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Rumi SS, Liyanage S, Abidi N. Soil burial-induced degradation of cellulose films in a moisture-controlled environment. Sci Rep 2024; 14:6921. [PMID: 38519540 PMCID: PMC10960015 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-57436-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2023] [Accepted: 03/18/2024] [Indexed: 03/25/2024] Open
Abstract
In this study, the biodegradability of cellulose films was evaluated in controlled-moisture soil environments. The films were prepared from low-quality cotton fibers through dissolution in DMAc/LiCl, casting, regeneration, glycerol plasticization, and hot-pressing. Two soil burial degradation experiments were conducted in August 2020 (11th August to 13th October) and March 2021 (24th March to 24th July) under controlled moisture conditions to assess the biodegradation behavior of cellulose films. The films were retrieved from soil beds at seven-day intervals, and morphological and physicochemical changes in the films were investigated. The results indicated that the cellulose films exhibited gradual changes starting on Day 7 and major changes after Day 35. Stereomicroscopy images showed the growth and development of fungal mycelia on the surface of the films, and FTIR spectroscopy confirmed the presence of biomolecules originating from microorganisms. The tensile strength and elongation of cellulose films were significantly reduced by 64% and 96% in the first experiment and by 40% and 94% in the second experiment, respectively, during the degradation period. Degradation also significantly impacted the thermal stability (14% and 16.5% reduction, respectively, in the first and second studies) of the films. The cellulose-based films completely degraded within 63 days in late summer and 112 days in spring. This study demonstrates that, unlike synthetic plastics, films prepared from low-quality cotton fibers can easily degrade in the natural environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaida S Rumi
- Department of Plant and Soil Science, Fiber and Biopolymer Research Institute, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX, 79409, USA
| | - Sumedha Liyanage
- Department of Plant and Soil Science, Fiber and Biopolymer Research Institute, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX, 79409, USA
| | - Noureddine Abidi
- Department of Plant and Soil Science, Fiber and Biopolymer Research Institute, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX, 79409, USA.
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2
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Chen Z, Aziz T, Sun H, Ullah A, Ali A, Cheng L, Ullah R, Khan FU. Advances and Applications of Cellulose Bio-Composites in Biodegradable Materials. JOURNAL OF POLYMERS AND THE ENVIRONMENT 2023; 31:2273-2284. [PMID: 0 DOI: 10.1007/s10924-022-02561-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/17/2022] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
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3
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Singhal S, Agarwal S, Singhal N. Chemical recycling of waste clothes: a smarter approach to sustainable development. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2023; 30:54448-54469. [PMID: 36973625 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-023-26438-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2022] [Accepted: 03/10/2023] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Amount of fabric waste has increased many folds in the past few years due to increasing population and rapidly changing fashiosn trends. Its larger portion being dumped in the landfills is creating a lot of problem in its management. This is causing problems to environmental components of earth, viz., air, water, and land. Chemically, cotton-based fabrics are made up of mainly cellulose with small components of other chemicals and contribute to a big segment of overall textiles. Along with donating the cloths for various purposes, scientific solutions are also feasible for valorizing waste fabrics to value-added products. This review article focuses on important strategies for addressing fabric waste for their possible conversion to significant products of varied applications. It emphasizes on chemical routes suitable for this purpose for producing cellulose, sugar, composites, etc. This will provide an insight to the readers for understanding the chemical significance of waste fabric and exploring the best possible ways for its efficient management, ensuring a step ahead towards sustainable development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shailey Singhal
- Department of Chemistry, Cluster of Applied Science, School of Engineering, UPES, Energy Acres Building, Bidholi, Uttarakhand, 248007, Dehradun, India
| | - Shilpi Agarwal
- Department of Chemistry, Cluster of Applied Science, School of Engineering, UPES, Energy Acres Building, Bidholi, Uttarakhand, 248007, Dehradun, India.
