Prospective changes in attributions of self-blame and social reactions to women's disclosures of adult sexual assault

Disclosing Sexual Victimization Online and In-Person: An Examination of Bisexual+ and Heterosexual Survivors

Bisexual+ (bisexual, pansexual, queer, attraction to more than one gender) people are at elevated risk for sexual victimization relative to their heterosexual counterparts. Disclosure of sexual victimization and social reactions received upon disclosure can play a major role in recovery following an assault. Using an online survey, the current study examined whether bisexual+ and heterosexual survivors of sexual victimization (N = 657) varied in disclosure of victimization, the type of disclosure (in-person vs. online via #MeToo), and receipt of various social reactions to disclosure in person and online. A chi-square test examined differences in disclosure and differences in types of disclosure (in-person only vs. MeToo across sexual identity). MANOVAS were used to examine whether in-person and online reactions varied across sexual identity. Bisexual+ survivors were more likely to disclose sexual victimization relative to heterosexual survivors. Among those who disclosed, bisexual+ survivors were more likely to disclose in person only whereas heterosexual survivors were more likely to disclose online via #MeToo. Whereas we did not find any significant differences for in-person reactions, we did find significant differences for online social reactions using #MeToo. Heterosexual survivors received higher turning against reactions (e.g., avoided talking to you or spending time with you) and more unsupportive acknowledgment relative to bisexual+ participants. Whereas bisexual+ participants received less turning against reactions and unsupportive acknowledgment during #MeToo/online disclosure, they were also less likely to disclose using #MeToo. Findings suggest that bisexual+ and heterosexual people vary in the way they disclose sexual victimization, and in how they are responded to when disclosing in person and online.

Social Reactions to Disclosures of Multiple-Perpetrator Sexual Assault: Do Number of Offenders Matter?

Sexual assault (SA) victimization is a prevalent issue both in the U.S. and globally. Although SA victimization is usually perpetrated by a single-perpetrator, multiple-perpetrator sexual assaults (MPSAs) also occur. Unfortunately, there is less literature concerning MPSAs, including the well-being of survivors' post-assault. One factor that has been shown to be important in the well-being of SA survivors' post-assault are the social reactions survivors receive from others following disclosure. The current study sought to compare social reactions received by MPSA survivors to the social reactions received by single-perpetrator sexual assault (SPSA) survivors in a community sample of adult female SA survivors (N = 1,863). We examined "turning against" (TA) reactions, a type of negative social reaction in which the supporter expresses more overtly distressing reactions that focus blame on the victim. We also examined unsupportive acknowledgment reactions (UA) the second type of negative reaction in which survivors receive acknowledgment that the assault occurred but are not supported. Additionally, we examined differences in positive reactions that survivors received from their support systems. One-way Analysis of Variance showed statistically significant differences in social reactions to disclosure according to number of offenders in the SA, with MPSA survivors receiving more TA and UA negative reactions than SPSA survivors. There were no differences in positive reactions by number of offenders. Multiple regression analyses also revealed that several demographics, assault characteristics, and post-assault factors (total Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) symptoms, coping, attributions of self-blame) were related to the social reactions received by MPSA survivors post-assault. Implications and recommendations for support providers are discussed.

"Coming out of the closet about sexual assault": Intersectional sexual assault stigma and (non) disclosure to formal support providers among survivors using Reddit

Sexual assault is a pervasive, violent and often gendered crime that can result in significant negative consequences. Many sexual assault survivors consider disclosing to health and social care providers, therapists, and others who collectively fall under the banner of formal support, in order to access information, referrals, treatment and/or emotional support, however barriers to disclosure remain. This qualitative study is unique in its application of an intersectional sexual assault stigmatization framework to understand (non)disclosure to formal support providers among diverse sexual assault survivors. Through anonymous online narratives posted to the platform Reddit, survivors documented experiences of intersectional sexual assault stigma (perceived, internalized, anticipated, experienced) showing that they were not only stigmatized through negative gender stereotyping, but they were also marginalized through other structural inequities. The experience of multiple marginalization that arose from intersectional sexual assault stigma often impeded survivors in accessing and/or utilizing the formal support they wished for. The findings suggest that formal support providers could benefit from stigma reduction training related specifically to sexual assault survivors and that current models of stigma and discrimination training need to be expanded to include intersectional stigma. Further, the findings suggest that beyond training at an organizational level, a broader intervention aimed at reducing structural stigma and discrimination toward sexual assault survivors at a societal level appears warranted. Implications for future research related to the unique disclosure, health, and social care needs of diverse sexual assault survivors and support-seeking online alongside or in lieu of formal support are discussed.

