Rodent-borne parasites in Qatar: A possible risk at the human-animal-ecosystem interface

Rodents are known reservoirs for a diverse group of zoonotic pathogens that can pose a threat to human health. Therefore, it is crucial to investigate these pathogens to institute prevention and control measures. To achieve this, the current study was conducted to investigate the frequency of different parasites in commensal rodents in Qatar. A total of 148 rodents, including Rattus norvegicus, Rattus rattus, and Mus musculus were captured using traps placed in different habitats such as agricultural and livestock farms, residential areas, and other localities. Blood, feces, ectoparasite, and visceral organs were collected for gross, microscopic, immunological, and molecular analysis. The study identified 10 different parasites, including Capillaria annulosa, Eimeria spp., Giardia spp., Hymenolepis diminuta, Mastophorus muris, Ornithonyssus bacoti, Taenia taeniaeformis, Toxoplasma gondii, Trypanosoma lewisi, and Xenopsylla astia. Overall, 62.2% of the rodents tested positive for at least one parasite species. Helminths were found to be the most prevalent parasites (46.0%), followed by ectoparasites (31.8%), and protozoa (10.1%). However, individually, X. astia was the most prevalent (31.8%), whereas C. annulosa was the least common (0.7%). The prevalence of X. astia and H. diminuta significantly differed between habitats (p < 0.05). The sequence analysis of Hymenolepis spp. was closely related to the previously reported H. diminuta in Iran, China, and Mexico. In conclusion, the study identified a diverse range of rodent-borne parasites that are important to public health, with most of them being recorded for the first time among commensal rodents in Qatar.

The role of vaccination and environmental factors on outbreaks of high pathogenicity avian influenza H5N1 in Bangladesh

High Pathogenicity Avian Influenza (HPAI) H5N1 outbreaks continue to wreak havoc on the global poultry industry and threaten the health of wild bird populations, with sporadic spillover in humans and other mammals, resulting in widespread calls to vaccinate poultry. Bangladesh has been vaccinating poultry since 2012, presenting a prime opportunity to study the effects of vaccination on HPAI H5N1circulation in both poultry and wild birds. We investigated the efficacy of vaccinating commercial poultry against HPAI H5N1 along with climatic and socio-economic factors considered potential drivers of HPAI H5N1 outbreak risk in Bangladesh. Using a multivariate modeling approach, we estimated that the rate of outbreaks was 18 times higher before compared to after vaccination, with winter months having a three times higher chance of outbreaks than summer months. Variables resulting in small but significant increases in outbreak rate were relatively low ambient temperatures for the time of year, literacy rate, chicken and duck density, crop density, and presence of highways; this may be attributable to low temperatures supporting viral survival outside the host, higher literacy driving reporting rate, density of the host reservoir, and spread of the virus through increased connectivity. Despite the substantial impact of vaccination on outbreaks, we note that HPAI H5N1 is still enzootic in Bangladesh; vaccinated poultry flocks have high rates of H5N1 prevalence, and spillover to wild birds has increased. Vaccination in Bangladesh thus bears the risk of supporting "silent spread," where the vaccine only provides protection against disease and not also infection. Our findings underscore that poultry vaccination can be part of holistic HPAI mitigation strategies when accompanied by monitoring to avoid silent spread.

Pathogenicity and virulence of monkeypox at the human-animal-ecology interface

Monkeypox (Mpox) was mostly limited to Central and Western Africa, but recently it has been reported globally. The current review presents an update on the virus, including ecology and evolution, possible drivers of transmission, clinical features and management, knowledge gaps, and research priorities to reduce the disease transmission. The origin, reservoir(s) and the sylvatic cycle of the virus in the natural ecosystem are yet to be confirmed. Humans acquire the infection through contact with infected animals, humans, and natural hosts. The major drivers of disease transmission include trapping, hunting, bushmeat consumption, animal trade, and travel to endemic countries. However, in the 2022 epidemic, the majority of the infected humans in non-endemic countries had a history of direct contact with clinical or asymptomatic persons through sexual activity. The prevention and control strategies should include deterring misinformation and stigma, promoting appropriate social and behavioural changes, including healthy life practices, instituting contact tracing and management, and using the smallpox vaccine for high-risk people. Additionally, longer-term preparedness should be emphasized using the One Health approach, such as systems strengthening, surveillance and detection of the virus across regions, early case detection, and integrating measures to mitigate the socio-economic effects of outbreaks.

Determinants for the presence of avian influenza virus in live bird markets in Bangladesh: Towards an easy fix of a looming one health issue

Highly pathogenic avian influenza virus subtype H5N1 endangers poultry, wildlife, and human health and is enzootic in large parts of Asia, with live bird markets (LBMs) as putative hotspots for their maintenance, amplification, and spread. To mitigate the extent of these and other avian influenza viruses (AIV) of concern, we aimed to increase our quantitative understanding of the factors determining the presence of avian influenza virus in LBM stalls. Between 2016 and 2017, we collected fecal or offal samples from 1008 stalls in 113 LBMs across the Dhaka and Rajshahi districts in Bangladesh. For each stall, samples were pooled and tested for the AIV matrix gene, followed by H5 and H9 subtyping using rRT-PCR. We detected Influenza A viral RNA in 49% of the stalls. Of the AIV positive samples, 52% and 24% were determined to be H5 and H9 viruses, respectively, which are both subtypes of considerable health concern. We used generalized linear mixed effect modelling to study AIV presence in individual stalls within LBMs as a function of 13 out of the 20 risk factors identified by FAO. We found that small and feasible improvements in cleaning and disinfection frequency, installing running water in stalls, and not mixing different breeds of chicken in the same cages had large impacts on the presence of AIV in stalls (Odds ratios 0.03-0.05). Next, cleaning vehicles used in poultry transport, not selling waterfowl with chickens in the same stall, buying stock directly from commercial farms, separating sick birds from healthy ones, and avoiding access by wild birds like house crows, also had major effects on lowering the risk of stalls having AIV (Odds ratios 0.16-0.33). These findings can be directly used in developing practical and affordable measures to reduce the prevalence of AIV in LBMs. Also, in settings with limited resources like Bangladesh, such mitigation may significantly contribute to reducing AIV circulation amongst poultry and spillover to wildlife and humans.

Potential risk zones and climatic factors influencing the occurrence and persistence of avian influenza viruses in the environment of live bird markets in Bangladesh

Live bird markets (LBMs) are critical for poultry trade in many developing countries that are regarded as hotspots for the prevalence and contamination of avian influenza viruses (AIV). Therefore, we conducted weekly longitudinal environmental surveillance in LBMs to determine annual cyclic patterns of AIV subtypes, environmental risk zones, and the role of climatic factors on the AIV presence and persistence in the environment of LBM in Bangladesh. From January 2018 to March 2020, we collected weekly fecal and offal swab samples from each LBM and tested using rRT-PCR for the M gene and subtyped for H5, H7, and H9. We used Generalized Estimating Equations (GEE) approaches to account for repeated observations over time to correlate the AIV prevalence and potential risk factors and the negative binomial and Poisson model to investigate the role of climatic factors on environmental contamination of AIV at the LBM. Over the study period, 37.8% of samples tested AIV positive, 18.8% for A/H5, and A/H9 was, for 15.4%. We found the circulation of H5, H9, and co-circulation of H5 and H9 in the environmental surfaces year-round. The Generalized Estimating Equations (GEE) model reveals a distinct seasonal pattern in transmitting AIV and H5. Specifically, certain summer months exhibited a substantial reduction of risk up to 70-90% and 93-94% for AIV and H5 contamination, respectively. The slaughtering zone showed a significantly higher risk of contamination with H5, with a three-fold increase in risk compared to bird-holding zones. From the negative binomial model, we found that climatic factors like temperature and relative humidity were also significantly associated with weekly AIV circulation. An increase in temperature and relative humidity decreases the risk of AIV circulation. Our study underscores the significance of longitudinal environmental surveillance for identifying potential risk zones to detect H5 and H9 virus co-circulation and seasonal transmission, as well as the imperative for immediate interventions to reduce AIV at LBMs in Bangladesh. We recommend adopting a One Health approach to integrated AIV surveillance across animal, human, and environmental interfaces in order to prevent the epidemic and pandemic of AIV.

Reply to Hamzavi et al. Comment on "Islam et al. Helminth Parasites among Rodents in the Middle East Countries: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Animals 2020, 10, 2342"

Rodents serve as an important reservoir or carrier of zoonotic pathogens on a global scale [...].

Cytokines and their role as immunotherapeutics and vaccine Adjuvants: The emerging concepts

Cytokines are a protein family comprising interleukins, lymphokines, chemokines, monokines and interferons. They are significant constituents of the immune system, and they act in accordance with specific cytokine inhibiting compounds and receptors for the regulation of immune responses. Cytokine studies have resulted in the establishment of newer therapies which are being utilized for the treatment of several malignant diseases. The advancement of these therapies has occurred from two distinct strategies. The first strategy involves administrating the recombinant and purified cytokines, and the second strategy involves administrating the therapeutics which inhibits harmful effects of endogenous and overexpressed cytokines. Colony stimulating factors and interferons are two exemplary therapeutics of cytokines. An important effect of cytokine receptor antagonist is that they can serve as anti-inflammatory agents by altering the treatments of inflammation disorder, therefore inhibiting the effects of tumour necrosis factor. In this article, we have highlighted the research behind the establishment of cytokines as therapeutics and vaccine adjuvants, their role of immunotolerance, and their limitations.

Epidemiology and phylodynamics of multiple clades of H5N1 circulating in domestic duck farms in different production systems in Bangladesh

Waterfowl are considered to be natural reservoirs of the avian influenza virus (AIV). However, the dynamics of transmission and evolutionary patterns of AIV and its subtypes within duck farms in Bangladesh remain poorly documented. Hence, a cross-sectional study was conducted in nine districts of Bangladesh between 2019 and 2021, to determine the prevalence of AIV and its subtypes H5 and H9, as well as to identify risk factors and the phylodynamics of H5N1 clades circulating in domestic duck farms. The oropharyngeal and cloacal swab samples were tested for the AIV Matrix gene (M-gene) followed by H5, H7, and H9 subtypes using rRT-PCR. The exploratory analysis was performed to estimate AIV and its subtype prevalence in different production systems, and multivariable logistic regression model was used to identify the risk factors that influence AIV infection in ducks. Bayesian phylogenetic analysis was conducted to generate a maximum clade credibility (MCC) tree and the maximum likelihood method to determine the phylogenetic relationships of the H5N1 viruses isolated from ducks. AIV was detected in 40% (95% CI: 33.0-48.1) of the duck farms. The prevalence of AIV was highest in nomadic ducks (39.8%; 95% CI: 32.9-47.1), followed by commercial ducks (24.6%; 95% CI: 14.5-37.3) and backyard ducks (14.4%; 95% CI: 10.5-19.2). The H5 prevalence was also highest in nomadic ducks (19.4%; 95% CI: 14.0-25.7). The multivariable logistic regression model revealed that ducks from nomadic farms (AOR: 2.4; 95% CI: 1.45-3.93), juvenile (AOR: 2.2; 95% CI: 1.37-3.61), and sick ducks (AOR: 11.59; 95% CI: 4.82-32.44) had a higher risk of AIV. Similarly, the likelihood of H5 detection was higher in sick ducks (AOR: 40.8; 95% CI: 16.3-115.3). Bayesian phylogenetic analysis revealed that H5N1 viruses in ducks belong to two distinct clades, 2.3.2.1a, and 2.3.4.4b. The clade 2.3.2.1a (reassorted) has been evolving silently since 2015 and forming at least nine subgroups based on >90% posterior probability. Notably, clade 2.3.4.4b was introduced in ducks in Bangladesh by the end of the year 2020, which was genetically similar to viruses detected in wild birds in Japan, China, and Africa, indicating migration-associated transmission of an emerging panzootic clade. We recommend continuing AIV surveillance in the duck production system and preventing the intermingling of domestic ducks with migratory waterfowl in wetlands.

