SARS-CoV-2 pandemic-induced PPE and single-use plastic waste generation scenario

Protective face mask: an effective weapon against SARS-CoV-2 with controlled environmental pollution

Masks are face coverings that give protection from infectious agents, airborne pathogens, bacteria, viruses, surgical fog, dust, and other chemical hazards by acting as a barrier between the wearer and the environment. In the COVID-19 pandemic, this major personal protective equipment's became essential part of our daily life. The aim of this review is to analyze and discuss the different types of masks with their pros and cons, manufacturing procedures, evaluation criteria, and application with some of the sterilization process for reuse and smart mask. The review used a thorough examination of the literature to analyze the preventive effects of surgical, N95, smart mask, and potential environmental damage from those masks. Several studies and evidence were also examined to understand the efficiency of different mask on different environment. N95 respirators are capable of filtering out non-oil-based 95% air-born particles, and surgical masks act as a protective barrier between the wearer and the environment. The application of spoon bond and melt blown techniques in the fabrication process of those masks improves their protective nature and makes them lightweight and comfortable. But the high demand and low supply forced users to reuse and extend their use after sterilizations, even though those masks are recommended to be used once. Universal masking in the SARS-COV-2 pandemic increased the chance of environmental pollution, so the application of smart masks became essential because of their high protection power and self-sterilizing and reusing capabilities.

Purine-Doped g-C3N4-Modified Fabrics for Personal Protective Masks with Rapid and Sustained Antibacterial Activity

Protective masks are critical to impeding microorganism transmission but can propagate infection via pathogen buildup and face touching. To reduce this liability, we integrated electrospun photocatalytic graphitic carbon nitride (g-C3N4) nanoflakes into standard surgical masks to confer a self-sanitization capacity. By optimizing the purine/melamine precursor ratio during synthesis, we reduced the g-C3N4 band gap from 2.92 to 2.05 eV, eliciting a 4× increase in sterilizing hydrogen peroxide production under visible light. This narrower band gap enables robust photocatalytic generation of reactive oxygen species from environmental and breath humidity to swiftly eliminate accumulated microbes. Under ambient sunlight, the g-C3N4 nanocomposite mask layer achieved a 97% reduction in the bacterial viability during typical use. Because the optimized band gap also allows photocatalytic activity under shadowless lamp illumination, the self-cleaning functionality could mitigate infection risk from residual pathogens in routine hospital settings. Both g-C3N4 and polycaprolactone demonstrate favorable biocompatibility and biodegradability, making this approach preferable over current commercially available metal-based options. Given the abundance and low cost of these components, this scalable approach could expand global access to reusable self-sanitizing protective masks, serving as a sustainable public health preparedness measure against future pandemics, especially in resource-limited settings.

Polystyrene microplastic-induced extracellular vesicles cause kidney-related effects in the crosstalk between tubular cells and fibroblasts

Plastic waste accumulation and its degradation into microplastics (MPs) and nanoplastics (NPs) pose environmental concerns. Previous studies have indicated that polystyrene (PS)-MPs harm living animals. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are associated with metabolic reprogramming and mitochondrial dysfunction in various kidney diseases. In this article, we evaluated how PS-MPs affected tubular cells and fibroblasts. The results demonstrated that PS-MPs increased EV production in human tubular cells and caused endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress-related proteins without inducing inflammation-related proteins in human tubular cells. The uptake of PS-MPs and incubation with the conditioned medium of PS-MPs induced reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and ER stress-related proteins in fibroblast cells. The fibroblast cells treated with the conditioned medium of PS-MPs also increased the expression of fibrosis-related proteins. Our findings suggested that the expression of EV-related markers increased in tubular cells via Beclin 1 after PS-MP treatment. In addition, PS-MPs induced ROS production in vitro and in vivo. We found that PS-MPs also altered the expression of EV markers in urine, and CD63 expression was also increased in vitro and in vivo after PS-MP treatment. In conclusion, PS-MP-induced EVs lead to ER stress-related proteins, ROS production and fibrosis-related proteins in tubular cells and fibroblasts.

COVID-19, waste production and municipal recycling programs: Insights from Chile to the global south

The amount and characterization of municipal and industrial waste generated in numerous cities worldwide have changed dramatically in recent years due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Consequently, assessing the impact of COVID-19-related policies is important to provide decision-makers with adequate knowledge to respond effectively to future events and create successful policies that respond to specific contexts. This study focuses on Chile, Latin America's second-largest municipal and industrial solid waste producer, with tight quarantine procedures placed to prevent the virus from spreading, and a series of monetary incentives implemented to minimize the economic and social impact of the quarantines. The time series of municipal solid waste (MSW) and recycling in the metropolitan region show a decrease in the amount collected during the initial months of lockdown and a subsequent increase during monetary incentive implementation. The country recovered and exceeded pre-pandemic MSW generation and recycling levels. Furthermore, the lockdown and the withdrawal of retirement funds (WRF) had a varied impact on each municipality in the region. However, WRF had a larger direct impact than a lockdown, indicating that purchasing power has a greater impact than mobility in waste generation and recycling, at least in this region of Chile.