Correlates of Social Reactions to Victims' Disclosures of Sexual Assault and Intimate Partner Violence: A Systematic Review

Sexual assault and intimate partner violence (IPV) are common experiences in women, but few studies have examined correlates of social reactions experienced by victims telling others about assault. This systematic review identified 30 studies through searches of research databases on correlates of social reactions to disclosure of sexual assault or IPV in samples of adult victims or disclosure recipients. Studies showed evidence of greater negative social reactions for Black and Hispanic victims, less educated, and bisexual victims. More extensive trauma histories in victims were related to receipt of greater negative social reactions, whereas assault characteristics (e.g., victim-offender relationship, alcohol use, perpetrator violence during assault) were sometimes associated with negative reactions. In terms of postassault factors, more psychological symptoms, self-blame, avoidance coping, less perceived control, and less posttraumatic growth were related to more negative social reactions. Disclosure characteristics, telling informal sources, and telling more sources were related to more positive reactions, whereas telling both formal and informal sources was related to negative reactions. Demographic, attitudinal, and relational factors were related to disclosure recipients' intended social reactions. Future research needs to examine how various factors relate to social reactions in the context of theory, and clinical treatment and interventions should use this information to identify and intervene with victims to reduce negative social reactions and their psychological impacts and to increase positive social reactions particularly from informal support sources.

Are Survivors of Sexual Assault Blamed More Than Victims of Other Crimes?

Although victim blaming in the context of sexual assault is often emphasized, little research has compared rates of victim blaming following sexual assault relative to other forms of victimization. This research investigated whether there is a crime-specific bias toward blaming victims of sexual assault. Victim blaming was assessed via different methods from the observer perspective in vignette-based studies, as well as survivors' accounts of social reactions they received. In Study 1, participants were asked to rate how much the survivor was to blame in three vignettes, each with a different randomized crime outcome: rape, physical assault, or theft. Study 2 assessed blame for a vignette that either ended in rape or theft, via a causal attribution statement. Study 3 asked interpersonal trauma survivors who had experienced at least two forms of victimization (i.e., sexual assault, physical assault, or theft) to report the social reactions they received following disclosure of each of these crimes. Across all three studies, victim blaming occurred following multiple forms of victimization and there was no evidence of a particular bias toward blaming survivors of sexual assault more so than other crimes. However, results of Study 3 highlight that, following sexual assault, survivors receive more silencing and stigmatizing reactions than they experienced after other crimes. Interpersonal traumas (i.e., sexual or physical assault) also resulted in more egocentric responses compared to theft. Altogether, there does not appear to be a crime-specific bias for victim blaming; however, crime-specific bias is apparent for some other, potentially understudied, social reactions. Implications of these findings highlight the value of victim blaming education and prevention efforts through trauma-informed services and outreach following victimization. Furthermore, service providers and advocates might especially seek to recognize and prevent silencing and stigmatizing reactions following sexual assault disclosures.

Forcible, Substance-facilitated, and Incapacitated Sexual Assault Among University Women: A Canadian Sample

This study examined the frequency of sexual assault experiences in a sample of university women to understand the conditions under which sexual assault occurs, and compare alcohol and drug consumption patterns on the likelihood of experiencing sexual victimization. While patterns of victimization have been examined in American contexts, research on contemporary Canadian contexts is scant at present. We found that roughly 58% of the 377 university women in our sample attending one of three large Western Canadian universities in British Columbia reported having been sexually assaulted. These women reported a total of 528 incidents of sexual assault, with 56% of these involving substance-related nonpenetrative sex acts; 312 incidents were substance-related and 216 involved forcible sexual assault. The likelihood of sexual assault victimization was the highest among participants who identified as a sexual minority, consumed marijuana, and reported greater severity of recent alcohol consumption. The present research aims to inform sexual assault prevention and education efforts to reduce occurrences of victimization.