Annual trading patterns and risk factors of avian influenza A/H5 and A/H9 virus circulation in turkey birds (Meleagris gallopavo) at live bird markets in Dhaka city, Bangladesh

The impacts of the avian influenza virus (AIV) on farmed poultry and wild birds affect human health, livelihoods, food security, and international trade. The movement patterns of turkey birds from farms to live bird markets (LBMs) and infection of AIV are poorly understood in Bangladesh. Thus, we conducted weekly longitudinal surveillance in LBMs to understand the trading patterns, temporal trends, and risk factors of AIV circulation in turkey birds. We sampled a total of 423 turkeys from two LBMs in Dhaka between May 2018 and September 2019. We tested the swab samples for the AIV matrix gene (M-gene) followed by H5, H7, and H9 subtypes using real-time reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (rRT-PCR). We used exploratory analysis to investigate trading patterns, annual cyclic trends of AIV and its subtypes, and a generalized estimating equation (GEE) logistic model to determine the factors that influence the infection of H5 and H9 in turkeys. Furthermore, we conducted an observational study and informal interviews with traders and vendors to record turkey trading patterns, demand, and supply and turkey handling practices in LBM. We found that all trade routes of turkey birds to northern Dhaka are unidirectional and originate from the northwestern and southern regions of Bangladesh. The number of trades from the source district to Dhaka depends on the turkey density. The median distance that turkey was traded from its source district to Dhaka was 188 km (Q1 = 165, Q3 = 210, IQR = 45.5). We observed seasonal variation in the median and average distance of turkey. The qualitative findings revealed that turkey farming initially became reasonably profitable in 2018 and at the beginning of 2019. However, the fall in demand and production in the middle of 2019 may be related to unstable market pricing, high feed costs, a shortfall of adequate marketing facilities, poor consumer knowledge, and a lack of advertising. The overall prevalence of AIV, H5, and H9 subtypes in turkeys was 31% (95% CI: 26.6-35.4), 16.3% (95% CI: 12.8-19.8), and 10.2% (95% CI: 7.3-13.1) respectively. None of the samples were positive for H7. The circulation of AIV and H9 across the annual cycle showed no seasonality, whereas the circulation of H5 showed significant seasonality. The GEE revealed that detection of AIV increases in retail vendor business (OR: 1.71; 95% CI: 1.12-2.62) and the bird's health status is sick (OR: 10.77; 95% CI: 4.31-26.94) or dead (OR: 11.33; 95% CI: 4.30-29.89). We also observed that winter season (OR: 5.83; 95% CI: 2.80-12.14) than summer season, dead birds (OR: 61.71; 95% CI: 25.78-147.75) and sick birds (OR 8.33; 95% CI: 3.36-20.64) compared to healthy birds has a higher risk of H5 infection in turkeys. This study revealed that the turkeys movements vary by time and season from the farm to the LBM. This surveillance indicated year-round circulation of AIV with H5 and H9 subtypes in turkey birds in LBMs. The seasonality and health condition of birds influence H5 infection in birds. The trading pattern of turkey may play a role in the transmission of AIV viruses in the birds. The selling of sick turkeys infected with H5 and H9 highlights the possibility of virus transmission to other species of birds sold at LBMs and to people.

Comparison of Serum Zinc in Children of Wilson Disease and Non-Wilsonian Volunteers in Bangladesh

Wilson disease (WD) is an autosomal recessive disorder of copper metabolism with diverse clinical manifestations. Zinc (Zn) has been used for treatment of WD. Recent studies showed low serum zinc level in patients suffering from WD than the normal. This cross-sectional analytical study has been designed to compare the serum zinc level between paediatric patients suffering from WD but yet not started treatment and children who have normal ALT level. This study was carried out at the Department of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition, BSMMU, Dhaka, Bangladesh from July 2018 to June 2019. Total 51 children were included in this study. Among them 27 were diagnosed case of WD aged between three to eighteen years and 24 children of same ages who were suffering from other than liver disease having normal ALT were included as volunteers. The patients of WD were divided into four groups according to their presentation as acute hepatitis, chronic liver disease (CLD), acute liver failure & neuropsychiatric manifestation. Informed written consent was obtained from all patients and volunteers for participation in this study. Along with other physical findings and laboratory investigations 3 ml of venous blood were collected for estimation of serum zinc level. After estimation of serum zinc level results were analyzed statistically. The difference in serum zinc levels were compared between the groups. Serum zinc level was significantly lower in Wilson disease patients (43.8±19.7μg/dl; range: 13-83) compared to volunteers group (67.8±11.8μg/dl; range: 47-97) p<0.001. Among the diseased group, serum zinc level were significantly lower in 18 CLD (38.4±17.4μg/dl) and in 4 acute liver failure (33.1±3.7μg/dl) compared to 4 acute hepatitis (71.8±4.3μg/dl) (p=0.001) and (p<0.001) respectively. Mean serum zinc level was low in 4 Wilsonian acute liver failure (33.1±3.7μg/dl), which was significant compared to those (23) who presented as Wilson disease non acute liver failure (45.7±20.8μg/dl) (p=0.013). Serum zinc level was significantly lower in Wilson disease children compared to the volunteers. Zinc level was also found significantly low in Wilson disease presented as CLD and acute liver failure in comparison to Wilson disease presented as acute hepatitis.

Global patterns of Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) prevalence and seroprevalence in camels: A systematic review and meta-analysis

The Middle East respiratory syndrome Coronavirus (MERS-CoV) is one of the human coronaviruses that causes severe respiratory infection. Bats are considered to be the natural reservoir, where dromedary camels (DC) are the intermediate hosts of the virus. The current study was undertaken to provide an update on global distribution of the virus in camels, and to investigate the pooled prevalence and camel-associated risk factors of infection. After registration of the review protocol in the Open Science Framework, data searches were conducted on 18 April 2023 through Embase, PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science. Considering only natural MERS-CoV infection in camels, 94 articles were selected for data curation through blind screening by two authors. Meta-analysis was conducted to estimate the pooled prevalence and to evaluate camel-associated risk factors. Finally, the results were presented in forest plots. The reviewed articles tested 34 countries, of which camels of 24 countries were seropositive and in 15 countries they were positive by molecular method. Viral RNA was detected in DC. Non-DC, such as bactrian camels, alpaca, llama, and hybrid camels were only seropositive. The global estimated pooled seroprevalence and viral RNA prevalence in DC were 77.53% and 23.63%, respectively, with the highest prevalence in West Asia (86.04% and 32.37% respectively). In addition, 41.08% of non-DC were seropositive. The estimated pooled prevalence of MERS-CoV RNA significantly varied by sample types with the highest in oral (45.01%) and lowest in rectal (8.42%) samples; the estimated pooled prevalence in nasal (23.10%) and milk (21.21%) samples were comparable. The estimated pooled seroprevalence in <2 years, 2-5 years, and > 5 years age groups were 56.32%, 75.31%, and 86.31%, respectively, while viral RNA prevalence was 33.40%, 15.87%, and 13.74%, respectively. Seroprevalence and viral RNA prevalence were generally higher in females (75.28% and 19.70%, respectively) than in males (69.53% and 18.99%, respectively). Local camels had lower estimated pooled seroprevalence (63.34%) and viral RNA prevalence (17.78%) than those of imported camels (89.17% and 29.41%, respectively). The estimated pooled seroprevalence was higher in camels of free-herds (71.70%) than confined herds (47.77%). Furthermore, estimated pooled seroprevalence was higher in samples from livestock markets, followed by abattoirs, quarantine, and farms but viral RNA prevalence was the highest in samples from abattoirs, followed by livestock markets, quarantine, and farms. Risk factors, such as sample type, young age, female sex, imported camels, and camel management must be considered to control and prevent the spread and emergence of MERS-CoV.

Animal and Human Dirofilariasis in India and Sri Lanka: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Dirofilariasis is an emerging vector-borne tropical disease of public health importance that mainly affects humans and dogs. Dirofilaria immitis and D. repens are the two well-documented dirofilariasis-causing filarioid helminths of both medical and veterinary concerns in India and Sri Lanka. This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to describe and summarize the current evidence of dirofilariasis prevalence and distribution in India and Sri Lanka. Interestingly, D. repens is reported to circulate in both dogs (prevalence of 35.8% (95% CI: 11.23-60.69)) and humans (97% of published case reports) in India and Sri Lanka, but D. immitis is reported to be present in the dog populations in India (prevalence of 9.7% (95% CI: 8.5-11.0%)), and so far, it has not been reported in Sri Lanka. This peculiar distribution of D. immitis and D. repens in the two neighbouring countries could be due to the interaction between the two parasite species, which could affect the pattern of infection of the two worm species in dogs and thus influence the geographical distribution of these two filarial worms. In medical and veterinary practice, histopathology was the most commonly used diagnostic technique (31.3%; 95% CI 2.5-60.2%). The low specificity of histopathology to speciate the various Dirofilaria spp. may lead to misdiagnosis. It was identified in this study that several regions of India and Sri Lanka have not yet been surveyed for dirofilariasis. This limits our understanding of the geographical distribution and interspecies interactions of the two parasites within these countries. Parasite distribution, disease prevalence, and interspecies interactions between the vectors and the host should be targeted for future research.