Rapid In Situ Thermal Decontamination of Wearable Composite Textile Materials

Pandemics stress supply lines and generate shortages of personal protective equipment (PPE), in part because most PPE is single-use and disposable, resulting in a need for constant replenishment to cope with high-volume usage. To better prepare for the next pandemic and to reduce waste associated with disposable PPE, we present a composite textile material capable of thermally decontaminating its surface via Joule heating. This material can achieve high surface temperatures (>100 °C) and inactivate viruses quickly (<5 s of heating), as evidenced experimentally with the surrogate virus HCoV-OC43 and in agreement with analytical modeling for both HCoV-OC43 and SARS-CoV-2. Furthermore, it does not require doffing because it remains relatively cool near the skin (<40 °C). The material can be easily integrated into clothing and provides a rapid, reusable, in situ decontamination method capable of reducing PPE waste and mitigating the risk of supply line disruptions in times of need.

Personal protective equipment-derived pollution during Covid-19 era: A critical review of ecotoxicology impacts, intervention strategies, and future challenges

During the COVID-19 pandemic, people used personal protective equipment (PPE) to lessen the spread of the virus. The release of microplastics (MPs) from discarded PPE is a new threat to the long-term health of the environment and poses challenges that are not yet clear. PPE-derived MPs have been found in multi-environmental compartments, e.g., water, sediments, air, and soil across the Bay of Bengal (BoB). As COVID-19 spreads, healthcare facilities use more plastic PPE, polluting aquatic ecosystems. Excessive PPE use releases MPs into the ecosystem, which aquatic organisms ingest, distressing the food chain and possibly causing ongoing health problems in humans. Thus, post-COVID-19 sustainability depends on proper intervention strategies for PPE waste, which have received scholarly interest. Although many studies have investigated PPE-induced MPs pollution in the BoB countries (e.g., India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, and Myanmar), the ecotoxicity impacts, intervention strategies, and future challenges of PPE-derived waste have largely gone unnoticed. Our study presents a critical literature review covering the ecotoxicity impacts, intervention strategies, and future challenges across the BoB countries (e.g., India (162,034.45 tons), Bangladesh (67,996 tons), Sri Lanka (35,707.95 tons), and Myanmar (22,593.5 tons). The ecotoxicity impacts of PPE-derived MPs on human health and other environmental compartments are critically addressed. The review's findings infer a gap in the 5R (Reduce, Reuse, Recycle, Redesign, and Restructure) Strategy's implementation in the BoB coastal regions, hindering the achievement of UN SDG-12. Despite widespread research advancements in the BoB, many questions about PPE-derived MPs pollution from the perspective of the COVID-19 era still need to be answered. In response to the post-COVID-19 environmental remediation concerns, this study highlights the present research gaps and suggests new research directions considering the current MPs' research advancements on COVID-related PPE waste. Finally, the review suggests a framework for proper intervention strategies for reducing and monitoring PPE-derived MPs pollution in the BoB countries.

A multi-jurisdictional study on the quantification of COVID-19 household plastic waste in six Latin American countries

This study examines urban plastic waste generation using a citizen science approach in six Latin American countries during a global pandemic. The objectives are to quantify generation rates of masks, gloves, face shields, and plastic bags in urban households using online survey and perform a systematic cross-jurisdiction comparisons in these Latin American countries. The per capita total mask generation rates ranged from 0.179 to 0.915 mask cap-1 day-1. A negative correlation between the use of gloves and masks is observed. Using the average values, the approximate proportion of masks, gloves, shields, and single-use plastic bags was 34:5:1:84. We found that most studies overestimated face mask disposal rate in Latin America due to the simplifying assumptions on the number of masks discarded per person, masking prevalence rate, and average mask weight. Unlike other studies, end-of-life PPE quantities were directly counted and reported by the survey participants. Both of the conventional weight-based estimates and the proposed participatory survey are recommended in quantifying COVID waste. Participant' perception based on the Likert scale is generally consistent with the waste amount generated. Waste policy and regulation appear to be important in daily waste generation rate. The results highlight the importance of using measured data in waste estimates.

Recent trends on microplastics abundance and risk assessment in coastal Antarctica: Regional meta-analysis

We investigated sources, abundance and risk of microplastics (MPs) in water, sediments and biota around Antarctica. The concentration of MPs in Southern Ocean (SO) ranged from 0 to 0.56 items/m³ (mean = 0.01 items/m³) and 0-1.96 items/m³ (mean = 0.13 items/m³) in surface and sub-surface water. The distribution of fibers in water was 50%, sediments were 61%, and biota had 43%, which were followed by fragments in the water (42%), sediments (26%), and biota (28%). Shapes of film had lowest concentrations in water (2%), sediments 13%), and biota (3%). Ship traffic, drift of MPs by currents, and untreated waste water discharge contributed to the variety of MPs. The degree of pollution in all matrices was evaluated using the pollution load index (PLI), polymer hazard index (PHI), and potential ecological risk index (PERI). PLI at about 90.3% of locations were at category I followed by 5.9% at category II, 1.6% at category III, and 2.2% at category IV. Average PLI for water (3.14), sediments (6.6), and biota (2.72) had low pollution load (<10). Mean PHI for water, sediments, and biota showed hazards level V with a higher percentage of 84.6% (>1000) and 63.9% (PHI:0-1) in sediments and water, respectively. PERI for water showed 63.9% minor risk, and 36.1% extreme risk. Around 84.6% of sediments were at extreme risk, 7.7% faced minor risk, and 7.7% were at high risk. While 20% of marine organisms living in cold environments experienced minor risk, 20% were in high risk, and 60% were in extreme risk. Highest PERI was found in the water, sediments, and biota in Ross Sea, due to high hazardous polymer composition of polyvinylchloride (PVC) in the water and sediments due to human activity, particularly use of personnel care products and waste water discharge from research stations.