| | - Naveen Singhal
- Department of Chemistry, DIT University, Dehradun, 248009, Uttarakhand, India
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4
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High-Yield Alpha-Cellulose from Oil Palm Empty Fruit Bunches by Optimizing Thermochemical Delignification Processes for Use as Microcrystalline Cellulose. Int J Biomater 2023; 2023:9169431. [PMID: 36843636 PMCID: PMC9950327 DOI: 10.1155/2023/9169431] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2022] [Revised: 01/13/2023] [Accepted: 01/18/2023] [Indexed: 02/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Oil palm empty fruit bunches (OPEFB) are lignocellulosic materials that are a by-product of the palm oil industry, which have less use and utilization is still limited. OPEFB's high cellulose content could potentially develop into various bioproducts, especially biomaterials. The thermochemical delignification process can obtain high-yieldalpha-cellulose. The cellulose extraction process can be done by combining the bleaching process under acidic conditions and alkaline delignification to obtain high-purity cellulose. The bleaching conditions vary in the concentration of NaClO2, the length of bleaching, the temperature, and the number of stages. The research obtains high α-cellulose by optimizing bleaching conditions under acidic conditions in cellulose's OPEFB extraction with variability on NaClO2 concentration and bleaching time using response surface methodology (RSM). The bleaching process was implemented at an early stage with a concentration of 3% NaClO2 and a bleaching time of 2 hours as a center point with a bleaching cycle of twice at pH 4-4.5 using acetic acid. Bleached fibers were delignified using 10% NaOH for 2 hours at room temperature. The RSM analysis resulted in optimum bleaching conditions at a concentration of 3.22% NaClO2 for 1 hour, yielding OPEFB's cellulose of 82.96% ± 2.53, hemicellulose of 9.27% ± 2.28, and lignin of 1.68% ± 0.58. The validation and verification process in the bleaching conditions obtained cellulose of 84.87% and α-cellulose of 88.51%, with a crystallinity index of 70.55% and crystallite size of 2.35 nm. Scanning electron microscopy on surface cellulose morphology at optimum bleaching helped remove hemicellulose impurities, lignin, and inorganic materials and a more intensive opening of cellulose fibrils. The bleaching process optimization point was verified to improve the delignification performance and potentially produce high yield α-cellulose content for microcrystalline cellulose use.
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5
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Decreasing the degree of polymerization of microcrystalline cellulose by mechanical impact and acid hydrolysis. Carbohydr Polym 2022; 294:119764. [DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2022.119764] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2022] [Revised: 06/16/2022] [Accepted: 06/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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6
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Asif M, Ahmed D, Ahmad N, Qamar MT, Alruwaili NK, Bukhari SNA. Extraction and Characterization of Microcrystalline Cellulose from Lagenaria siceraria Fruit Pedicles. Polymers (Basel) 2022; 14:1867. [PMID: 35567035 PMCID: PMC9101574 DOI: 10.3390/polym14091867] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2022] [Revised: 04/25/2022] [Accepted: 04/29/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) is a versatile polymer commonly employed in food, chemical, and biomedical formulations. Lagenaria siceraria (bottle gourd) fruit is consumed in many parts of the world, and its pedicle is discarded as waste. In the quest for a novel renewable source of the MCC, the present study investigates the extraction and characterization of MCC from the pedicle of Lagenaria siceraria fruits. The MCC was extracted by sequentially treating pedicles with water, alkali, bleaching (sodium chlorite), and dilute sulfuric acid (acid hydrolysis). The removal of associated impurities from pedicle fibers was confirmed by Fourier transform infrared analyses. The extracted MCC exhibited a characteristic crystalline structure of cellulose in X-ray diffraction with a 64.53% crystallinity index. The scanning electron microscopy (SEM) showed the variation in the morphology of the fibers and the formation of MCC of approximately 100 µm. The thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) indicated higher thermal stability of MCC. MCC production from biowaste (pedicle) holds potential for application as an emulsifier, stabilizer, and thickener in the chemical, pharmaceutical, and food industries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Asif
- Department of Chemistry, Forman Christian College (A Chartered University), Lahore 54600, Pakistan; (M.A.); (D.A.); (M.T.Q.)
| | - Dildar Ahmed
- Department of Chemistry, Forman Christian College (A Chartered University), Lahore 54600, Pakistan; (M.A.); (D.A.); (M.T.Q.)
| | - Naveed Ahmad
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, Jouf University, Sakaka 72388, Aljouf, Saudi Arabia;
| | - Muhammad Tariq Qamar
- Department of Chemistry, Forman Christian College (A Chartered University), Lahore 54600, Pakistan; (M.A.); (D.A.); (M.T.Q.)
| | - Nabil K. Alruwaili
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, Jouf University, Sakaka 72388, Aljouf, Saudi Arabia;
| | - Syed Nasir Abbas Bukhari
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, Jouf University, Sakaka 72388, Aljouf, Saudi Arabia;
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7
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Botta L, Titone V, Mistretta MC, La Mantia FP, Modica A, Bruno M, Sottile F, Lopresti F. PBAT Based Composites Reinforced with Microcrystalline Cellulose Obtained from Softwood Almond Shells. Polymers (Basel) 2021; 13:polym13162643. [PMID: 34451182 PMCID: PMC8399121 DOI: 10.3390/polym13162643] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2021] [Revised: 07/30/2021] [Accepted: 08/03/2021] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
This study explores the processability, mechanical, and thermal properties of biocompostable composites based on poly (butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) (PBAT) as polymer matrix and microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) derived from softwood almond (Prunus dulcis) shells (as-MCC) as filler at two different weight concentration, i.e., 10 wt% and 20 wt%. The materials were processed by melt mixing and a commercial MCC (c-MCC) was used as filler comparison. The fibrillar shape of as-MCC particles was found to change the rheological behavior of PBAT, particularly at the highest concentration. The melt mixing processing allowed obtaining a uniform dispersion of both kinds of fillers, slightly reducing the L/D ratio of as-MCC fibers. The as-MCC particles led to a higher increase of the elastic modulus of PBAT if compared to the c-MCC counterparts. Both the MCC fillers caused a drastic reduction of the elongation at break, although it was higher than 120% also at the highest filler concentrations. DSC analysis revealed that both MCC fillers poorly affected the matrix crystallinity, although as-MCC induced a slight PBAT crystallinity increase from 8.8% up to 10.9% for PBAT/as-MCC 20%. Therefore, this work demonstrates the great potential of MCC particles derived from almond shells as filler for biocompostable composites fabrication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luigi Botta
- Department of Engineering, University of Palermo, RU INSTM, Viale delle Scienze, 90128 Palermo, Italy; (V.T.); (M.C.M.); (F.P.L.M.); (F.L.)