Prevalence of gastrointestinal parasitic infections in wild mammals of a safari park and a zoo in Bangladesh

In safari parks and zoos, wild animals are kept mainly for recreational purposes. Animals in these enclosures are also crucial for the education, research, and conservation aspect. To ensure better management and good health of wild animals in captivity, it is essential to monitor the occurrence of gastrointestinal (GI) parasitic (helminths and protozoa) infections. The current investigation was undertaken to investigate the prevalence of GI parasitic infections in wild mammals at Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujib (BSM) safari park and Chattogram (CTG) zoo of Bangladesh. A total of 72 individual faecal samples were collected from 25 species of wild mammals. Routine qualitative (e.g. direct smear, sedimentation, and flotation) and quantitative (e.g. McMaster technique) tests were performed to identify the eggs or oocysts of helminths and protozoa. Results demonstrated that wild mammals of both BSM safari park and CTG zoo were infected with a total of 17 genera/species of helminths and protozoa. The overall prevalence of GI parasitic infections in wild mammals of both zoological parks was 65.3% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 53.14-76.12), whereas it was 72.4% (95% CI: 52.76-87.27) in the BSM safari park and 60.5% (95% CI: 44.41-75.02) in the CTG zoo. In both zoological parks, infection with nematodes was more frequent compared to other helminth into the wild mammals. The herbivores were more infected with GI parasites than carnivores and omnivores of both BSM safari park and CTG zoo. The mean eggs/oocysts per gram of faeces was the highest in the carnivores compared to herbivores and omnivores of both enclosures. The findings of the current study demonstrated that wild mammals of both BSM safari park and CTG zoo suffered from various GI parasitic infections. Regular monitoring along with proper therapeutic measures may reduce the severe consequences of GI parasitic infections in captive wild animals.

Characterization and epidemiology of antimicrobial resistance patterns of Salmonella spp. and Staphylococcus spp. in free-ranging rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta) at high-risk interfaces with people and livestock in Bangladesh

Introduction

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a growing global health threat for humans and animals. Environmental contamination of antimicrobials from human and domestic animal feces has been linked to AMR in wildlife populations, including rhesus macaques. This study aimed to describe the eco-epidemiology of AMR within Salmonella and Staphylococcus species isolated from rhesus macaques.

Methods

We followed macaque groups for 4 h per day (2 days) to observe the direct and indirect contact rate and type between macaques and people and livestock. We collected 399 freshly defecated, non-invasive fecal samples from macaques at seven sites in Bangladesh in January-June 2017. Bacterial isolation and identification were conducted using culture, biochemical characteristics, and polymerase chain reaction (PCR). An antimicrobial susceptibility test (AST) for 12 antimicrobials for each organism was conducted using the Kirby-Bauer disc diffusion method.

Results

The overall prevalence of Salmonella spp. and Staphylococcus spp. in rhesus macaques was 5% (n = 18; 95% CI: 3-7%) and 16% (n = 64; 95% CI: 13-20%), respectively. All the isolated Salmonella spp. and most of the Staphylococcus spp. (95%; 61/64; 95% CI: 86.9-99%) were resistant to at least one antimicrobial. The odds of a fecal sample having antimicrobial-resistant Salmonella spp (OR = 6.6; CI: 0.9-45.8, P = 0.05) and Staphylococcus spp. (OR = 5.6; CI: 1.2-26, P = 0.02) were significantly higher in samples collected at peri-urban sites than those collected at rural and urban sites. Salmonella spp. were most frequently resistant to tetracycline (89%), azithromycin (83%), sulfamethoxazole-trimethoprim (50%), and nalidixic acid (44%). Staphylococcus spp. were found to be highly resistant to ampicillin (93%), methicillin (31%), clindamycin (26%), and rifampicin (18%). Both bacterial species produced colonies with multidrug resistance to up to seven antimicrobials. Direct and indirect contact rates (within 20 m for at least 15 min) and resource sharing between macaques and people were higher in urban sites, while macaque-livestock contact rates were higher in rural sites.

Discussion

The study shows that resistant microorganisms are circulating in rhesus macaque, and direct and indirect contact with humans and livestock might expand the resistant organisms.

Knowledge, attitudes, and practices regarding immunity boosting dietary behavior of mass population amid COVID-19

During the increasing spread of COVID-19 occurrences in Chattogram Metropolitan Area (CMA) of Bangladesh, a series of measures were taken to control the transmission. These measures greatly influenced the knowledge, attitudes, and practices (KAP) of the population on their dietary behavior. However, there are no current studies demonstrating the KAP of the CMA citizens regarding their dietary habit that can boost the immunity. In this study, we appraised KAP in regard to immunity boosting dietary behavior from April 26, 2021 to November 17, 2021 during implementation of lockdown measures by the government of Bangladesh. Apart from the basic knowledge and attitudes toward immunity boosting dietary behavior, we have also aimed to assess the practices of the population by whether the nutrients, especially vitamin A, B6, B9, B12, C, D, E, and trace minerals such as zinc, selenium, and iron were included in their diet and in what frequency. This study is a cross-sectional study, and the participants were recruited using both online platforms during the lockdown and through in-person interviews after the withdrawal of lockdown. After obtaining the proper consent from the participants, their sociodemographic variables, and KAP towards immunity boosting dietary behavior were assessed. Total 400 participants were included in this study and a non-probability sampling technique named purposive sampling has been followed for participants recruitment. Among the 400 participants, the majority of them (64.3%) were male, most of them (62.7%) were students, unmarried (69.5%), aged between 18-35 years (82.5%), had a bachelor's degree (50.0%), and had a monthly family income between 10000-30000 BDT (35.5%). This study indicated that 82.8% of the populations had the correct knowledge, 71.3% had favorable attitudes, and 44% had good practices regarding immunity boosting diet during COVID-19. The majority (79.3%) of the participants had an idea about nutrition, most of them (78.5%) knew the nutrients needed to strengthen their immune system, almost all (98.5%) washed fruits and vegetables purchased from the market before eating them, 78% did not often purchase food online, and 53% often ate junk food. In a binary logistic regression, correct knowledge was significantly associated with the females, having HSC or bachelor's degree, being in the occupation of business, laborer or others, and having a monthly family income between 50000-100000 or >100000. The favorable attitudes were significantly associated with having a master's degree or above, and for government job holders. However, the good practices did not show any significant association with the sociodemographic factors in binary logistic regression. Moreover, the study found the presence of bad or unhealthy practices among the populations despite having correct knowledge and favorable attitudes. Thus, this study could identify the variables, such as gender differences, education, monthly family income, and occupation on which emphasis should be given during public health campaigns or training programs to improve the KAP regarding immunity boosting diet.

Prevalence and risk factors for avian influenza virus (H5 and H9) contamination in peri-urban and rural live bird markets in Bangladesh

Avian influenza viruses (AIV) have been frequently detected in live bird markets (LBMs) around the world, primarily in urban areas, and have the ability to spillover to other species, including humans. Despite frequent detection of AIV in urban LBMs, the contamination of AIV on environmental surfaces in rural and peri-urban LBMs in Bangladesh is poorly documented. Therefore, we conducted this study to determine the prevalence of AIV subtypes within a subset of peri-urban and rural LBMs in Bangladesh and to further identify associated risk factors. Between 2017 and 2018, we collected faecal and offal samples from 200 stalls in 63 LBMs across four sub-districts. We tested the samples for the AIV matrix gene (M-gene) followed by H5, H7, and H9 subtypes using real-time reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (rRT-PCR). We performed a descriptive analysis of market cleanliness and sanitation practices in order to further elucidate the relationship between LBM biosecurity and AIV subtypes by species, sample types, and landscape. Subsequently, we conducted a univariate analysis and a generalized linear mixed model (GLMM) to determine the risk factors associated with AIV contamination at individual stalls within LBMs. Our findings indicate that practices related to hygiene and the circulation of AIV significantly differed between rural and peri-urban live bird markets. 42.5% (95% CI: 35.56-49.67) of stalls were positive for AIV. A/H5, A/H9, and A HA/Untyped were detected in 10.5% (95% CI: 6.62-15.60), 9% (95% CI: 5.42-13.85), and 24.0% (95% CI: 18.26-30.53) of stalls respectively, with no detection of A/H7. Significantly higher levels of AIV were found in the Sonali chicken strain compared to the exotic broiler, and in offal samples compared to fecal samples. In the GLMM analysis, we identified several significant risk factors associated with AIV contamination in LBMs at the stall level. These include: landscape (AOR: 3.02; 95% CI: 1.18-7.72), the number of chicken breeds present (AOR: 2.4; 95% CI: 1.01-5.67), source of birds (AOR: 2.35; 95% CI: 1.0-5.53), separation of sick birds (AOR: 3.04; 95% CI: 1.34-6.92), disposal of waste/dead birds (AOR: 3.16; 95% CI: 1.41-7.05), cleaning agent (AOR: 5.99; 95% CI: 2.26-15.82), access of dogs (AOR: 2.52; 95% CI: 1.12-5.7), wild birds observed on site (AOR: 2.31; 95% CI: 1.01-5.3). The study further revealed a substantial prevalence of AIV with H5 and H9 subtypes in peri-urban and rural LBMs. The inadequate biosecurity measures at poultry stalls in Bangladesh increase the risk of AIV transmission from poultry to humans. To prevent the spread of AIV to humans and wild birds, we suggest implementing regular surveillance at live bird markets and enhancing biosecurity practices in peri-urban and rural areas in Bangladesh.

Epidemiology and molecular characterization of avian influenza virus in backyard poultry of Chattogram, Bangladesh

Ducks, the natural reservoir of avian influenza virus (AIV), act as reassortment vessels for HPAI and low pathogenic avian influenza (LPAI) virus for domestic and wild bird species. In Bangladesh, earlier research was mainly focused on AIV in commercial poultry and live bird markets, where there is scanty literature reported on AIV in apparently healthy backyard poultry at the household level. The present cross-sectional study was carried out to reveal the genomic epidemiology of AIV of backyard poultry in coastal (Anowara) and plain land (Rangunia) areas of Bangladesh. We randomly selected a total of 292 households' poultry (having both chicken and duck) for sampling. We administered structured pre-tested questionnaires to farmers through direct interviews. We tested cloacal samples from birds for the matrix gene (M gene) followed by H5 and H9 subtypes using real-time reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (rRT-PCR). All AIV-positive samples were subjected to four-gene segment sequencing (M, PB1, HA, and NA gene). We found that the prevalence of AIV RNA at the household level was 6.2% (n = 18; N = 292), whereas duck and chicken prevalence was 3.6% and 3.2%, respectively. Prevalence varied with season, ranging from 3.1% in the summer to 8.2% in the winter. The prevalence of subtypes H5 and H9 in backyard poultry was 2.7% and 3.3%, respectively. The phylogenetic analysis of M, HA, NA, and PB1 genes revealed intra-genomic similarity, and they are closely related to previously reported AIV strains in Bangladesh and Southeast Asia. The findings indicate that H5 and H9 subtypes of AIV are circulating in the backyard poultry with or without clinical symptoms. Moreover, we revealed the circulation of 2.3.2.1a (new) clade among the chicken and duck population without occurring outbreak which might be due to vaccination. In addition to routine surveillance, molecular epidemiology of AIV will assist to gain a clear understanding of the genomic evolution of the AIV virus in the backyard poultry rearing system, thereby facilitating the implementation of effective preventive measures to control infection and prevent the potential spillover to humans.