Trauma History as a Significant Predictor of Posttraumatic Growth Beyond Mental Health Symptoms in Women-Identifying Survivors of Undergraduate Non-Consensual Sexual Experiences

There is little data on what influences posttraumatic growth for women who experienced non-consensual sexual contact (NCSC) as an undergraduate college student. The purpose of this study is to garner a better understanding of posttraumatic growth among women-identifying survivors of undergraduate NCSC by addressing the following aims: 1) evaluate the mediating role of NCSC-related shame on the relationship between perceived peer rape myth acceptance and posttraumatic growth (n = 174); and 2) evaluate the shared and independent variance contributions of mental health symptoms and trauma history clusters on posttraumatic growth (n = 151).NCSC-related shame did not mediate the relationship between perceived peer rape myth acceptance and posttraumatic growth. Mental health symptoms and trauma history significantly contributed to 35.27% of posttraumatic growth variance, with the trauma history cluster significantly influencing posttraumatic growth scores beyond mental health symptoms. Based on these findings, it is important that clinicians assess for a history of trauma and the impact of that trauma in addition to mental health symptoms when trying to understand posttraumatic growth after campus sexual violence.

Sexual Victimization Among Men: A Qualitative Analysis of the Twitter Hashtag #UsToo

The present study sought to characterize use of the hashtag #UsToo on Twitter to disclose or comment on men's experiences of sexual victimization. A sample of 281 original content, English-language tweets containing the hashtag were collected from Twitter over five consecutive weekdays. Thematic content analysis was conducted by a three-person coding team (full team consensus, achieving 100% agreement). Researchers categorized tweets as either a disclosure of victimization (N = 6) or a response to this hashtag (N = 275). When responding to the hashtag, users commented on the emotional impact of victimization, provided positive responses within the forum (i.e., advocacy, call to action, raising awareness, and prosocial reactions), and also engaged in negative responses within the forum (i.e., distracting attention away from the experiences of victims, egocentric responses which called attention to themselves or others, and otherwise harmful reactions). Despite the popularity of the #MeToo hashtag to disclose personal experiences of violence victimization, Twitter users were unlikely to utilize the hashtag #UsToo to disclose personal experiences of sexual victimization. Results highlight a divergence between online behavior in response to a call for men's disclosure of sexual victimization using the hashtag #UsToo versus online behavior in response to a call for women's disclosure of sexual victimization using the hashtag #MeToo.

A Pilot Evaluation of an Intervention to Improve Social Reactions to Sexual and Partner Violence Disclosures

The purpose of this study was to evaluate an intervention (Supporting Survivors and Self [SSS]) created to increase positive social reactions and decrease negative social reactions to sexual assault and partner violence disclosures among informal support disclosure recipients. Participants were 1,268 college students from a medium-sized New England university who completed an online baseline survey and were assigned to either the treatment or control condition. The SSS intervention trained potential informal supports on what to say and not to say to disclosure recipients. Six months after the SSS intervention, participants in both conditions completed the follow-up survey online. Although intentions to provide positive social reactions significantly increased among participants in the treatment group compared with the control group and there were marginally significant effects in the anticipated directions for alcohol-specific intended social reactions, no overall difference was observed across conditions in actual social reactions provided. Moderation analyses suggested that, in general, the SSS intervention was more effective on various outcomes for students who were younger, male, non-White, sexual minorities, and/or non-victims. Moderation analyses also suggested that the intervention varied in efficacy depending on the circumstances of the disclosure. Despite the mixed outcomes of the SSS intervention, these data suggest that the SSS intervention was effective in improving social reactions for some students and under some circumstances. Future research is needed to further refine the SSS intervention to bolster its effectiveness in reducing negative social reactions and increasing positive social reactions for all students.