Facemask: Protection or threat?

Facemasks were widely used as a protection against SARS-COV-2, which significantly reduced COVID-19 transmission during the pandemic. However, concerns have been raised regarding its adverse impacts on human health due to intense use and mismanagement. Although rampant plastic littering was the norm before the pandemic, the magnitude of the problem is worsening as potentially COVID-19-infected facemasks are thrown along the shoreline. This study assessed the discarded facemasks on the most popular beach destinations in Mati City, Davao Oriental, Philippines. A total of N = 284 discarded facemasks were found in a cumulative area of 22,500 m², with an average density of 8.4 × 10^-4 items/m². The surgical facemask (82 %; n = 234) was the most abundant type of facemask found in the areas, followed by KF94 (16 %; n = 45) and KN95 (2 %; n = 5). The Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) showed significant differences in the visual counts of facemasks on the three beaches (p < 0.05).

The Role of Bacterial Polyhydroalkanoate (PHA) in a Sustainable Future: A Review on the Biological Diversity

Environmental challenges related to the mismanagement of plastic waste became even more evident during the COVID-19 pandemic. The need for new solutions regarding the use of plastics came to the forefront again. Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) have demonstrated their ability to replace conventional plastics, especially in packaging. Its biodegradability and biocompatibility makes this material a sustainable solution. The cost of PHA production and some weak physical properties compared to synthetic polymers remain as the main barriers to its implementation in the industry. The scientific community has been trying to solve these disadvantages associated with PHA. This review seeks to frame the role of PHA and bioplastics as substitutes for conventional plastics for a more sustainable future. It is focused on the bacterial production of PHA, highlighting the current limitations of the production process and, consequently, its implementation in the industry, as well as reviewing the alternatives to turn the production of bioplastics into a sustainable and circular economy.

Understanding of environmental pollution and its anthropogenic impacts on biological resources during the COVID-19 period

The global outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic has given rise to a significant health emergency to adverse impact on environment, and human society. The COVID-19 post-pandemic not only affects human beings but also creates pollution crisis in environment. The post-pandemic situation has shown a drastic change in nature due to biomedical waste load and other components. The inadequate segregation of untreated healthcare wastes, chemical disinfectants, and single-use plastics leads to contamination of the water, air, and agricultural fields. These materials allow the growth of disease-causing agents and transmission. Particularly, the COVID-19 outbreak has posed a severe environmental and health concern in many developing countries for infectious waste. In 2030, plastic enhances a transboundary menace to natural ecological communities and public health. This review provides a complete overview of the COVID-19 pandemic on environmental pollution and its anthropogenic impacts to public health and natural ecosystem considering short- and long-term scenarios. The review thoroughly assesses the impacts on ecosystem in the terrestrial, marine, and atmospheric realms. The information from this evaluation can be utilized to assess the short-term and long-term solutions for minimizing any unfavorable effects. Especially, this topic focuses on the excessive use of plastics and their products, subsequently with the involvement of the scientific community, and policymakers will develop the proper management plan for the upcoming generation. This article also provides crucial research gap knowledge to boost national disaster preparedness in future perspectives.

Study of solid waste (municipal and medical) management during the COVID-19 pandemic: a review study

The COVID-19 pandemic has resulted in a global emergency crisis and created waste management challenges worldwide. Such a critical point has changed solid waste (municipal and medical) management prospects and posed fact challenges to the health decision-makers and policy-makers to make decisions to ensure sustainable management of the environment. One of the most negative prospects of COVID-19 pandemic is the increased waste generation, especially plastic waste in developing and developed countries. This study systematically reviews the potential influences of the COVID-19 pandemic on medical and municipal waste, and discusses the corresponding measures and policies of solid waste management in several countries. The results show that the highest and lowest quality of final disposal is observed in Finland with 75% recycling and in India with 90% open dumping, respectively. In many countries, the medical waste showed an increase by 350-500%.The pandemic has brought particular problems to the disposal capacity of municipal waste and medical waste across the world. We think that this point of view study provides valuable data for scientists, policy makers, health decision-makers, consultants, medical staff, medical supplies, those working in public health sector, and field engineers responsible for solid waste management.

Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on research on marine plastic pollution - A bibliometric-based assessment

Fighting the COVID-19 pandemic has led to a dramatic increase in plastic waste, which has had a huge impact on the environment, including the marine environment. This work aims to evaluate the pattern of national research cooperation, research hotspots, and research evolution before and during the epidemic by systematically reviewing the publications on marine plastic pollution during 2015-2019 (before the pandemic) 2020-2022 (during the pandemic) using the systematic literature review and latent semantic analysis. The results show (i) Compared to pre-pandemic, publications on marine pollution during the COVID-19 pandemic declined briefly and then increased sharply. (ii) Compared with before the pandemic, the national cooperation model has changed during the pandemic, and four major research centers have been formed: Central European countries centered on Italy; Nordic countries centered on United Kingdom; South Korea, India and other developing countries in Asia and Africa and a Pacific Rim country centered on United States and China. (iii) The knowledge map of keyword clustering does not change significantly before and during the COVID-19: ecosystem, spatial distribution, environmental governance and biodegradation. However, there are differences in the sub-category research of the four types of keywords. (iv) The impact of marine plastic on organisms and the governance of marine plastic pollution have become a branch of knowledge that have evolved rapidly during the pandemic. The governance of marine plastic pollution and microplastics are expected to become an important research direction.

COVID-19-related litter pollution on Greek beaches and nearshore shallow water environments

COVID-19 pandemic has led to an increase in certain types of litter, many of which are expected to end up in the marine environment. The present study aimed to monitor the pandemic-related litter pollution along the Greek coastal environment. Overall, 59 beach and 83 underwater clean-ups were conducted. Litter was categorized as: PPE (face masks and gloves), COVID-19-related, single-use plastic (SUP) and takeaway items. PPE, dominated by face masks (86.21 %), accounted for 0.29 % of all litter. The average PPE density was 3.1 × 10^-3 items m^-2 and 2.59 items/ 100 m. COVID-19-related items represented 1.04 % of the total. Wet wipes showed higher densities (0.67 % of all litter) than in the pre-COVID era, while no increase in SUP and takeaway items was observed. Benthic PPE, dominated by gloves (83.95 %), represented 0.26 % of the total. The mean PPE density was 2.5 × 10^-3 items m^-2.

Recycling of plastic wastes generated from COVID-19: A comprehensive illustration of type and properties of plastics with remedial options

Plastic has contributed enormously to the healthcare sector and towards public health safety during the COVID-19 pandemic. With the frequent usage of plastic-based personal protective equipment (PPEs) (including face masks, gloves, protective body suits, aprons, gowns, face shields, surgical masks, and goggles), by frontline health workers, there has been a tremendous increase in their manufacture and distribution. Different types of plastic polymers are used in the manufacture of this equipment, depending upon their usage. However, since a majority of these plastics are still single-use plastics (SUP), they are not at all eco-friendly and end up generating large quantities of plastic waste. The overview presents the various available and practiced methods in vogue for disposal cum treatment of these highly contaminated plastic wastes. Among the current methods of plastic waste disposal, incineration and land filling are the most common ones, but both these methods have their negative impacts on the environment. Alongside, numerous methods that can be used to sterilize them before any treatment have been discussed. There are several new sorting technologies, to help produce purer polymers that can be made to undergo thermal or chemical treatments. Microbial degradation is one such novel method that is under the spotlight currently and being studied extensively, because of its ecological advantages, cost-effectiveness, ease of use, and maintenance. In addition to the deliberations on the methods, strategies have been enumerated for combination of different methods, vis-à-vis studying the life cycle assessment towards a more circular economy in handling this menace to protect mankind.

To what extent do waste management strategies need adaptation to post-COVID-19?

The world has been grappling with the crisis of the COVID-19 pandemic for more than a year. Various sectors have been affected by COVID-19 and its consequences. The waste management system is one of the sectors affected by such unpredictable pandemics. The experience of COVID-19 proved that adaptability to such pandemics and the post-pandemic era had become a necessity in waste management systems and this requires an accurate understanding of the challenges that have been arising. The accurate information and data from most countries severely affected by the pandemic are not still available to identify the key challenges during and post-COVID-19. The documented evidence from literature has been collected, and the attempt has been made to summarize the rising challenges and the lessons learned. This review covers all raised challenges concerning the various aspects of the waste management system from generation to final disposal (i.e., generation, storage, collection, transportation, processing, and burial of waste). The necessities and opportunities are recognized for increasing flexibility and adaptability in waste management systems. The four basic pillars are enumerated to adapt the waste management system to the COVID-19 pandemic and post-COVID-19 conditions. Striving to support and implement a circular economy is one of its basic strategies.

Plastic particles in medicine: A systematic review of exposure and effects to human health

Single-use plastics (SUPs) have become an essential constituent of our daily life. It is being exploited in numerous pharmaceutical and healthcare applications. Despite their advantages and widespread use in the pharma and medical sectors, the potential clinical problems of plastics, especially the release of micro-nanoplastics (MNPs) and additives from medical plastics (e.g. bags, containers, and administrative sets) and sorption of drugs remain understudied. Certainly, the MNPs are multifaceted stressors that cause detrimental effects to the ecosystem and human health. The origin and persistence of MNPs in pharmaceutical products, their administration to humans, endurance and possible health implication, translocation, and excretion have not been reviewed in detail. The prime focus of this article is to conduct a systematic review on the leaching of MNPs and additives from pharmaceutical containers/administrative sets and their interaction with the pharmaceutical constituents. This review also explores the primary and secondary routes of MNPs entry from healthcare plastic products and their potential health hazards to humans. Furthermore, the fate of plastic waste generated in hospitals, their disposal, and associated MNPs release to the environment, along with preventive, and alternative measures are discussed herein.