Patterns and risk factors of avian influenza A(H5) and A(H9) virus infection in pigeons and quail at live bird markets in Bangladesh, 2017-2021

The avian influenza virus (AIV) impacts poultry production, food security, livelihoods, and the risk of transmission to humans. Poultry, like pigeons and quail farming, is a growing sector in Bangladesh. However, the role of pigeons and quails in AIV transmission is not fully understood. Hence, we conducted this study to investigate the prevalence and risk factors of AIV subtypes in pigeons and quails at live bird markets (LBMs) in Bangladesh. We collected oropharyngeal and cloacal swab samples from 626 birds in 8 districts of Bangladesh from 2017 to 2021. We tested the swab samples for the matrix gene (M gene) followed by H5, H7, and H9 subtypes using real-time reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (rRT-PCR). We then used exploratory analysis to investigate the seasonal and temporal patterns of AIV and a mixed effect logistic model to identify the variable that influences the presence of AIV in pigeons and quails. The overall prevalence of AIV was 25.56%. We found that the prevalence of AIV in pigeons is 17.36%, and in quail is 38.75%. The prevalence of A/H5, A/H9, and A/H5/H9 in quail is 4.17, 17.92, and 1.67%, respectively. Furthermore, the prevalence of A/H5, A/H9, and A/H5/H9 in pigeons is 2.85, 2.59, and 0.26%. We also found that the prevalence of AIV was higher in the dry season than in the wet season in both pigeons and quail. In pigeons, the prevalence of A/untyped (40%) increased considerably in 2020. In quail, however, the prevalence of A/H9 (56%) significantly increased in 2020. The mixed-effect logistic regression model showed that the vendors having waterfowl (AOR: 2.13; 95% CI: 1.04-4.33), purchasing birds from the wholesale market (AOR: 2.96; 95% CI: 1.48-5.92) instead of farms, mixing sick birds with the healthy ones (AOR: 1.60; 95% CI: 1.04-2.45) and mingling unsold birds with new birds (AOR: 3.07; 95% CI: 2.01-4.70) were significantly more likely to be positive for AIV compared with vendors that did not have these characteristics. We also found that the odds of AIV were more than twice as high in quail (AOR: 2.57; 95% CI: 1.61-4.11) as in pigeons. Furthermore, the likelihood of AIV detection was 4.19 times higher in sick and dead birds (95% CI: 2.38-7.35) than in healthy birds. Our study revealed that proper hygienic practices at the vendors in LBM are not maintained. We recommend improving biosecurity practices at the vendor level in LBM to limit the risk of AIV infection in pigeons and quail in Bangladesh.

Prevalence of helminth and protozoan infections in pet birds of Chattogram, Bangladesh

BACKGROUND

Parasitic diseases such as helminths and protozoa are considered one of the major impediments in the rearing of pet birds. The current study was undertaken to determine the prevalence of helminths and protozoal infections in different captive pet birds in Chattogram metropolitan area, Bangladesh.

METHODS

A total of 549 pooled faecal and 311 individual blood samples were collected from different species of pet birds during June 2019 to May 2020. The faecal samples were examined following routine microscopic tests to identify the eggs and oocysts of helminths and protozoan parasites, respectively. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was performed to determine the haemoprotozoan parasites.

RESULTS

The prevalence of helminth infestations in pet birds was 8.01% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 5.88-10.61), where infestation caused by nematodes was the highest (7.47%, CI: 5.41-10). Ascaridia and Capillaria spp. infestations were the commonest helminths recorded in different groups of pet birds. The overall prevalence of intestinal protozoal infections was 11.11% (CI: 8.61-14.04) in pet birds. The most commonly occurring protozoal infections were Eimeria spp. (7.83%, CI: 5.73-10.41) followed by Isospora spp. (2.91%, CI: 1.67-4.69). The overall prevalence of haemoprotozoan parasites was 2.25% (CI: 0.91-4.58) in different groups of pet birds. The highest prevalence was recorded in Plasmodium spp. (1.29%, CI: 0.35-3.26) followed by Leucocytozoon and Haemoproteus spp.

CONCLUSIONS

The data generated in this study are the first of its type, which would be beneficial to the veterinary practice, aviculturists, pet bird owners and breeders in Bangladesh to respond appropriately for the prevention and control of the disease.

Assessment of poultry rearing practices and risk factors of H5N1 and H9N2 virus circulating among backyard chickens and ducks in rural communities

Background

The avian influenza virus (AIV) causes significant economic losses by infecting poultry and occasional spillover to humans. Backyard farms are vulnerable to AIV epidemics due to poor health management and biosecurity practices, threatening rural households’ economic stability and nutrition. We have limited information about the risk factors associated with AIV infection in backyard poultry in Bangladesh. Hence, we conducted a cross-sectional survey comprising epidemiological and anthropological investigations to understand the poultry rearing practices and risk factors of AIV circulation among backyard poultry in selected rural communities.

Methods

We sampled 120 poultry from backyard farms (n = 30) of the three selected communities between February 2017 and January 2018. We tested swab samples for the matrix gene (M gene) followed by H5, H7, and H9 subtypes using real-time reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (rRT-PCR). We applied multivariable logistic regression for risk factor analysis. Furthermore, we conducted an observational study (42 hours) and informal interviews (n = 30) with backyard farmers to record poultry-raising activities in rural communities.

Results

We detected that 25.2% of the backyard poultry tested positive for AIV, whereas 5% tested positive for H5N1 and 10.8% tested positive for H9N2. Results showed that scavenging in both household garden and other crop fields has higher odds of AIV than scavenging in the household garden (AOR: 24.811; 95% CI: 2.11–292.28), and keeping a cage inside the house has higher odds (AOR:14.5; 95% CI: 1.06–198.51) than keeping it in the veranda, cleaning the cage twice a week or weekly has a higher risk than cleaning daily (AOR: 34.45; 95% CI: 1.04–1139.65), dumping litter or droppings (AOR: 82.80; 95% CI: 3.91–1754.59) and dead birds or wastage (AOR: 109.92, 95% CI: 4.34–2785.29) near water bodies and bushes have a higher risk than burring in the ground, slaughtering and consuming sick birds also had a higher odd of AIV (AOR: 73.45, 95% CI: 1.56–3457.73) than treating the birds. The anthropological investigation revealed that household members had direct contact with the poultry in different ways, including touching, feeding, slaughtering, and contacting poultry feces. Poultry is usually kept inside the house, sick poultry are traditionally slaughtered and eaten, and most poultry raisers do not know that diseases can transmit from backyard poultry to humans.

Conclusions

This study showed the circulation of H5N1 and H9N2 virus in backyard poultry in rural communities; associated with species, scavenging area of the poultry, location of the poultry cage, the practice of litter, wastage, droppings, and dead bird disposal, and practice of handling sick poultry. We suggest improving biosecurity practices in backyard poultry and mass awareness campaigns to reduce incidences of AIV in household-level poultry farms in rural communities in Bangladesh.

Transmission dynamics and susceptibility patterns of SARS-CoV-2 in domestic, farmed and wild animals: Sustainable One Health surveillance for conservation and public health to prevent future epidemics and pandemics

The exact origin of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and source of introduction into humans has not been established yet, though it might be originated from animals. Therefore, we conducted a study to understand the putative reservoirs, transmission dynamics, and susceptibility patterns of SARS-CoV-2 in animals. Rhinolophus bats are presumed to be natural progenitors of SARS-CoV-2-related viruses. Initially, pangolin was thought to be the source of spillover to humans, but they might be infected by human or other animal species. So, the virus spillover pathways to humans remain unknown. Human-to-animal transmission has been testified in pet, farmed, zoo and free-ranging wild animals. Infected animals can transmit the virus to other animals in natural settings like mink-to-mink and mink-to-cat transmission. Animal-to-human transmission is not a persistent pathway, while mink-to-human transmission continues to be illuminated. Multiple companions and captive wild animals were infected by an emerging alpha variant of concern (B.1.1.7 lineage) whereas Asiatic lions were infected by delta variant, (B.1.617.2). To date, multiple animal species - cat, ferrets, non-human primates, hamsters and bats - showed high susceptibility to SARS-CoV-2 in the experimental condition, while swine, poultry, cattle showed no susceptibility. The founding of SARS-CoV-2 in wild animal reservoirs can confront the control of the virus in humans and might carry a risk to the welfare and conservation of wildlife as well. We suggest vaccinating pets and captive animals to stop spillovers and spillback events. We recommend sustainable One Health surveillance at the animal-human-environmental interface to detect and prevent future epidemics and pandemics by Disease X.

Epidemiological Profile of a Human Hepatitis E Virus Outbreak in 2018, Chattogram, Bangladesh

Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is a waterborne zoonotic disease that can result in a high fatality rate in pregnant women and infants. In 2018, a large HEV outbreak emerged in Chattogram, Bangladesh, resulting in 2800 cases and a significant public health response to mitigate the transmission. While the source of the outbreak remained poorly understood, authorities suggested that possible risk factors for HEV infection included contamination of water supply, exacerbated by concurrent severe flooding events in the community. A cross-sectional study was conducted to investigate the distribution and risk factors for HEV seroprevalence between January and December 2018 in the Chattogram city area. A total of 505 blood samples were collected from symptomatic patients of 10 hospitals who met the case definition for an HEV infection. Standard ELISA tests were performed in all patients to identify anti-HEV antibodies. The size and location of HEV seroprevalence clusters within Chattogram were investigated using SaTScan. We investigated the association between risk of HEV infection and individual and environmentally lagged risk factors using Bernoulli generalised linear regression models. Our results indicate an overall HEV seroprevalence of 35% with significant variation according to sex, source of drinking water, and boiling of drinking water. A positive cross-correlation was found between HEV exposure and precipitation, modified normalised difference water index (MNDWI), and normalised difference vegetation index (NDVI). Our model indicated that risk of infection was associated with sex, age, source of drinking water, boiling of water, increased precipitation, and increased MNDWI. The results from this study indicate that source and boiling of drinking water and increased precipitation were critical drivers of the 2018 HEV outbreak. The communities at highest risk identified in our analyses should be targeted for investments in safe water infrastructure to reduce the likelihood of future HEV outbreaks in Chattogram.

Multidrug Resistance in Cancer: Understanding Molecular Mechanisms, Immunoprevention and Therapeutic Approaches

Cancer is one of the leading causes of death worldwide. Several treatments are available for cancer treatment, but many treatment methods are ineffective against multidrug-resistant cancer. Multidrug resistance (MDR) represents a major obstacle to effective therapeutic interventions against cancer. This review describes the known MDR mechanisms in cancer cells and discusses ongoing laboratory approaches and novel therapeutic strategies that aim to inhibit, circumvent, or reverse MDR development in various cancer types. In this review, we discuss both intrinsic and acquired drug resistance, in addition to highlighting hypoxia- and autophagy-mediated drug resistance mechanisms. Several factors, including individual genetic differences, such as mutations, altered epigenetics, enhanced drug efflux, cell death inhibition, and various other molecular and cellular mechanisms, are responsible for the development of resistance against anticancer agents. Drug resistance can also depend on cellular autophagic and hypoxic status. The expression of drug-resistant genes and the regulatory mechanisms that determine drug resistance are also discussed. Methods to circumvent MDR, including immunoprevention, the use of microparticles and nanomedicine might result in better strategies for fighting cancer.