- Centro Interdipartimentale di Ricerca “Riutilizzo Bio-Based Degli Scarti da Matrici Agroalimentari” (RIVIVE), Università degli Sudi di Palermo, 90128 Palermo, Italy; (M.B.); (F.S.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Vincenzo Titone
- Department of Engineering, University of Palermo, RU INSTM, Viale delle Scienze, 90128 Palermo, Italy; (V.T.); (M.C.M.); (F.P.L.M.); (F.L.)
| | - Maria Chiara Mistretta
- Department of Engineering, University of Palermo, RU INSTM, Viale delle Scienze, 90128 Palermo, Italy; (V.T.); (M.C.M.); (F.P.L.M.); (F.L.)
- Centro Interdipartimentale di Ricerca “Riutilizzo Bio-Based Degli Scarti da Matrici Agroalimentari” (RIVIVE), Università degli Sudi di Palermo, 90128 Palermo, Italy; (M.B.); (F.S.)
| | - Francesco Paolo La Mantia
- Department of Engineering, University of Palermo, RU INSTM, Viale delle Scienze, 90128 Palermo, Italy; (V.T.); (M.C.M.); (F.P.L.M.); (F.L.)
| | - Aurora Modica
- Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie Biologiche, Chimiche e Farmaceutiche (STEBICEF), Università degli Studi di Palermo, Viale delle Scienze, 90128 Palermo, Italy;
| | - Maurizio Bruno
- Centro Interdipartimentale di Ricerca “Riutilizzo Bio-Based Degli Scarti da Matrici Agroalimentari” (RIVIVE), Università degli Sudi di Palermo, 90128 Palermo, Italy; (M.B.); (F.S.)
- Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie Biologiche, Chimiche e Farmaceutiche (STEBICEF), Università degli Studi di Palermo, Viale delle Scienze, 90128 Palermo, Italy;
| | - Francesco Sottile
- Centro Interdipartimentale di Ricerca “Riutilizzo Bio-Based Degli Scarti da Matrici Agroalimentari” (RIVIVE), Università degli Sudi di Palermo, 90128 Palermo, Italy; (M.B.); (F.S.)
- Dipartimento di Architettura, Università degli Studi di Palermo, Viale delle Scienze, 90128 Palermo, Italy
| | - Francesco Lopresti
- Department of Engineering, University of Palermo, RU INSTM, Viale delle Scienze, 90128 Palermo, Italy; (V.T.); (M.C.M.); (F.P.L.M.); (F.L.)
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8
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Zhao N, Mou H, Zhou Y, Ju X, Yang S, Liu S, Dong R. Upgrading Solid Digestate from Anaerobic Digestion of Agricultural Waste as Performance Enhancer for Starch-Based Mulching Biofilm. Molecules 2021; 26:molecules26040832. [PMID: 33562704 PMCID: PMC7915701 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26040832] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/01/2021] [Revised: 01/24/2021] [Accepted: 01/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Developing a green and sustainable method to upgrade biogas wastes into high value-added products is attracting more and more public attention. The application of solid residues as a performance enhancer in the manufacture of biofilms is a prospective way to replace conventional plastic based on fossil fuel. In this work, solid digestates from the anaerobic digestion of agricultural wastes, such as straw, cattle and chicken manures, were pretreated by an ultrasonic thermo-alkaline treatment to remove the nonfunctional compositions and then incorporated in plasticized starch paste to prepare mulching biofilms by the solution casting method. The results indicated that solid digestate particles dispersed homogenously in the starch matrix and gradually aggregated under the action of a hydrogen bond, leading to a transformation of the composites to a high crystalline structure. Consequently, the composite biofilm showed a higher tensile strength, elastic modulus, glass transition temperature and degradation temperature compared to the pure starch-based film. The light, water and GHG (greenhouse gas) barrier properties of the biofilm were also reinforced by the addition of solid digestates, performing well in sustaining the soil quality and minimizing N2O or CH4 emissions. As such, recycling solid digestates into a biodegradable plastic substitute not only creates a new business opportunity by producing high-performance biofilms but also reduces the environmental risk caused by biogas waste and plastics pollution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nan Zhao
- Bioenergy and Environment Science & Technology Laboratory, College of Engineering, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, China; (N.Z.); (H.M.); (R.D.)