How comprehensive and effective are waste management policies during the COVID-19 pandemic? Perspectives from the Philippines

This study presents a comprehensive analysis on policies governing the management of COVID-19 waste in the Philippines, highlighting gaps in pre-existing policies and opportunities for further policy development and adaptation in the context of present and future public health emergencies. A hybrid search strategy and consultative process identified fifty (50) policy documents directly impacting the management of wastes (general domestic, healthcare, and household healthcare waste) released prior to and during the pandemic. Content analysis revealed comprehensive policy coverage on managing general domestic waste and healthcare waste. However, there remains a dearth in policies for managing household healthcare waste, an emerging category for waste generated by patients isolating at home or in isolation facilities. Applicable, pre-existing policies were neither adequate nor specific to this category, and may therefore be subjected to variable interpretation and mismanagement when applied to this novel waste category. Assessment using the modified Cradle-to-End-Of-Life (CTEOL) framework revealed adequate policy coverage across the waste lifecycle stages. However, policies on reducing waste generation were relatively minimal and outdated, and policy gaps in waste segregation led to downstream inefficiencies and introduction of environmental health risks in waste collection, treatment, and disposal. The internal validity of policies was also evaluated against eleven (11) criteria adapted from Rütten et al. and Cheung et al. The criteria analysis revealed strong fulfillment of ensuring policy accessibility, goal clarity, provision of human resources, and strength of policy background, but weak fulfillment of criteria on providing adequate financing, organizational capacity building, monitoring and evaluation, and encouragement of opportunities for public participation. We conclude that existing waste management policies in the Philippines leave much room for improvement to ensure effective management of COVID-19 waste from various settings and circumstances. Hence, these policies are expected to adapt and evolve over time, utilizing the best available technology and environmental practices. Integrated, region-wide waste management systems, involving both government and society, and strengthened by equitable provisional support are needed for effective waste management that is both inclusive and resilient in the face of present and future pandemics.

Waste management model for COVID-19: recommendations for future threats

The change in habits and lifestyle of citizens during health crisis like COVID-19 pandemic has resulted in an unprecedented increase in the struggles for solid waste management across the globe. Not only underdeveloped and developing economies are struggling with the challenges posed by mounting piles of infectious waste but even developed countries are adversely affected in similar manner. The routine waste management strategies followed by various countries are overturned due extremely altered trends in the amount and type of waste generated by households and medical facilities. The aim of this paper is to study and list the best available waste management policies adopted by some developing, developed and underdeveloped economies. The listed case studies were selected due to some unique steps undertaken for solid waste disposal during pandemic. The findings revealed that the guidelines issued by WHO for waste management of corona virus infected waste were followed by these nations and certain additional preventive steps were taken. Due to unavailability of single framework as prescribed by international authorities, various sustainable steps taken by individual countries to curb the pandemic menace can be useful in the present context. Few of these measures can be permanently adopted at global level by other nations for handling the pandemic like situations efficiently in pandemic situations.

Personal protective equipment (PPE) pollution driven by the COVID-19 pandemic along the shoreline of Lake Tana, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia

Personal protective equipment (PPE) pollution has become one of the most pending environmental challenges resulting from the pandemic. While various studies investigated PPE pollution in the marine environment, freshwater bodies have been largely overlooked. In the present study, PPE monitoring was carried out in the vicinity of Lake Tana, the largest lake in Ethiopia. PPE density, types, and chemical composition (FTIR spectroscopy) were reported. A total of 221 PPEs were identified with a density ranging from 1.22 × 10^-5 PPE m^-2 (control site S1) to 2.88× 10^-4 PPE m^-2 with a mean density of 1.54 × 10^-4 ± 2.58 × 10^-5 PPE m^-2. Mismanaged PPE waste was found in all the sampling sites, mostly consisting of surgical face masks (93.7%). Statistical analyzes revealed significantly higher PPE densities in sites where several recreational, touristic, and commercial activities take place, thus, revealing the main sources of PPE pollution. Furthermore, polypropylene and polyester fabrics were identified as the main components of surgical and reusable cloth masks, respectively. Given the hazard that PPEs represent to aquatic biota (e.g., entanglement, ingestion) and their ability to release microplastics (MPs), it is necessary to implement sufficient solid waste management plans and infrastructure where lake activities take place. Additionally, local authorities must promote and ensure sustainable tourism in order to maintain the ecosystems in Lake Tana. Prospective research priorities regarding the colonization and degradation of PPE, as well as the release of toxic chemicals, were identified and discussed.

Plastic Waste Management towards Energy Recovery during the COVID-19 Pandemic: The Example of Protective Face Mask Pyrolysis

This paper presents an assessment of the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the waste management sector, and then, based on laboratory tests and computer calculations, indicates how to effectively manage selected waste generated during the pandemic. Elemental compositions—namely, C, H, N, S, Cl, and O—were determined as part of the laboratory tests, and the pyrolysis processes of the above wastes were analysed using the TGA technique. The calculations were performed for a pilot pyrolysis reactor with a continuous flow of 240 kg/h in the temperature range of 400–900 °C. The implemented calculation model was experimentally verified for the conditions of the refuse-derived fuel (RDF) pyrolysis process. As a result of the laboratory tests and computer simulations, comprehensive knowledge was obtained about the pyrolysis of protective masks, with particular emphasis on the gaseous products of this process. The high calorific value of the pyrolysis gas, amounting to approx. 47.7 MJ/m3, encourages the management of plastic waste towards energy recovery. The proposed approach may be helpful in the initial assessment of the possibility of using energy from waste, depending on its elemental composition, as well as in the assessment of the environmental effects.