Major bat-borne zoonotic viral epidemics in Asia and Africa: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Bats are the natural reservoir host for many pathogenic and non‐pathogenic viruses, potentially spilling over to humans and domestic animals directly or via an intermediate host. The ongoing COVID‐19 pandemic is the continuation of virus spillover events that have taken place over the last few decades, particularly in Asia and Africa. Therefore, these bat‐associated epidemics provide a significant number of hints, including respiratory cellular tropism, more intense susceptibility to these cell types, and overall likely to become a pandemic for the next spillover. In this systematic review, we analysed data to insight, through bat‐originated spillover in Asia and Africa. We used STATA/IC‐13 software for descriptive statistics and meta‐analysis. The random effect of meta‐analysis showed that the pooled estimates of case fatality rates of bat‐originated viral zoonotic diseases were higher in Africa (61.06%, 95%CI: 50.26 to 71.85, l²% = 97.3, p < 0.001). Moreover, estimates of case fatality rates were higher in Ebola (61.06%; 95%CI: 50.26 to 71.85, l²% = 97.3, p < 0.001) followed by Nipah (55.19%; 95%CI: 39.29 to 71.09, l²% = 94.2, p < 0.001), MERS (18.49%; 95%CI: 8.19 to 28.76, l²% = 95.4, p < 0.001) and SARS (10.86%; 95%CI: 6.02 to 15.71, l²% = 85.7, p < 0.001) with the overall case fatality rates of 29.86 (95%CI: 29.97 to 48.58, l²% = 99.0, p < 0.001). Bat‐originated viruses have caused several outbreaks of deadly diseases, including Nipah, Ebola, SARS and MERS in Asia and Africa in a sequential fashion. Nipah virus emerged first in Malaysia, but later, periodic outbreaks were noticed in Bangladesh and India. Similarly, the Ebola virus was detected in the African continent with neurological disorders in humans, like Nipah, seen in the Asian region. Two important coronaviruses, MERS and SARS, were introduced, both with the potential to infect respiratory passages. This paper explores the dimension of spillover events within and/or between bat–human and the epidemiological risk factors, which may lead to another pandemic occurring. Further, these processes enhance the bat‐originated virus, which utilises an intermediate host to jump into human species.

Pathogenicity and virulence of Marburg virus

Marburg virus (MARV) has been a major concern since 1967, with two major outbreaks occurring in 1998 and 2004. Infection from MARV results in severe hemorrhagic fever, causing organ dysfunction and death. Exposure to fruit bats in caves and mines, and human-to-human transmission had major roles in the amplification of MARV outbreaks in African countries. The high fatality rate of up to 90% demands the broad study of MARV diseases (MVD) that correspond with MARV infection. Since large outbreaks are rare for MARV, clinical investigations are often inadequate for providing the substantial data necessary to determine the treatment of MARV disease. Therefore, an overall review may contribute to minimizing the limitations associated with future medical research and improve the clinical management of MVD. In this review, we sought to analyze and amalgamate significant information regarding MARV disease epidemics, pathophysiology, and management approaches to provide a better understanding of this deadly virus and the associated infection.

Diversity of bacterial pathogens and their antimicrobial resistance profile among commensal rodents in Qatar

Rodents are sources of many zoonotic pathogens that are of public health concern. This study investigated bacterial pathogens and assessed their antimicrobial resistance (AMR) patterns in commensal rodents in Qatar. A total of 148 rodents were captured between August 2019 and February 2020, and blood, ectoparasites, and visceral samples were collected. Gram-negative bacteria were isolated from the intestines, and blood plasma samples were used to detect antibodies against Brucella spp., Chlamydophila abortus, and Coxiella burnetii. PCR assays were performed to detect C. burnetii, Leptospira spp., Rickettsia spp., and Yersinia pestis in rodent tissues and ectoparasite samples. Antimicrobial resistance by the isolated intestinal bacteria was performed using an automated VITEK analyzer. A total of 13 bacterial species were isolated from the intestine samples, namely Acinetobacter baumannii, Aeromonas salmonicida, Citrobacter freundii, Citrobacter koseri, Enterobacter aerogenes, Enterobacter cloacae, Escherichia coli, Hafnia alvei, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Providencia stuartii, Proteus mirabilis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Salmonella enterica. The majority of them were E. coli (54.63%), followed by P. mirabilis (17.59%) and K. pneumoniae (8.33%). Most of the pathogens were isolated from rodents obtained from livestock farms (50.46%), followed by agricultural farms (26.61%) and other sources (22.94%). No antibodies (0/148) were detected against Brucella spp., C. abortus, or C. burnetii. In addition, 31.58% (6/19) of the flea pools and one (1/1) mite pool was positive for Rickettsia spp., and no sample was positive for C. burnetii, Leptospira spp., and Y. pestis by PCR. A total of 43 (38%) bacterial isolates were identified as multidrug resistant (MDR), whereas A. salmonicida (n = 1) did not show resistance to any tested antimicrobials. Over 50% of bacterial MDR isolates were resistant to ampicillin, cefalotin, doxycycline, nitrofurantoin, and tetracycline. The presence of MDR pathogens was not correlated with rodent species or the location of rodent trapping. Seven (11.86%) E. coli and 2 (22.2%) K. pneumoniae were extended-spectrum beta-lactamases (ESBL) producers. These findings suggest that rodents can be a source of opportunistic bacteria for human and animal transmission in Qatar. Further studies are needed for the molecular characterization of the identified bacteria in this study.

Molecular Detection of Colistin Resistance mcr-1 Gene in Multidrug-Resistant Escherichia coli Isolated from Chicken

Zoonotic and antimicrobial-resistant Escherichia coli (hereafter, E. coli) is a global public health threat which can lead to detrimental effects on human health. Here, we aim to investigate the antimicrobial resistance and the presence of mcr-1 gene in E. coli isolated from chicken feces. Ninety-four E. coli isolates were obtained from samples collected from different locations in Bangladesh, and the isolates were identified using conventional microbiological tests. Phenotypic disk diffusion tests using 20 antimicrobial agents were performed according to CLSI-EUCAST guidelines, and minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) were determined for a subset of samples. E. coli isolates showed high resistance to colistin (88.30%), ciprofloxacin (77.66%), trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole (76.60%), tigecycline (75.53%), and enrofloxacin (71.28%). Additionally, the pathotype eaeA gene was confirmed in ten randomly selected E. coli isolates using primer-specific polymerase chain reaction (PCR). The presence of mcr-1 gene was confirmed using PCR and sequencing analysis in six out of ten E. coli isolates. Furthermore, sequencing and phylogenetic analyses revealed a similarity between the catalytic domain of Neisseria meningitidis lipooligosaccharide phosphoethanolamine transferase A (LptA) and MCR proteins, indicating that the six tested isolates were colistin resistant. Finally, the findings of the present study showed that E. coli isolated from chicken harbored mcr-1 gene, and multidrug and colistin resistance. These findings accentuate the need to implement strict measures to limit the imprudent use of antibiotics, particularly colistin, in agriculture and poultry farms.

Antibiotics in the Community During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Qualitative Study to Understand Users' Perspectives of Antibiotic Seeking and Consumption Behaviors in Bangladesh

INTRODUCTION

The COVID-19 pandemic is thought to have led to increased "inappropriate" or "unjustified" seeking and consumption of antibiotics by individuals in the community. However, little reference has been made to antibiotic seeking and using behaviors from the perspectives of users in Bangladesh during this health crisis.

PURPOSE

This study seeks to document how antibiotic medicines are sought and used during a complex health crisis, and, within different contexts, what are the nuanced reasons why patients may utilize these medicines sub-optimally.

METHODS

We used an exploratory, qualitative design. Forty semi-structured telephone interviews were conducted with people diagnosed with COVID-19 (n=20), who had symptoms suggestive of COVID-19 (n=20), and who had received care at home in two cities between May and June 2021 in Bangladesh. In this study, an inductive thematic analysis was performed.

RESULTS

The analysis highlighted the interlinked relationships of antibiotic seeking and consumption behaviors with the diversity of information disseminated during a health crisis. Antibiotic-seeking behaviors are related to previous experience of use, perceived severity of illness, perceived vulnerability, risk of infection, management of an "unknown" illness and anxiety, distrust of expert advice, and intrinsic agency on antimicrobial resistance (AMR). Suboptimal adherence, such as modifying treatment regimes and using medication prescribed for others, were found to be part of care strategies used when proven therapeutics were unavailable to treat COVID-19. Early cessation of therapy was found to be a rational practice to avoid side effects and unknown risks.

CONCLUSION

Based on the results, we highly recommend the take up of a pandemic specific antimicrobial stewardship (AMS) program in the community. To deliver better outcomes of AMS, incorporating users' perspectives could be a critical strategy. Therefore, a co-produced AMS intervention that is appropriate for a specific cultural context is an essential requirement to reduce the overuse of antibiotics during the COVID-19 pandemic and beyond.

Spatial epidemiology and genetic diversity of SARS-CoV-2 and related coronaviruses in domestic and wild animals

The Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) showed susceptibility to diverse animal species. We conducted this study to understand the spatial epidemiology, genetic diversity, and statistically significant genetic similarity along with per-gene recombination events of SARS-CoV-2 and related viruses (SC2r-CoVs) in animals globally. We collected a number of different animal species infected with SARS-CoV-2 and its related viruses. Then, we retrieved genome sequences of SARS-CoV-2 and SC2r-CoVs from GISAID and NCBI GenBank for genomic and mutational analysis. Although the evolutionary origin of SARS-CoV-2 remains elusive, the diverse SC2r-CoV have been detected in multiple Rhinolophus bat species and in Malayan pangolin. To date, human-to-animal spillover events have been reported in cat, dog, tiger, lion, gorilla, leopard, ferret, puma, cougar, otter, and mink in 25 countries. Phylogeny and genetic recombination events of SC2r-CoVs showed higher similarity to the bat coronavirus RaTG13 and BANAL-103 for most of the genes and to some Malayan pangolin coronavirus (CoV) strains for the N protein from bats and pangolin showed close resemblance to SARS-CoV-2. The clustering of animal and human strains from the same geographical area has proved human-to-animal transmission of the virus. The Alpha, Delta and Mu-variant of SARS-CoV-2 was detected in dog, gorilla, lion, tiger, otter, and cat in the USA, India, Czech Republic, Belgium, and France with momentous genetic similarity with human SARS-CoV-2 sequences. The mink variant mutation (spike_Y453F) was detected in both humans and domestic cats. Moreover, the dog was affected mostly by clade O (66.7%), whereas cat and American mink were affected by clade GR (31.6 and 49.7%, respectively). The α-variant was detected as 2.6% in cat, 4.8% in dog, 14.3% in tiger, 66.7% in gorilla, and 77.3% in lion. The highest mutations observed in mink where the substitution of D614G in spike (95.2%) and P323L in NSP12 (95.2%) protein. In dog, cat, gorilla, lion, and tiger, Y505H and Y453F were the common mutations followed by Y145del, Y144del, and V70I in S protein. We recommend vaccine provision for pet and zoo animals to reduce the chance of transmission in animals. Besides, continuous epidemiological and genomic surveillance of coronaviruses in animal host is crucial to find out the immediate ancestor of SARS-CoV-2 and to prevent future CoVs threats to humans.