- Key Laboratory of Clean Production and Utilization of Renewable Energy, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Beijing 100083, China
- National Center for International Research of BioEnergy Science and Technology, Ministry of Science and Technology, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Huawei Mou
- Bioenergy and Environment Science & Technology Laboratory, College of Engineering, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, China; (N.Z.); (H.M.); (R.D.)
- Key Laboratory of Clean Production and Utilization of Renewable Energy, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Beijing 100083, China
- National Center for International Research of BioEnergy Science and Technology, Ministry of Science and Technology, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Yuguang Zhou
- Prataculture Machinery and Equipment Research Center, College of Engineering, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, China;
- State R&D Center for Efficient Production and Comprehensive Utilization of Biobased Gaseous Fuels, National Energy Administration, Beijing 100083, China
- National Energy R&D Center for Biomass, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Xinxin Ju
- Shandong Sino-March Environmental Technology Co., Ltd., Yantai 264006, China;
| | - Shoujun Yang
- Yantai Institute, China Agricultural University, Yantai 264670, China;
| | - Shan Liu
- Bioenergy and Environment Science & Technology Laboratory, College of Engineering, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, China; (N.Z.); (H.M.); (R.D.)
- National Center for International Research of BioEnergy Science and Technology, Ministry of Science and Technology, Beijing 100083, China
- Prataculture Machinery and Equipment Research Center, College of Engineering, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, China;
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +86-(10)-62737858; Fax: +86-(10)-62737885
| | - Renjie Dong
- Bioenergy and Environment Science & Technology Laboratory, College of Engineering, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, China; (N.Z.); (H.M.); (R.D.)
- National Center for International Research of BioEnergy Science and Technology, Ministry of Science and Technology, Beijing 100083, China
- Prataculture Machinery and Equipment Research Center, College of Engineering, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, China;
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9
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Isolation of Textile Waste Cellulose Nanofibrillated Fibre Reinforced in Polylactic Acid-Chitin Biodegradable Composite for Green Packaging Application. Polymers (Basel) 2021; 13:polym13030325. [PMID: 33498323 PMCID: PMC7864045 DOI: 10.3390/polym13030325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2020] [Revised: 01/15/2021] [Accepted: 01/18/2021] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Textile waste cellulose nanofibrillated fibre has been reported with excellent strength reinforcement ability in other biopolymers. In this research cellulose nanofibrilated fibre (CNF) was isolated from the textile waste cotton fabrics with combined supercritical carbon dioxide and high-pressure homogenisation. The isolated CNF was used to enhance the polylactic acid/chitin (PLA/chitin) properties. The properties enhancement effect of the CNF was studied by characterising the PLA/chitin/CNF biocomposite for improved mechanical, thermal, and morphological properties. The tensile properties, impact strength, dynamic mechanical analysis, thermogravimetry analysis, scanning electron microscopy, and the PLA/chitin/CNF biocomposite wettability were studied. The result showed that the tensile strength, elongation, tensile modulus, and impact strength improved significantly with chitin and CNF compared with the neat PLA. Furthermore, the scanning electron microscopy SEM (Scanning Electron Microscopy) morphological images showed uniform distribution and dispersion of the three polymers in each other, which corroborate the improvement in mechanical properties. The biocomposite’s water absorption increased more than the neat PLA, and the contact angle was reduced. The results of the ternary blend compared with PLA/chitin binary blend showed significant enhancement with CNF. This showed that the three polymers’ combination resulted in a better material property than the binary blend.
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10
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Micro- and Nanocellulose in Polymer Composite Materials: A Review. Polymers (Basel) 2021; 13:polym13020231. [PMID: 33440879 PMCID: PMC7827473 DOI: 10.3390/polym13020231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2020] [Revised: 01/06/2021] [Accepted: 01/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The high demand for plastic and polymeric materials which keeps rising every year makes them important industries, for which sustainability is a crucial aspect to be taken into account. Therefore, it becomes a requirement to makes it a clean and eco-friendly industry. Cellulose creates an excellent opportunity to minimize the effect of non-degradable materials by using it as a filler for either a synthesis matrix or a natural starch matrix. It is the primary substance in the walls of plant cells, helping plants to remain stiff and upright, and can be found in plant sources, agriculture waste, animals, and bacterial pellicle. In this review, we discussed the recent research development and studies in the field of biocomposites that focused on the techniques of extracting micro- and nanocellulose, treatment and modification of cellulose, classification, and applications of cellulose. In addition, this review paper looked inward on how the reinforcement of micro- and nanocellulose can yield a material with improved performance. This article featured the performances, limitations, and possible areas of improvement to fit into the broader range of engineering applications.