Assessing face masks in the environment by means of the DPSIR framework

The use of face masks outside the health care facility dates back a century ago. However, face masks use noticeably soared due to the COVID-19 (Coronavirus disease 2019) pandemic. As a result, an unprecedented influx of discarded face masks is ending up in the environment. This review paper delves into face masks in the environment using the DPSIR (driving forces, pressures, states, impacts, and responses) framework to simplify and communicate the environmental indicators. Firstly, the historical, and briefly the economic trajectory of face masks are discussed. Secondly, the main driving forces of face masks use with an emphasis on public health are explored. Then, the pressures exerted by efforts to fulfill the human needs (driving forces) are investigated. In turn, the state of the environment due to the influx of masks along with the impacts are examined. Furthermore, the upstream, and downstream societal responses to mitigate the environmental damages of the driving forces, pressures, states, and impacts are reviewed. In summary, it has been shown from this review that the COVID-19 pandemic has been causing a surge in face mask usage, which translates to face masks pollution in both terrestrial and aquatic environments. This implies proper usage and disposal of face masks is paramount to the quality of human health and the environment, respectively. Moreover, further research on eco-friendly face masks is indispensable to mitigating the environmental damages occurring due to the mass use of surgical masks worldwide.

Reconciling human health with the environment while struggling against the COVID-19 pandemic through improved face mask eco-design

Surgical masks have become critical for protecting human health against the COVID-19 pandemic, even though their environmental burden is a matter of ongoing debate. This study aimed at shedding light on the environmental impacts of single-use (i.e., MD-Type I) versus reusable (i.e., MD-Type IIR) face masks via a comparative life cycle assessment with a cradle-to-grave system boundary. We adopted a two-level analysis using the ReCiPe (H) method, considering both midpoint and endpoint categories. The results showed that reusable face masks created fewer impacts for most midpoint categories. At the endpoint level, reusable face masks were superior to single-use masks, producing scores of 16.16 and 84.20 MPt, respectively. The main environmental impacts of single-use masks were linked to raw material consumption, energy requirements and waste disposal, while the use phase and raw material consumption made the most significant contribution for reusable type. However, our results showed that lower environmental impacts of reusable face masks strongly depend on the use phase since reusable face masks lost their superior performance when the hand wash scenario was tested. Improvement of mask eco-design emerged as another key factor such as using more sustainable raw materials and designing better waste disposal scenarios could significantly lower the environmental impacts.

Assessing face mask littering in urban environments and policy implications: The case of Bangkok

Face mask usage is one of the preventive measures encouraged worldwide to limit the transmission of the SARS-Cov-2 pandemic. Hence, production and mass use of face masks is on the rise due to the pandemic as well as government rules that mandate citizens to wear face masks. However, the improper disposal of face masks has been polluting the environment with enormous hazardous waste. In this study, a face mask littering assessment in an urbanized environment, Bangkok, was carried out. Three streets in the city were selected and observed for face mask littering for 5 h per day for 42 days. Moreover, a questionnaire from 605 participants was recorded to determine mask handling and disposal practices. The study found a total of 170 single-use face masks within a 13.30 km path. Furthermore, the highest (40) and lowest (17) cumulative litter were recorded on Sunday and Monday, respectively. Buffer analysis at 300 m showed 47% of mask litter was found within five mass transit stations, while 15% are within a single street market. Of 605 respondents, 82.15% used a single-use face mask. Surprisingly, most of them (70.58%) disposed of used face masks in regular bins along with their household waste. The results highlight three policy implications to tackle the growing problem: raising awareness, regulation, and provision of bins designed for used face masks in strategic places and supporting innovations and research for eco-friendly face masks.

Solid waste management during COVID-19 pandemic: Recovery techniques and responses

Solid waste management (SWM) is a service of public health that is often understated in its significance. If a public health emergency like the COVID-19 outbreak exacerbates the SWM problem, its true importance as an imperative service becomes more apparent. The crisis triggered by the COVID-19 pandemic has changed the dynamics of waste generation globally in nearly every sector and has therefore raised the need for special attention. The unpredictable variations in the quantity and composition of waste also pressurize policymakers to react dynamically. This review highlights the major problems faced during the pandemic by SWM sector and the underlying possibilities to fill the gaps in the existing system. The review focuses on particular areas that have been the most important cause of concern throughout the crisis in the process of waste management. In addition, the mixing of virus infected biomedical waste with the stream of normal solid waste and lack of active involvement of the citizen and cooperation presents the major negative safety and health concerns for the workers involved in the sanitation process. Apart from presenting innovative solutions to tackle current waste management issues, this study also proposes several key potential guidelines to holistically mitigate possible future pandemics, if any. This article can also be of great implication for creation of a specific strategy towards preventing/controlling any potential pandemic of similar kind in the near future.