Escalating SARS-CoV-2 circulation in environment and tracking waste management in South Asia

The novel coronavirus disease of 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has caused an exceptional drift of production, utilization, and disposal of personal protective equipment (PPE) and different microplastic objects for safety against the virus. Hence, we reviewed related literature on severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) RNA detected from household, biomedical waste, and sewage to identify possible health risks and status of existing laws, regulations, and policies regarding waste disposal in South Asian (SA) countries. The SARS-CoV-2 RNA was detected in sewage and wastewater samples of Nepal, India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh. Besides, this review reiterates the enormous amounts of PPE and other single-use plastic wastes generated from healthcare facilities and households in the SA region with inappropriate disposal, landfilling, and/or incineration techniques wind-up polluting the environment. Consequently, the Delta variant (B.1.617.2) of SARS-CoV-2 has been detected in sewer treatment plant in India. Moreover, the overuse of non-biodegradable plastics during the pandemic is deteriorating plastic pollution condition and causes a substantial health risk to the terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. We recommend making necessary adjustments, adopting measures and strategies, and enforcement of the existing biomedical waste management and sanitation-related policy in SA countries. We propose to adopt the knowledge gaps to improve COVID-19-associated waste management and legislation to prevent further environmental pollution. Besides, the citizens should follow proper disposal procedures of COVID-19 waste to control the environmental pollution.

Evolutionary Dynamics and Epidemiology of Endemic and Emerging Coronaviruses in Humans, Domestic Animals, and Wildlife

Diverse coronavirus (CoV) strains can infect both humans and animals and produce various diseases. CoVs have caused three epidemics and pandemics in the last two decades, and caused a severe impact on public health and the global economy. Therefore, it is of utmost importance to understand the emergence and evolution of endemic and emerging CoV diversity in humans and animals. For diverse bird species, the Infectious Bronchitis Virus is a significant one, whereas feline enteric and canine coronavirus, recombined to produce feline infectious peritonitis virus, infects wild cats. Bovine and canine CoVs have ancestral relationships, while porcine CoVs, especially SADS-CoV, can cross species barriers. Bats are considered as the natural host of diverse strains of alpha and beta coronaviruses. Though MERS-CoV is significant for both camels and humans, humans are nonetheless affected more severely. MERS-CoV cases have been reported mainly in the Arabic peninsula since 2012. To date, seven CoV strains have infected humans, all descended from animals. The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronaviruses (SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2) are presumed to be originated in Rhinolopoid bats that severely infect humans with spillover to multiple domestic and wild animals. Emerging alpha and delta variants of SARS-CoV-2 were detected in pets and wild animals. Still, the intermediate hosts and all susceptible animal species remain unknown. SARS-CoV-2 might not be the last CoV to cross the species barrier. Hence, we recommend developing a universal CoV vaccine for humans so that any future outbreak can be prevented effectively. Furthermore, a One Health approach coronavirus surveillance should be implemented at human-animal interfaces to detect novel coronaviruses before emerging to humans and to prevent future epidemics and pandemics.

Determination of antibiotic residues in milk and assessment of human health risk in Bangladesh

Consumption of milk contaminated with antibiotic residues above the maximum residue limit (MRL) causes toxicity to humans and the development of superbugs that leads to the failure of antibiotic therapy and threatens human life. Moreover, long-duration exposure might alter the nature of gut microflora, resulting in the enhancement of many diseases. Therefore, our study aims to find out the residues level of selected antibiotics in milk and assessments of humans health risks. We examined 300 raw and processed milk samples using thin-layer chromatography (TLC) and ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography (UHPLC) methods against five veterinary antibiotics and assessed the health risk for consumers in Chattogram, Bangladesh. Risk analysis was done by using a hazard quotient based on 165 ml per capita milk consumption. We found a total of 7 % prevalence of antibiotic residues in raw milk, which were higher (8 %) in individual milk samples than the pooled samples (4 %). However, we did not find any antibiotic residues in processed milk. The mean concentration of oxytetracycline residue was detected at 61.29 μg/l, and amoxicillin was 124 μg/l in individual milk samples. Risk analysis showed that, the hazard quotient values are 0.0056 for oxytetracycline and 0.0017 for amoxicillin residues. This result implied no significant health risks associated with the consumption of milk produced and marketed in the study area. Our study might fill up the gaps of knowledge in measuring the safety status of milk regarding public health issues.

Exploring the behavioral determinants of COVID-19 vaccine acceptance among an urban population in Bangladesh: Implications for behavior change interventions

BACKGROUND

While vaccines ensure individual protection against COVID-19 infection, delay in receipt or refusal of vaccines will have both individual and community impacts. The behavioral factors of vaccine hesitancy or refusal are a crucial dimension that need to be understood in order to design appropriate interventions. The aim of this study was to explore the behavioral determinants of COVID-19 vaccine acceptance and to provide recommendations to increase the acceptance and uptake of COVID-19 vaccines in Bangladesh.

METHODS

We employed a Barrier Analysis (BA) approach to examine twelve potential behavioral determinants (drawn from the Health Belief Model [HBM] and Theory of Reasoned Action [TRA]) of intended vaccine acceptance. We conducted 45 interviews with those who intended to take the vaccine (Acceptors) and another 45 interviews with those who did not have that intention (Non-acceptors). We performed data analysis to find statistically significant differences and to identify which beliefs were most highly associated with acceptance and non-acceptance with COVID-19 vaccines.

RESULTS

The behavioral determinants associated with COVID-19 vaccine acceptance in Dhaka included perceived social norms, perceived safety of COVID-19 vaccines and trust in them, perceived risk/susceptibility, perceived self-efficacy, perceived positive and negative consequences, perceived action efficacy, perceived severity of COVID-19, access, and perceived divine will. In line with the HBM, beliefs about the disease itself were highly predictive of vaccine acceptance, and some of the strongest statistically-significant (p<0.001) predictors of vaccine acceptance in this population are beliefs around both injunctive and descriptive social norms. Specifically, Acceptors were 3.2 times more likely to say they would be very likely to get a COVID-19 vaccine if a doctor or nurse recommended it, twice as likely to say that most people they know will get a vaccine, and 1.3 times more likely to say that most close family and friends will get a vaccine. The perceived safety of vaccines was found to be important since Non-acceptors were 1.8 times more likely to say that COVID-19 vaccines are "not safe at all". Beliefs about one's risk of getting COVID-19 disease and the severity of it were predictive of being a vaccine acceptor: Acceptors were 1.4 times more likely to say that it was very likely that someone in their household would get COVID-19, 1.3 times more likely to say that they were very concerned about getting COVID-19, and 1.3 times more likely to say that it would be very serious if someone in their household contracted COVID-19. Other responses of Acceptors on what makes immunization easier may be helpful in programming to boost acceptance, such as providing vaccination through government health facilities, schools, and kiosks, and having vaccinators maintain proper COVID-19 health and safety protocols.

CONCLUSION

An effective behavior change strategy for COVID-19 vaccines uptake will need to address multiple beliefs and behavioral determinants, reducing barriers and leveraging enablers identified in this study. National plans for promoting COVID-19 vaccination should address the barriers, enablers, and behavioral determinants found in this study in order to maximize the impact on COVID-19 vaccination acceptance.

Molecular Epidemiology of SARS-CoV-2 in Diverse Environmental Samples Globally

The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has swamped the global environment greatly in the current pandemic. Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) effectively forecasts the surge of COVID-19 cases in humans in a particular region. To understand the genomic characteristics/footprints and diversity of SARS-CoV-2 in the environment, we analyzed 807 SARS-CoV-2 sequences from 20 countries deposited in GISAID till 22 May 2021. The highest number of sequences (n = 638) were reported in Austria, followed by the Netherlands, China, and Bangladesh. Wastewater samples were highest (40.0%) to successfully yield the virus genome followed by a 24 h composite wastewater sample (32.6%) and sewage (18.5%). Phylogenetic analysis revealed that SARS-CoV-2 environmental strains are a close congener with the strains mostly circulating in the human population from the same region. Clade GRY (32.7%), G (29.2%), GR (25.3%), O (7.2%), GH (3.4%), GV (1.4%), S (0.5%), and L (0.4%) were found in environmental samples. Various lineages were identified in environmental samples; nevertheless, the highest percentages (49.4%) of the alpha variant (B.1.1.7) were detected in Austria, Liechtenstein, Slovenia, Czech Republic, Switzerland, Germany, and Italy. Other prevalent lineages were B.1 (18.2%), B.1.1 (9.2%), and B.1.160 (3.9%). Furthermore, a significant number of amino acid substitutions were found in environmental strains where the D614G was found in 83.8% of the sequences. However, the key mutations-N501Y (44.6%), S982A (44.4%), A570D (43.3%), T716I (40.4%), and P681H (40.1%) were also recorded in spike protein. The identification of the environmental belvedere of SARS-CoV-2 and its genetic signature is crucial to detect outbreaks, forecast pandemic harshness, and prepare with the appropriate tools to control any impending pandemic. We recommend genomic environmental surveillance to trace the emerging variants and diversity of SARS-CoV-2 viruses circulating in the community. Additionally, proper disposal and treatment of wastewater, sewage, and medical wastes are important to prevent environmental contamination.

Biochemical composition of some Echinodermata (Holothuroidea, Echinoidea) from the Red Sea, Egypt

In the present study, the biochemical composition of some Echinodermata (Holothuroidea, Echinoidea) from the Red Sea, Egypt was investigated. The results showed that the highest percentage of saturated fatty acids (SFA) was in Holothuria nobilis and the lowest percentage was recorded in Holothuria scabra. The highest percentage of monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) was recorded in Pearsonothuria graeffei while the lowest percentage was recorded in Holothuria atra. The highest percentage of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) was recorded in Holothuria nobilis and the lowest percentage was recorded in Holothuria atra. The highest percentage of omega-3 fatty acids was recorded in Stichopus hermanni however, the lowest percentage was recorded in Diadema setosum. The highest percentage of omega-6 fatty acids was recorded in Bohadschia vitiensis where, the lowest percentage was recorded in Holothuria atra. In addition, nonessential amino acid (NEAA) glycine were the highest in all species and serine was the lowest while Essential amino acid (EAA) arginine was the highest and cysteine was the lowest. All of the NEAA recorded highest concentrations in S. hermanni except proline. The recorded essential amino acids were histidine, isoleucine, phenylalanine, and leucine. The latter was high in Pearsonothuria graeffei. Tyrosine, valine, threonine, and arginine were high in Stichopus hermanni. The present study proved that sea cucumbers has great nutritional value.