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11
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Li Y, Li P, Wu M, Yu X, Naito K, Zhang Q. Halloysite nanotubes grafted polylactic acid and its composites with enhanced interfacial compatibility. J Appl Polym Sci 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/app.49668] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yuanyuan Li
- Hebei Key Laboratory of Functional Polymers, School of Chemical Engineering and Technology Hebei University of Technology Tianjin China
| | - Peixian Li
- Hebei Key Laboratory of Functional Polymers, School of Chemical Engineering and Technology Hebei University of Technology Tianjin China
| | - Minjie Wu
- Hebei Key Laboratory of Functional Polymers, School of Chemical Engineering and Technology Hebei University of Technology Tianjin China
| | - Xiaoyan Yu
- Hebei Key Laboratory of Functional Polymers, School of Chemical Engineering and Technology Hebei University of Technology Tianjin China
| | - Kimiyoshi Naito
- National Institute for Materials Science (NIMS) Tsukuba Japan
| | - Qingxin Zhang
- Hebei Key Laboratory of Functional Polymers, School of Chemical Engineering and Technology Hebei University of Technology Tianjin China
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Materials Laminating Fabrication and Interface Control Technology Hebei University of Technology Tianjin China
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12
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Zango ZU, Imam SS. Microcrystalline Cellulose from Groundnut Shell as Potential Adsorbent of Crystal Violet and Methylene Blue. Kinetics, Isotherms and Thermodynamic Studies. CHEMISTRY & CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY 2020. [DOI: 10.23939/chcht14.04.563] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The isolation of microcrystalline cellulose from a groundnut shell is reported. Adsorption experiments were carried out for the removal of cationic crystal violet and methylene blue and it follows Langmuir model. Positive enthalpy and negative free energy changes have shown endothermic and favorable processes. The results reflect good adsorption process.
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13
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Properties of Macroalgae Biopolymer Films Reinforcement with Polysaccharide Microfibre. Polymers (Basel) 2020; 12:polym12112554. [PMID: 33143383 PMCID: PMC7692191 DOI: 10.3390/polym12112554] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2020] [Revised: 10/28/2020] [Accepted: 10/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Developing robust and biodegradable biopolymer films based on macroalgae is a challenging task because of its inadequate mechanical strength and poor moisture barrier attribute to its hydrophilic nature. A promising and sustainable approach to overcome this challenge is to reinforce the biopolymer film with polysaccharide microfibre (microcrystalline cellulose) derived from Gigantochloa levis bamboo (GL-MCC). Eucheuma cottonii macroalgae were used for the development of biopolymer films without further extraction and purification, which was considered economical and easy. The mechanical, water contact angle (WCA), water absorption capacity (WSC), and thermal behaviour of macroalgae-based biopolymer films revealed that the inclusions of GL-MCC significantly enhanced the durability, moisture barrier, and thermal stability of the biopolymer films. The enhancement is ascribed to the interaction between macroalgae and GL-MCC due to high compatibility. Moreover, the incorporation of GL-MCC successfully increased the rigidity of the macroalgae-based biopolymer films against microorganism and moisture attack, but remain biodegradable and environmental-friendly. The developed biodegradable macroalgae/GL-MCC biopolymer films can potentially be used as packaging materials.
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14
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Wan Ishak WH, Rosli NA, Ahmad I. Influence of amorphous cellulose on mechanical, thermal, and hydrolytic degradation of poly(lactic acid) biocomposites. Sci Rep 2020; 10:11342. [PMID: 32647369 PMCID: PMC7347652 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-68274-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2020] [Accepted: 06/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Eco-friendly materials such as poly(lactic acid) (PLA) and cellulose are gaining considerable interest as suitable substitutes for petroleum-based plastics. Therefore, amorphous cellulose (AC) was fabricated as a new reinforcing material for PLA biocomposites by modifying a microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) structure via milling. In this study, the mechanical properties, thermal properties, and degradability of PLA were analysed to compare the effects of both MCC and AC on PLA. The tensile and impact properties improved at an optimum value with AC at 8 wt% and 4 wt% fibre loading, respectively. Notably, a scanning electron micrograph analysis revealed improved AC fibre-matrix adhesion, compared with MCC fibre-matrix adhesion, as well as excellent interaction between AC and PLA. Both MCC and AC improved the hydrolytic degradation of PLA. Moreover, the biocomposites with AC exhibited superior degradation when the incorporation of AC improved the water absorption efficiency of PLA. These findings can expand AC applications and improve sustainability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wan Hafizi Wan Ishak
- Department of Chemical Sciences, Faculty of Science and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), 43600, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Noor Afizah Rosli
- Department of Chemical Sciences, Faculty of Science and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), 43600, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia.
| | - Ishak Ahmad
- Department of Chemical Sciences, Faculty of Science and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), 43600, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia.
