011.06.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2011] [Revised: 06/20/2011] [Accepted: 06/24/2011] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Cell-fluid and cell-cell interactions are critical components of many physiological and pathological conditions in the microvasculature. Similarly, particle-cell interactions play an important role in targeted delivery of therapeutics to tissue. Development of in vitro fluidic devices to mimic these microcirculatory processes has been a critical step forward in our understanding of the inflammatory process, developing of nano-particulate drug carriers, and developing realistic in vitro models of the microvasculature and its surrounding tissue. However, widely used parallel plate flow based devices and assays have a number of important limitations for studying the physiological conditions in vivo. In addition, these devices are resource hungry and time consuming for performing various assays. Recently developed, more realistic, microfluidic based devices have been able to overcome many of these limitations. In this review, an overview of the fluidic devices and their use in studying the effects of shear forces on cell-cell and cell-particle interactions is presented. In addition, use of mathematical models and computational fluid dynamics (CFD) based models for interpreting the complex flow patterns in the microvasculature is highlighted. Finally, the potential of 3D microfluidic devices and imaging for better representing in vivo conditions under which cell-cell and cell-particle interactions take place is discussed.
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