Effects of combined treatment of cadmium and oxytetracycline on the terrestrial isopod Porcellio leavis

The influence of pharmaceutical residues and heavy metals on living organisms has received global attention. The present study assessed the interactive effect of antibiotic residues and heavy metals in soil, as contaminated food with cadmium (Cd) and oxytetracycline (OTC) on the isopod Porcellio leavis. It was fed on fresh plant leaves contaminated with different concentrations of cadmium, Cd+OTC1000 ppm, Cd+OTC2000 ppm and Cd+OTC3000 ppm for 4 weeks. The changes in the feeding patterns, protein, lipid peroxidation (LPO), catalase activity (CAT), and total free amino acids (TFAA) were recorded. There were significant differences in the obtained results where Cd reduced the egestion ratio (ER) however, OTC enhanced this ratio. Biochemical analysis illustrated that combination between OTC and Cd inhibits the toxic effects of Cd at low concentration (1000 ppm), while at high concentration (3000 ppm) raise the toxicity. Detailed studies are required for further understanding of the interaction between OTC and heavy metals, and also its impact on soil animals and for improving soil risk evaluation.

Knowledge, Attitude, and Practices on Antimicrobial Use and Antimicrobial Resistance among Poultry Drug and Feed Sellers in Bangladesh

Poultry production has boomed in Bangladesh in recent years. The poultry sector has contributed significantly to meet the increased demand for animal source proteins in the country. However, increased use of antimicrobials appeared to be a significant threat to food safety in the poultry sector. The poultry drug and feed sellers are at the frontline position involving selecting and delivering the antimicrobials to the poultry farmers. Studies assessing the poultry drug and feed sellers’ knowledge, attitudes, and practices (KAPs) are limited. The current study aimed to assess the community poultry drug and feed sellers’ KAPs of antimicrobial use (AMU) and antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in some selected areas of Bangladesh. We determined the respondents’ (drug and the feed sellers) KAPs of AMU and AMR using a tested and paper-based questionnaire. The study demonstrated that most respondents have insufficient knowledge, less positive attitudes, and inappropriate practices regarding AMU and AMR. The factor score analysis further showed that the type of respondents and their years of experience, level of education, and training on the drug were the significant factors impacting the current knowledge, attitudes, and practices of AMU and AMR. The adjusted logistic regression analysis revealed that the drug sellers who completed their education up to 12th grade and had training on the drug had adequate knowledge of AMU and AMR. The data also showed that the drug sellers belong to the age group 31–35 and 36–40 years and who completed 12th grade had good attitudes on the same. Likewise, the analysis further determined that drug sellers belonging to the age category 18–25 and 26–30 years, and interestingly, the respondents who completed education up to 12th grade, had better practices. Spearman’s rank-order correlation revealed a positive association between each pair of the KAPs scores for the respondents. The correlation was fair between knowledge–attitudes, knowledge–practices, and attitudes–practices. Based on the current study results, we recommend educational interventions and appropriate training for the poultry drug and feed sellers to raise awareness and to upgrade their current knowledge on the appropriate use of antimicrobials. This will ultimately lead to reducing the chances of developing AMR in the poultry sectors of the country.

Rodent-Related Zoonotic Pathogens at the Human-Animal-Environment Interface in Qatar: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Rodents are one of the most diversified terrestrial mammals, and they perform several beneficial activities in nature. These animals are also important as carriers of many pathogens with public health importance. The current systematic review was conducted to formulate a true depiction of rodent-related zoonoses in Qatar. Following systematic searches on PubMed, Scopus, Science Direct, and Web of Science and a screening process, a total of 94 published articles were selected and studied. The studied articles reported 23 rodent-related zoonotic pathogens that include nine bacterial, eleven parasitic, and three viral pathogens, from which the frequently reported pathogens were Mycobacterium tuberculosis (32 reports), Escherichia coli (23), and Salmonella spp. (16). The possible pathway of entry of the rodent-borne pathogens can be the land port, seaports, and airport of Qatar through carrier humans and animals, contaminated food, and agricultural products. The pathogens can be conserved internally by rodents, pets, and livestock; by agricultural production systems; and by food marketing chains. The overall estimated pooled prevalence of the pathogens among the human population was 4.27% (95%CI: 4.03–4.51%; p < 0.001) with significant heterogeneity (I² = 99.50%). The top three highest prevalent pathogens were M.tuberculosis (30.90%; 22.75–39.04%; p < 0.001; I² = 99.70%) followed by Toxoplasma gondii (21.93%; 6.23–37.61%; p < 0.001; I² = 99.30%) and hepatitis E virus (18.29%; 11.72–24.86%; p < 0.001; I² = 96.70%). However, there is a knowledge gap about the listed pathogens regarding the occurrence, transmission pathways, and rodent role in transmission dynamics at the human–animal–environment interface in Qatar. Further studies are required to explore the role of rodents in spreading zoonotic pathogens through the One Health framework, consisting of zoologists, ecologists, microbiologists, entomologists, veterinarians, and public health experts in this country.

Comparative anatomical studies on the cranial nerves of the fully formed embryos of the Nile tilapia Oreochromis niloticus (Ostiechthyes-Cichlidae). I. Nervus glossopharyngeus

The organization of the roots, ganglia and the peripheral distribution of the cranial nerves of the fully formed embryos of Oreochromis niloticus are examined in the transverse serial sections. These nerves carry fibers, which were also analyzed. The results of this study demonstrated that the glossopharyngeal nerve originates by means of only one root, which leaves the cranium through the glossopharyngeal foramen. This nerve gives fibers (visceromotor) to the first internal and external levator arcus branchialis muscles. There is a single epibranchial (petrosal) ganglion located extracranially. Nervus glossopharyngeus has three rami; pharyngeus, pretramticus and posttrematicus. The ramus pharyngeus carries only viscerosensory fibers; general for the pharyngeal epithelium and special ones for the pseudobranch. General viscerosensory fibers are also carried by rami pretrematicus and posttrematicus for the pharyngeal epithelial lining. The special sensory fibers are carried by the ramus pretrematicus for the taste buds and by ramus posttrematicus for the gill filaments. The ramus pretrematicus also carries visceromotor fibers for the first adductor arcus branchialis and to the first obliquus ventralis muscles.

Spatio-temporal distribution patterns of Chironomidae communities in the wadis of Northern Tunisia

In Northern Tunisia, seasonal streams, called wadi, are characterized by extreme hydrological and thermal conditions. These freshwater systems have very particular features as a result of their strong irregularity of flow due to limited precipitation runoff regime, leading to strong seasonal hydrologic fluctuations. The current study focused on the spatio-temporal distribution of chironomids in 28 sampling sites spread across the Northern Tunisia. By emplying PERMANOVA, the results indicated a significant spatio-temporal variation along various environmental gradients. The main abiotic factors responsible for noted differences in the spatial distribution of chironomids in wadi were the conductivity and temperature, closely followed by altitude, pH, salinity, talweg slope and dissolved oxygen, identified as such by employing distance-based linear models' procedure. The Distance-based redundancy analysis ordination showed two main groups: the first clustered the Bizerte sites, which were characterized by high water conductivity, sodium concentration and salinity. The second main group comprised sites from the Tell zone and was characterized by low temperatures, neutral pH, low conductivity and nutrients content. The subfamily TANYPODIINAE (e.g., Prochladius sp., Prochladius choerus (Meigen, 1804) and Macropelopia sp.) was the dominant group at Tell zone, whereas species such as Diamesa starmachi (Kownacki et Kownacha, 1970) and Potthastia gaedii (Meigen, 1838) were found only in Tell Wadis. In contrast, chironomid species such as Diamesa starmachi (Kownacki et Kownacha, 1970), Potthastia gaedii (Meigen, 1838), Procladius choreus (Meigen, 1804) were specific for Tell Mountain. Cap Bon wadis region was dominated by genus Cladotanytarsus sp. The results of this survey liked the taxonomic composition of chironomid assemblages to the variation of hydromorphological and physic-chemical gradients across the northern Tunisia wadis.

Assessment of carbamazepine acute toxicity in the cockle Cerastoderma edule through chemical, physiological and biochemical tools

The cockle Cerastoderma edule was exposed to four concentrations (5, 10, 20 and 70 μg L-1) of carbamazepine (CBZ). This anticonvulsant was found to alter the mussel behavior of by reducing its clearance rate (CR). Analysis of CBZ accumulation in tissues of C. edule was carried out using HPLC-UV after 48 or 96 hours of exposure. In addition, an overproduction of H2O2 by the bivalves was detected following exposure to CBZ but nitrite levels remained unchanged. Moreover, superoxide dismutase and catalase activities showed a significant increase in relation to their contact with CBZ. The activity of the biotransformation enzyme gluthatione-S-transferase did not change during exposure. Malondialdehyde (MDA) levels indicating cellular damage, increased when bivalves were exposed to 20 and 70 μg l-1 of carbamazepine for 96 h CBZ. The results also indicate that acetylcholinesterase activity (AChE) was inhibited in all CBZ concentrations during the 48 h exposure period. However, during the 96 h exposure period, AChE was only inhibited at the highest concentration. Further studies are needed now for more exploration of the toxicity of CBZ since it could be bioaccumulable throughout the food web and may affect non-target organisms.

Assessment of basic reproduction number (R0), spatial and temporal epidemiological determinants, and genetic characterization of SARS-CoV-2 in Bangladesh

Epidemiological and molecular characterization of SARS-CoV-2 is essential for identifying the source of the virus and for effective control of the spread of local strains. We estimated case fatality rate, cumulative recovery number, basic reproduction number (R₀) and future incidence of COVID-19 in Bangladesh. We illustrated the spatial distribution of cases throughout the country. We performed phylogenetic and mutation analysis of SARS-CoV-2 sequences from Bangladesh. As of July 31, 2020, Bangladesh had a case fatality rate of 1.32%. The cases were initially clustered in Dhaka and its surrounding districts in March but spreads throughout the country over time. The R₀ calculated as 1.173 in Exponential Growth method. For the projection, a 20% change in R₀ with subsequent infection trend has been calculated. The genomic analysis of 292 Bangladeshi SARS-CoV-2 strains suggests diverse genomic clades L, O, S, G, GH, where predominant circulating clade was GR (83.9%; 245/292). The GR clades' phylogenetic analysis revealed distinct clusters (I to XIII) with intra-clade variations. The mutation analysis revealed 1634 mutations where 94.6% and 5.4% were non-synonymous and unique mutation, respectively. The Spike, Nucleocapsid, NSP2, and RdRP showed substantially high mutation but no mutation was recorded in NSP9 and NSP11 protein. In spike (S) protein, 355 predominant mutations were recorded, highest in D614G. Alternatively, I120F in NSP2 protein, R203K and G204R in nucleocapsid protein, and P323L in RdRp were more recurrent. The Bangladeshi genomes belonged to phylogenetic lineages A, B, B.1, B.1.1, B.1.1.23, B.1.1.25, B.1.113, and B.1.36, among which 50.0% sequences owned by the pangolin lineage B.1.1.25. The study illustrates the spatial distribution of SARS-CoV-2, and molecular epidemiology of Bangladeshi isolates. We recommend continuous monitoring of R₀ and genomic surveillance to understand the transmission dynamics and detect new variants of SARS-CoV-2 for proper control of the current pandemic and evaluate the effectiveness of vaccination globally.