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15
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Garba ZN, Lawan I, Zhou W, Zhang M, Wang L, Yuan Z. Microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) based materials as emerging adsorbents for the removal of dyes and heavy metals - A review. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2020; 717:135070. [PMID: 31839314 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.135070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2019] [Revised: 10/11/2019] [Accepted: 10/18/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
In an attempt to overcome such threats posed by water pollution, various processes ranging from physical, chemical as well as biological were applied to get rid of wastewater pollutants. The simplicity, high efficiency and cheapness of an adsorption process make it the most widely used among various other processes. Adsorbents with different properties were used in the adsorption process but this paper was focused on reviewing various articles published by numerous researchers on the isolation of microcrystalline cellulose (MCC), a popular carbohydrate polymer from lignocellulosic biomass and utilization of MCC based materials as effective adsorbents for the successful removal of dyes and heavy metals from synthetic wastewater. The sudden interest on MCC and MCC-based materials as adsorbents cannot be separated from their excellent properties such as renewability, biodegradability, biocompatibility, economic value, non-toxicity, high mechanical properties and surface area. Upon comparison with established adsorbents reported from literature, MCC-based materials performed excellently well in the adsorption of dyes and heavy metals with Langmuir isotherm and pseudo-second order reported mostly as the best fit models for the generated equilibrium and kinetic data, respectively pointing at the distribution of adsorption sites to be homogeneous as well as the formation of monolayer adsorbate on their surfaces. The various thermodynamic studies reported further revealed the adsorption processes of both dyes and heavy metals onto MCC-based materials to be entropy driven processes, spontaneous, and endothermic. Finally, future research was suggested to focus on optimization to enhance the performance of the MCC-based adsorbents, carrying out the adsorption on real wastewater instead of synthetic ones as well as expanding the range of adsorbates to include other contaminants such as chlorophenols, herbicides, pesticides and others in addition to dyes and heavy metals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zaharaddeen N Garba
- College of Materials Science and Engineering, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, Fujian Province, China; Department of Chemistry, Ahmadu Bello University Zaria, Nigeria.
| | - Ibrahim Lawan
- College of Materials Science and Engineering, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, Fujian Province, China
| | - Weiming Zhou
- College of Materials Science and Engineering, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, Fujian Province, China
| | - Mingxi Zhang
- College of Materials Science and Engineering, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, Fujian Province, China
| | - Liwei Wang
- Chemistry and Chemical Engineering Department, Minjiang University, Fuzhou, Fujian Province 350108, China.
| | - Zhanhui Yuan
- College of Materials Science and Engineering, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, Fujian Province, China.
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16
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Baruah J, Deka RC, Kalita E. Greener production of microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) from Saccharum spontaneum (Kans grass): Statistical optimization. Int J Biol Macromol 2020; 154:672-682. [PMID: 32198044 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2020.03.158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2020] [Revised: 03/16/2020] [Accepted: 03/16/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
In this study, microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) was isolated from Saccharum spontaneum by integrating alkaline delignification, chlorine-free bleaching, and acid hydrolysis treatments, through an environment friendly and sustainable method. To minimize acid concentrations, the acid hydrolysis conditions were optimized using Taguchi orthogonal L9 design that evaluated the influences of reaction time, temperature, acid concentration and solution to pulp ratio on the physical and chemical characteristics of MCC. The cellulose source at its different stages of processing was submitted to various analytical techniques for morphological and physiochemical investigations. The highest MCC yield optimized was 83%. This process is favorable due to the use of very low (5% H2SO4) acid concentration, low corrosivity, effluent reduction, and cost-effectiveness. Detailed analyses showed that the isolated MCC has good crystallinity and thermal stability and hence expected as a high-value precursor for the production of polymer biocomposites for diverse applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julie Baruah
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Tezpur University, Tezpur 784028, India; Department of Chemical Sciences, Tezpur University, Tezpur 784028, India
| | | | - Eeshan Kalita
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Tezpur University, Tezpur 784028, India.