A critical synthesis of current peer-reviewed literature on the environmental and human health impacts of COVID-19 PPE litter: New findings and next steps

Since the emergence of Coronavirus disease (COVID-19), the threat of plastic waste pollution has grown exponentially, with a strong attention on the environmental and human health consequences of millions of personal protective equipment (PPE) (e.g., face masks, shields, gloves, and wipes) being used and discarded. In response, a massive research effort has been launched to understand, characterize, and estimate the exposure risks of PPE associated contaminants. While the number of studies examining the impacts of PPE is increasing, this review aimed to provide a quick update on the research conducted to date of this topic, as well as to identify priorities for future research. Specifically, we analyzed recent global peer-reviewed articles on PPE to synthesize methods, control measures, and documented evidence to (1) investigate the discarded PPE in a variety of environments; (2) determine the microplastics discharge in the aquatic environment; (3) examine the intentionally or unintentionally added chemicals in the production of PPE; and (4) assess potential human health hazards and exposure pathways. Despite progress, more research is needed in the future to fully understand the chemical emissions from PPE degradation mechanisms (mechanical, chemical, and biological), as well as the magnitude and density of PPE pollution in the environment.

Impact of waste of COVID-19 protective equipment on the environment, animals and human health: a review

During the Corona Virus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, protective equipment, such as masks, gloves and shields, has become mandatory to prevent person-to-person transmission of coronavirus. However, the excessive use and abandoned protective equipment is aggravating the world's growing plastic problem. Moreover, above protective equipment can eventually break down into microplastics and enter the environment. Here we review the threat of protective equipment associated plastic and microplastic wastes to environments, animals and human health, and reveal the protective equipment associated microplastic cycle. The major points are the following:1) COVID-19 protective equipment is the emerging source of plastic and microplastic wastes in the environment. 2) protective equipment associated plastic and microplastic wastes are polluting aquatic, terrestrial, and atmospheric environments. 3) Discarded protective equipment can harm animals by entrapment, entanglement and ingestion, and derived microplastics can also cause adverse implications on animals and human health. 4) We also provide several recommendations and future research priority for the sustainable environment. Therefore, much importance should be attached to potential protective equipment associated plastic and microplastic pollution to protect the environment, animals and humans.

Biodegradable and multifunctional surgical face masks: A brief review on demands during COVID-19 pandemic, recent developments, and future perspectives

Providing the greater public with the current coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) vaccines is time-consuming and research-intensive; intermediately, some essential ways to reduce the transmission include social distancing, personal hygiene, testing, contact tracing, and universal masking. The data suggests that universal masking, especially using multilayer surgical face masks, offers a powerful efficacy for indoor places. These layers have different functions including antiviral/antibacterial, fluid barrier, particulate and bacterial filtration, and fit and comfort. However, universal masking poses a serious environmental threat since billions of them are disposed on a daily basis; the current coronavirus disease (COVID-19) has put such demands and consequences in perspective. This review focuses on surgical face mask structures and classifications, their impact on our environment, some of their desirable functionalities, and the recent developments around their biodegradability. The authors believe that this review provides an insight into the fabrication and deployment of effective surgical face masks, and it discusses the utilization of multifunctional structures along with biodegradable materials to deal with future demands in a more eco-friendly fashion.

Wet wipes contribution to microfiber contamination under COVID-19 era: An important but overlooked problem

Wet wipes for disinfection, sanitizing, and medical purposes, like personal protective equipment, have witnessed an upsurge in production and use as a result of COVID-19 outbreak. They are a potential source of microfibers and have recently been found in COVID-19 plastic litter survey campaigns conducted in a few marine environments around the world. This mini-review highlights wet wipes as a one of the key debris items contributing to the growing COVID-19-related microplastic pollution, and there are significant gaps in our understanding of microfiber release under different environmental conditions, morphological, and chemical degradation signatures, necessitating a comprehensive study of disinfectant wipes. Thus, we urge microplastic researchers to investigate the environmental implications of wet wipes in order to keep the total estimate of the plastic problem up to date and manage the associated environmental challenges.

Escalating SARS-CoV-2 circulation in environment and tracking waste management in South Asia

The novel coronavirus disease of 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has caused an exceptional drift of production, utilization, and disposal of personal protective equipment (PPE) and different microplastic objects for safety against the virus. Hence, we reviewed related literature on severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) RNA detected from household, biomedical waste, and sewage to identify possible health risks and status of existing laws, regulations, and policies regarding waste disposal in South Asian (SA) countries. The SARS-CoV-2 RNA was detected in sewage and wastewater samples of Nepal, India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh. Besides, this review reiterates the enormous amounts of PPE and other single-use plastic wastes generated from healthcare facilities and households in the SA region with inappropriate disposal, landfilling, and/or incineration techniques wind-up polluting the environment. Consequently, the Delta variant (B.1.617.2) of SARS-CoV-2 has been detected in sewer treatment plant in India. Moreover, the overuse of non-biodegradable plastics during the pandemic is deteriorating plastic pollution condition and causes a substantial health risk to the terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. We recommend making necessary adjustments, adopting measures and strategies, and enforcement of the existing biomedical waste management and sanitation-related policy in SA countries. We propose to adopt the knowledge gaps to improve COVID-19-associated waste management and legislation to prevent further environmental pollution. Besides, the citizens should follow proper disposal procedures of COVID-19 waste to control the environmental pollution.