Residual antimicrobial agents in food originating from animals

Background

The agricultural food products industry in Bangladesh depends on utilizing antimicrobials indiscriminately as growth promoters and for controlling infectious diseases. Thus, there is always a risk of antimicrobial agent accumulation in food sources that originate from agricultural production.

Methods

In the present study, we collected data from published articles between January, 2013 and December, 2019 on antimicrobial residues in human food sources such as meat, milk, eggs, and fishes.

Results

Liver contained the highest percentage of antimicrobial residues (74%; 95% CI: 59.66–85.37) against the invitro enteric pathogen Escherichia coli in layer chickens. Similar results were demonstrated in liver (68%; 95% CI: 53.30–80.48) and kidney (66%, 95% CI: 51.23–78.79) of layer chickens against Bacillus cereus and Bacillus subtilis. Amongst all antibiotics, the highest concentrations of ciprofloxacin were detected in kidney (48.57%; 95% CI: 31.38–66.01), followed by liver (47.56; 95% CI: 40.88–54.30) of broiler chickens. Ciprofloxacin was also present in liver (46.15%; 95% CI: 33.70–58.96) of layer chickens. The percentage of ciprofloxacin in thigh and breast meat in broiler bird were 41.54% (95% CI: 34.54–48.79) and 37.95% (95% CI: 31.11–45.15) respectively. Enrofloxacin was the second most dominant antimicrobial agent and was present in the liver of both types of poultry (Broiler and Layer chickens: 41.54%; 95% CI: 29.44–54.4 and 437.33%; 95% CI: 30.99–44.01). The prevalence rates of enrofloxacin in thigh and breast meat of broiler chickens were 24.10% (95% CI: 18.28–30.73) and 20.51% (95% CI: 15.08–26.87), respectively. Tetracycline, a commonly used antibiotic in livestock, was present in the liver (49.23%; 95% CI: 36.60–61.93) of layer chickens. In case of aquaculture food products, the highest amount of amoxicillin (683.2 mg/kg) was detected in Tilapia fish (Oreochromis niloticus), followed by 584.4 mg/kg in climbing perch (Anabas testudineus) and 555.6 mg/kg in Rui fish (Labeo rohita). Among the five types of fishes, Rui fish (0.000515 mg/kg) contained the highest concentrations of chloramphenicol antibiotic residues.

Conclusions

The presence of antimicrobial residues in meat, milk, egg, and fish is a serious public health threat due to the potential induction of antimicrobial resistance. It can negatively impact the food supply chain, especially with the current strain that it is already facing with the current COVID-19 pandemic. The findings of the present study highlight the ongoing risk of residual antimicrobial agents in food of animal origin in Bangladesh and countries with similar practices. This can draw the attention of public health officials to propose plans to mitigate or stop this practice.

Spatiotemporal patterns and trends of community transmission of the pandemic COVID-19 in South Asia: Bangladesh as a case study

South Asian (SA) countries have been fighting with the pandemic novel coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) since January 2020. Earlier, the country-specific descriptive study has been done. Nevertheless, as transboundary infection, the border sharing, shared cultural and behavioral practice, effects on the temporal and spatial distribution of COVID-19 in SA is still unveiled. Therefore, this study has been revealed the spatial hotspot along with descriptive output on different parameters of COVID-19 infection. We extracted data from the WHO and the worldometer database from the onset of the outbreak up to 15 May, 2020. Europe has the highest case fatality rate (CFR, 9.22%), whereas Oceania has the highest (91.15%) recovery rate from COVID-19. Among SA countries, India has the highest number of cases (85,790), followed by Pakistan (38,799) and Bangladesh (20,065). However, the number of tests conducted was minimum in this region in comparison with other areas. The highest CFR was recorded in India (3.21%) among SA countries, whereas Nepal and Bhutan had no death record due to COVID-19 so far. The recovery rate varies from 4.75% in the Maldives to 51.02% in Sri Lanka. In Bangladesh, community transmission has been recorded, and the highest number of cases were detected in Dhaka, followed by Narayanganj and Chattogram. We detected Dhaka and its surrounding six districts, namely Gazipur, Narsingdi, Narayanganj, Munshiganj, Manikganj, and Shariatpur, as the 99% confidence-based hotspot where Faridpur and Madaripur district as the 95% confidence-based spatial hotspots of COVID-19 in Bangladesh. However, we did not find any cold spots in Bangladesh. We identified three hotspots and three cold spots at different confidence levels in India. Findings from this study suggested the "Test, Trace, and Isolation" approach for earlier detection of infection to prevent further community transmission of COVID-19.

Rodent Ectoparasites in the Middle East: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Rodents carry many ectoparasites, such as ticks, lice, fleas, and mites, which have potential public health importance. Middle Eastern countries are hotspots for many emerging and re-emerging infectious diseases, such as plague, leishmaniasis, Crimean Congo hemorrhagic fever, and Q fever, due to their ecological, socioeconomic, and political diversity. Rodent ectoparasites can act as vectors for many of these pathogens. Knowledge of rodent ectoparasites is of prime importance in controlling rodent ectoparasite-borne zoonotic diseases in this region. The current systematic review and meta-analysis performs a comprehensive synthesis of the available knowledge, providing an evidence-based overview of the ectoparasites detected on rodents in Middle Eastern countries. Following a systematic search in Pubmed, Scopus, and Web of Science, a total of 113 published articles on rodent ectoparasites were studied and analyzed. A total of 87 rodent species were documented, from which Mus musculus, Rattus norvegicus, and Rattus rattus were found to be the most common. Fleas were the most reported ectoparasites (87 articles), followed by mites (53), ticks (44), and lice (25). Xenopsylla cheopis, Polyplax spinulosa, Ornithonyssus bacoti, and Hyalomma rhipicephaloides were the most commonly described fleas, lice, mites, and ticks, respectively. Based on the reviewed articles, the median flea, louse, mite, and tick indices were highest in Israel (4.15), Egypt (1.39), Egypt (1.27), and Saudi Arabia (1.17), respectively. Quantitative meta-analysis, using a random-effects model, determined the overall pooled flea prevalence in the Middle East as 40% (95% CI: 25–55, I² = 100%, p < 0.00001), ranging between 13% (95% CI: 0–30, I² = 95%, p < 0.00001) in Iran and 59% (95% CI: 42–77, I² = 75%, p < 0.00001) in Israel. The overall pooled louse prevalence was found to be 30% (95% CI: 13–47, I² = 100%, p < 0.00001), ranging between 25% in Iran (95% CI: 1–50, I² = 99%) and 38% in Egypt (95% CI: 7–68, I² = 100%). In the case of mites, the pooled prevalence in this region was 33% (95% CI: 11–55, I² = 100%, p < 0.00001), where the country-specific prevalence estimates were 30% in Iran (95% CI: 4–56, I² = 99%) and 32% in Egypt (95% CI: 0–76, I² = 100%). For ticks, the overall prevalence was found to be 25% (95% CI: 2–47, I² = 100%, p < 0.00001), ranging from 16% in Iran (95% CI: 7–25, I² = 74%) to 42% in Egypt (95% CI: 1–85, I² = 100%). The control of rodent ectoparasites should be considered to reduce their adverse effects. Using the One Health strategy, rodent control, and precisely control of the most common rodent species, i.e., Mus musculus, Rattus norvegicus, and Rattus rattus, should be considered to control the rodent-borne ectoparasites in this region.

Geospatial dynamics of COVID-19 clusters and hotspots in Bangladesh

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is an emerging and rapidly evolving profound pandemic, which causes severe acute respiratory syndrome and results in significant case fatality around the world including Bangladesh. We conducted this study to assess how COVID-19 cases clustered across districts in Bangladesh and whether the pattern and duration of clusters changed following the country's containment strategy using Geographic information system (GIS) software. We calculated the epidemiological measures including incidence, case fatality rate (CFR) and spatiotemporal pattern of COVID-19. We used inverse distance weighting (IDW), Geographically weighted regression (GWR), Moran's I and Getis-Ord Gi* statistics for prediction, spatial autocorrelation and hotspot identification. We used retrospective space-time scan statistic to analyse clusters of COVID-19 cases. COVID-19 has a CFR of 1.4%. Over 50% of cases were reported among young adults (21-40 years age). The incidence varies from 0.03 - 0.95 at the end of March to 15.59-308.62 per 100,000, at the end of July. Global Moran's Index indicates a robust spatial autocorrelation of COVID-19 cases. Local Moran's I analysis stated a distinct High-High (HH) clustering of COVID-19 cases among Dhaka, Gazipur and Narayanganj districts. Twelve statistically significant high rated clusters were identified by space-time scan statistics using a discrete Poisson model. IDW predicted the cases at the undetermined area, and GWR showed a strong relationship between population density and case frequency, which was further established with Moran's I (0.734; p ≤ 0.01). Dhaka and its surrounding six districts were identified as the significant hotspot whereas Chattogram was an extended infected area, indicating the gradual spread of the virus to peripheral districts. This study provides novel insights into the geostatistical analysis of COVID-19 clusters and hotspots that might assist the policy planner to predict the spatiotemporal transmission dynamics and formulate imperative control strategies of SARS-CoV-2 in Bangladesh. The geospatial modeling tools can be used to prevent and control future epidemics and pandemics.

Hemoprotozoa and Anaplasma spp. in rodents and shrews of Bangladesh

Hemoprotozoans are important pathogens of animals and humans, among which some species have zoonotic significance. The prevalence of different hemoprotozoa and Anaplasma spp. in larger mammals have been reported from different regions of the world. But, very few studies have been conducted to estimate the prevalence of hemoprotozoa in rodents and shrews of South-East Asia. The study assessed the prevalence of hemoprotozoa and Anaplasma spp. in rodents and shrews of Bangladesh. Blood samples (n=451) were collected from rodents and shrews between June 2011 and June 2013 and July-December 2015 from 4 land gradients of Bangladesh. Giemsa-stained blood smears revealed that 13% of animals were harboring hemoprotozoa (4.7% Babesia spp., 0.67% Plasmodium spp.), and Anaplasma spp. (7.5%). The study may serve as a guide for future hemoparasitic research of rodents and shrews.