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17
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Pavoni JMF, dos Santos NZ, May IC, Pollo LD, Tessaro IC. Impact of acid type and glutaraldehyde crosslinking in the physicochemical and mechanical properties and biodegradability of chitosan films. Polym Bull (Berl) 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s00289-020-03140-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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18
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Dutta N, Maji TK. Synergic effect of montmorillonite and microcrystalline cellulose on the physicochemical properties of rice husk/PVC composite. SN APPLIED SCIENCES 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s42452-020-2255-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022] Open
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19
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Nwachukwu N, Ofoefule SI. Effect of drying methods on the powder and compaction properties of microcrystalline cellulose derived from Gossypium herbaceum. BRAZ J PHARM SCI 2020. [DOI: 10.1590/s2175-97902020000118060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
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20
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Wardhono EY, Kanani N, Alfirano A. A simple process of isolation microcrystalline cellulose using ultrasonic irradiation. J DISPER SCI TECHNOL 2019. [DOI: 10.1080/01932691.2019.1614947] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Nufus Kanani
- Engineering Faculty, University of Sultan Ageng Tirtayasa , Cilegon , Indonesia
| | - Alfirano Alfirano
- Engineering Faculty, University of Sultan Ageng Tirtayasa , Cilegon , Indonesia
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21
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Wang Z, Yao Z, Zhou J, He M, Jiang Q, Li A, Li S, Liu M, Luo S, Zhang D. Improvement of polylactic acid film properties through the addition of cellulose nanocrystals isolated from waste cotton cloth. Int J Biol Macromol 2019; 129:878-886. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2019.02.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2018] [Revised: 02/03/2019] [Accepted: 02/03/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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22
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Hou W, Ling C, Shi S, Yan Z. Preparation and characterization of microcrystalline cellulose from waste cotton fabrics by using phosphotungstic acid. Int J Biol Macromol 2018; 123:363-368. [PMID: 30445076 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2018.11.112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2018] [Revised: 10/26/2018] [Accepted: 11/12/2018] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Recycling of waste cotton fabrics (WCFs) and converting them into high value-added products have not been developed. In this study, a novel and green process was developed for the preparation of microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) from WCFs by the catalytic hydrolysis of phosphotungstic acid (H3PW12O40, HPW). The effects of hydrolysis conditions such as HPW concentration, reaction temperature, reaction time, and solid/liquid ratio were investigated. The optimum process conditions were determined as follows: HPW concentration of 3.47 mmol/L, a solid/liquid ratio of 1:40, reaction temperature of 140 °C, and reaction time of 6 h. The yield of MCC prepared was as high as 83.4% and exhibited better performance than commercial MCC such as a higher crystallinity (85.2%), smaller particle size (20.37 μm), and narrower particle size distribution (72.75%, 8.68-31.1 μm). Furthermore, the HPW could be extracted and recycled easily with diethyl ether for five times and used to prepare MCC with a high yield and crystallinity index.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wensheng Hou
- College of textile engineering, Taiyuan University of technology, Jinzhong, Shanxi 030600, China
| | - Chen Ling
- College of textile engineering, Taiyuan University of technology, Jinzhong, Shanxi 030600, China
| | - Sheng Shi
- College of textile engineering, Taiyuan University of technology, Jinzhong, Shanxi 030600, China.
| | - Zhifeng Yan
- College of textile engineering, Taiyuan University of technology, Jinzhong, Shanxi 030600, China
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23
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Senthil Muthu Kumar T, Rajini N, Obi Reddy K, Varada Rajulu A, Siengchin S, Ayrilmis N. All-cellulose composite films with cellulose matrix and Napier grass cellulose fibril fillers. Int J Biol Macromol 2018; 112:1310-1315. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2018.01.167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2017] [Revised: 01/23/2018] [Accepted: 01/24/2018] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
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24
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Pujiasih S, Kurnia, Masykur A, Kusumaningsih T, Saputra OA. Silylation and characterization of microcrystalline cellulose isolated from indonesian native oil palm empty fruit bunch. Carbohydr Polym 2018; 184:74-81. [DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2017.12.060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2017] [Revised: 12/19/2017] [Accepted: 12/21/2017] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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25
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Zhao T, Chen Z, Lin X, Ren Z, Li B, Zhang Y. Preparation and characterization of microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) from tea waste. Carbohydr Polym 2018; 184:164-170. [DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2017.12.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2017] [Revised: 12/09/2017] [Accepted: 12/11/2017] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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26
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Kian LK, Jawaid M, Ariffin H, Alothman OY. Isolation and characterization of microcrystalline cellulose from roselle fibers. Int J Biol Macromol 2017; 103:931-940. [PMID: 28549863 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2017.05.135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2017] [Accepted: 05/20/2017] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
In this study, microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) was extracted from roselle fiber through acid hydrolysis treatment and its properties were compared with those of commercially available MCC. The physicochemical and morphological characteristics, elemental composition, size distribution, crystallinity and thermal properties of the obtained MCC were analyzed in this work. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) analysis provided clear evidence that the characteristic peak of lignin was absent in the spectrum of the MCC prepared from roselle fiber. Rough surface and slight aggregation of MCC were observed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) analysis showed that pure MCC with small quantities of residues and impurities was obtained, with a similar elemental composition to that of commercial MCC. A mean diameter of approximately 44.28μm was measured for MCC by using a particle size analyzer (PSA). X-ray diffraction (XRD) showed the crystallinity increased from 63% in roselle pulp to 78% in roselle MCC, the latter having a slightly higher crystallinity than that of commercial MCC (74%). TGA and DSC results indicated that the roselle MCC had better thermal stability than the roselle pulp, whereas it had poorer thermal stability in comparison with commercial MCC. Thus, the isolated MCC from roselle fibers will be going to use as reinforcing element in green composites and may be a precursor for future roselle derived nanocellulose, and thus a promising subject in nanocomposite research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lau Kia Kian