Plastic pollution during COVID-19: Plastic waste directives and its long-term impact on the environment

Majority of the million tons of plastic produced each year is being disposed after single-use. Plastic bottle, bags, food containers, gloves, and cup that end up in landfills and environment could linger for hundreds to thousands of years. Moreover, COVID-19 pandemic caused by the novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2), will also exacerbate the global plastic pollution as the use of personal protective equipment (PPE i.e., gloves, masks) became mandatory to prevent the spread of the virus. Plastic eventually breaking down in micro & nanoscopic bits due to physical or chemical or biological actions in the environment, can enter animal and human food web. So, plastic management programs need to be more robust with a focus on the prevention of the micro and nanoplastics entrance into the environment and food web. In the present pandemic situation, it is even more necessary to know about how much plastic waste is being generated and how different countries are coping up with their plastic waste management. In this review, we have elucidated how global plastic production rise during COVID-19 and how it would contribute to short and long-term impacts on the environment. Plastic pollution during the pandemic will increase the GHS emissions in the incineration facilities. Improper disposal of plastics into the oceans and lands would endanger the marine species and subsequently human lives. We have also assessed how the increased plastic pollution will aggravate the micro and nanoscale plastic problem, which have now become an emerging concern. This review will be helpful for people to understand the plastic usage and its subsequent consequences in the environment in a pandemic like COVID-19.

Key ingredients and recycling strategy of personal protective equipment (PPE): Towards sustainable solution for the COVID-19 like pandemics

The COVID-19 pandemic has intensified the complications of plastic trash management and disposal. The current situation of living in fear of transmission of the COVID-19 virus has further transformed our behavioural models, such as regularly using personal protective equipment (PPE) kits and single-use applications for day to day needs etc. It has been estimated that with the passage of the coronavirus epidemic every month, there is expected use of 200 billion pieces of single-use facemasks and gloves. PPE are well established now as life-saving items for medicinal specialists to stay safe through the COVID-19 pandemic. Different processes such as glycolysis, hydrogenation, aminolysis, hydrolysis, pyrolysis, and gasification are now working on finding advanced technologies to transfer waste PPE into value-added products. Here, in this article, we have discussed the recycling strategies of PPE, important components (such as medical gloves, gowns, masks & respirators and other face and eye protection) and the raw materials used in PPE kits. Further, the value addition methods to recycling the PPE kits, chemical & apparatus used in recycling and recycling components into value-added products. Finally, the biorenewable materials in PPE for textiles components have been discussed along with concluded remarks.

Face mask waste generation and management during the COVID-19 pandemic: An overview and the Peruvian case

The ongoing COVID-19 pandemic has driven massive consumption of personal protective equipment (PPE) worldwide. Single-use face masks are one of the most used PPE to prevent the transmission of the virus. However, mismanagement of such materials threatens the environment with a new form of plastic pollution. Researchers argue that it is necessary to develop and implement innovative ways to manage and recycle PPE in order to reduce their impacts on the environment. In the present work, we have reviewed and discussed the recent development of sustainable face mask alternatives and recycling and repurposing routes under the COVID-19 pandemic context. Moreover, we have conducted estimations of the daily face mask waste generation in Peru, a developing country struggling with a poor solid waste management framework and infrastructure. Unlike previous studies, our equation incorporates the “economically active population” variable in order to provide more precise estimations, while evaluating single-use and reusable scenarios. The scenarios of incorporating reusable face masks significantly reduced the amount of solid waste generated in Peru. In situ evidence shows that face masks are polluting the streets and beaches of Peru, probably driven by mismanagement and poor environmental awareness.

Plastic and its consequences during the COVID-19 pandemic

During the pandemic outbreak of COVID-19, the important role of plastic becomes evident since vital equipment such as respirators have plastic parts, as well as personal protective equipment (PPE), which avoids the transmission of the SARS-CoV-2 virus, is made of plastic. So, plastic during a pandemic is considered a life savior in the struggle against the virus. However, the same material that is a protector becomes a polluter when inadequately disposed of in the environment, generating or worsening socio-environmental problems, such as pollution of water bodies by plastic. This work proposes a reflection about the role and the importance of plastic in our society, bringing an overview of its main applications and consequences during the COVID-19 pandemic, correlating its use with aspects related to environmental problems and public health. Some questions revolving around the concerns caused by plastic pollution are posed, and some possible solutions to the problems are outlined.

Plastic and its consequences during the COVID-19 pandemic

During the pandemic outbreak of COVID-19, the important role of plastic becomes evident since vital equipment such as respirators have plastic parts, as well as personal protective equipment (PPE), which avoids the transmission of the SARS-CoV-2 virus, is made of plastic. So, plastic during a pandemic is considered a life savior in the struggle against the virus. However, the same material that is a protector becomes a polluter when inadequately disposed of in the environment, generating or worsening socio-environmental problems, such as pollution of water bodies by plastic. This work proposes a reflection about the role and the importance of plastic in our society, bringing an overview of its main applications and consequences during the COVID-19 pandemic, correlating its use with aspects related to environmental problems and public health. Some questions revolving around the concerns caused by plastic pollution are posed, and some possible solutions to the problems are outlined.