- Institute of Tropical Forestry and Forest Products (INTROP), Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Mohammad Jawaid
- Institute of Tropical Forestry and Forest Products (INTROP), Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia; Department of Chemical Engineering, College of Engineering, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
| | - Hidayah Ariffin
- Institute of Tropical Forestry and Forest Products (INTROP), Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia; Department of Bioprocess Technology, Faculty of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Othman Y Alothman
- Department of Chemical Engineering, College of Engineering, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia; Deanship of Graduate Studies, Saudi Electronic University, Riyadh 11673, Saudi Arabia
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27
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Characterisation of microcrystalline cellulose from oil palm fibres for food applications. Carbohydr Polym 2016; 148:11-20. [DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2016.04.055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2016] [Revised: 04/11/2016] [Accepted: 04/12/2016] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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28
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Johari AP, Kurmvanshi S, Mohanty S, Nayak S. Influence of surface modified cellulose microfibrils on the improved mechanical properties of poly (lactic acid). Int J Biol Macromol 2016; 84:329-39. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2015.12.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2015] [Revised: 11/28/2015] [Accepted: 12/11/2015] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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29
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Lamaming J, Hashim R, Sulaiman O, Leh CP, Sugimoto T, Nordin NA. Cellulose nanocrystals isolated from oil palm trunk. Carbohydr Polym 2015; 127:202-8. [PMID: 25965475 DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2015.03.043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2015] [Revised: 03/04/2015] [Accepted: 03/08/2015] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
In this study cellulose nanocrystals were isolated from oil palm trunk (Elaeis guineensis) using acid hydrolysis method. The morphology and size of the nanocrystals were characterized using scanning electron microscopy and transmission electron microscopy. The results showed that the nanocrystals isolated from raw oil palm trunk (OPT) fibers and hot water treated OPT fibers had an average diameter of 7.67 nm and 7.97 nm and length of 397.03 nm and 361.70 nm, respectively. Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy indicated that lignin and hemicellulose contents decreased. It seems that lignin was completely removed from the samples during chemical treatment. Thermogravimetric analysis demonstrated that cellulose nanocrystals after acid hydrolysis had higher thermal stability compared to the raw and hot water treated OPT fibers. The X-ray diffraction analysis increased crystallinity of the samples due to chemical treatment. The crystalline nature of the isolated nanocrystals from raw and hot water treated OPT ranged from 68 to 70%.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junidah Lamaming
- Division of Bioresource, Paper and Coatings Technology, School of Industrial Technology, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Minden, Penang, Malaysia
| | - Rokiah Hashim
- Division of Bioresource, Paper and Coatings Technology, School of Industrial Technology, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Minden, Penang, Malaysia.
| | - Othman Sulaiman
- Division of Bioresource, Paper and Coatings Technology, School of Industrial Technology, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Minden, Penang, Malaysia
| | - Cheu Peng Leh
- Division of Bioresource, Paper and Coatings Technology, School of Industrial Technology, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Minden, Penang, Malaysia
| | - Tomoko Sugimoto
- Forestry and Forest Products Research Institute, I Matsunosato, Tsukuba 305-8687, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Noor Afeefah Nordin
- Division of Bioresource, Paper and Coatings Technology, School of Industrial Technology, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Minden, Penang, Malaysia
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30
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Sun X, Lu C, Liu Y, Zhang W, Zhang X. Melt-processed poly(vinyl alcohol) composites filled with microcrystalline cellulose from waste cotton fabrics. Carbohydr Polym 2014; 101:642-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2013.09.088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2013] [Revised: 09/07/2013] [Accepted: 09/24/2013] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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31
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Properties of polylactic acid composites reinforced with oil palm biomass microcrystalline cellulose. Carbohydr Polym 2013; 98:139-45. [DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2013.05.069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 179] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2013] [Revised: 04/29/2013] [Accepted: 05/24/2013] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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32
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Mohamad Haafiz MK, Eichhorn SJ, Hassan A, Jawaid M. Isolation and characterization of microcrystalline cellulose from oil palm biomass residue. Carbohydr Polym 2013; 93:628-34. [PMID: 23499105 DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2013.01.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 162] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2012] [Revised: 12/20/2012] [Accepted: 01/14/2013] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
In this work, we successfully isolated microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) from oil palm empty fruit bunch (OPEFB) fiber-total chlorine free (TCF) pulp using acid hydrolysis method. TCF pulp bleaching carried out using an oxygen-ozone-hydrogen peroxide bleaching sequence. Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy indicates that acid hydrolysis does not affect the chemical structure of the cellulosic fragments. The morphology of the hydrolyzed MCC was investigated using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), showing a compact structure and a rough surface. Furthermore, atomic force microscopy (AFM) image of the surface indicates the presence of spherical features. X-ray diffraction (XRD) shows that the MCC produced is a cellulose-I polymorph, with 87% crystallinity. The MCC obtained from OPEFB-pulp is shown to have a good thermal stability. The potential for a range of applications such as green nano biocomposites reinforced with this form of MCC and pharmaceutical tableting material is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- M K Mohamad Haafiz
- Department of Polymer Engineering, Faculty of Chemical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Skudai UTM, Johor, Malaysia
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