Predictors of Disclosure Recipients' Social Reactions to Victims' Disclosures of Dating and Sexual Violence: A Longitudinal Study of College Students

Dating violence (DV) and sexual violence (SV) are pernicious issues among college students that lead to deleterious outcomes, which are more likely when victims receive more negative social reactions (e.g., blaming the victim) and fewer positive social reactions to disclosure (e.g., providing emotional support). Most research studies have examined victims' reports of social reactions to their assault disclosures, with only a few cross-sectional studies of predictors of disclosure recipients' provision of positive and negative social reactions to victims. The purpose of the current study was to address these gaps in the literature. Participants were 481 college students (76.4% women, 89.2% White/Non-Hispanic) who reported being a disclosure recipient during the past six months (measured at Time 2 to cross-sectionally and longitudinally predict their social reactions to victims' disclosures). Results suggested that both victim and disclosure recipient characteristics (e.g., gender, race), disclosure recipient perceptions of victims (e.g., empathy for victim, blame of victim, victims' coping) and both disclosure recipient and victim behavior at the time of disclosure (e.g., drinking, distress) were related to disclosure recipient social reactions. These findings underscore the need for programs for potential informal disclosure recipients that target psychological variables (e.g., post-traumatic stress disorder) and behavior at the time of disclosure, as well as their perceptions of victims more generally, in addition to improving their knowledge and ability to respond with positive social reactions and avoid negative social reactions.

Latent Profiles of Social Reactions to Sexual Assault Disclosure Among Undergraduate Women

The types of social reactions that victims receive when they disclose experiences of sexual assault are important for post-trauma recovery. Using a person-centered analytic approach, we identified latent profiles based upon the nature of two types of negative (turning against and unsupportive acknowledgment) and two types of positive (emotional support and informational/tangible aid) reactions received by 300 undergraduate women who disclosed sexual assault. Analyses identified four latent profiles characterized by (a) moderate emotional support/low negative reactions, (b) moderate emotional support/moderate negative reactions, (c) high positive/some unsupportive acknowledgment reactions, and (d) moderate positive/high negative reactions. Differences between the profiles in sexual assault acknowledgment, self- and perpetrator-blame, and some assault-related characteristics (victim injury but not victim or perpetrator intoxication) were identified. Group comparisons revealed that the two profiles characterized by greater negative reactions reported greater posttraumatic stress, whereas the profile characterized by moderate support/moderate negative reactions reported greater depression. No differences were identified for hazardous alcohol use. Findings highlight the importance of addressing negative reactions to sexual assault disclosure as potential barriers to recovery. Colleges may benefit from programming targeted at disclosure recipients as part of violence prevention efforts. A broader societal shift is also imperative to eliminate stigmatization of victims. Additional online materials for this article are available on PWQ’s website at: http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/suppl/10.1177/03616843211038924 .

Differences in Women's Substance-Related Sexual Assaults: Force, Impairment, and Combined Assault Types

This study furthers previous research on sexual assaults (SAs) involving substances and/or force by examining effects of perpetrator behaviors of alcohol and/or drug impairment level (none, impaired, incapacitated) and/or force during SA in relationship to various assault and recovery outcomes. A diverse sample of 632 women from a large Midwestern city participated in a study on women's experiences with SA. Of this sample of substance-involved SAs, 37.3% (n = 236) reported a forcible-only unimpaired assault, 50.6% (n = 320) reported a combined impairment/incapacitation and force assault, and 12% (n = 76) reported an impaired/incapacitated-only assault. Multivariate analyses of covariance (MANCOVAs) and chi-square analyses compared assault types as defined by combined alcohol and/or drug impairment level and/or force to determine how these assaults differed in demographics, other assault characteristics, and post-assault experiences. Assault types differed on several demographic, assault, and post-assault factors with most differences showing that the combined assault type was related to worse outcomes than forcible-type assaults, including greater reexperiencing, avoidance, and numbing post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms. Implications for clinical intervention include recognizing that assaults involving substance use and force are traumatic and warrant individualized treatment.

Pathways to and factors associated with rape stigma experienced by rape survivors in South Africa: Analysis of baseline data from a rape cohort

Rape stigma, both external and self‐stigmatization (self‐blame), is associated with adverse health outcomes. Understanding its origins and resilience factors is critical for reducing and preventing it. We describe the prevalence of rape stigma, the characteristics of women experiencing it and the pathways to experiencing greater stigma. The Rape Impact Cohort Evaluation study enrolled 852 women aged 16–40 years who had been raped from post‐rape care centres in Durban, South Africa. We present a descriptive analysis of the baseline data, a multinomial logistic regression model of factors associated with different levels of stigma and a structural equation model (SEM). Most women reported stigmatizing thoughts or experiences, with self‐stigmatizing thoughts being more prevalent than external stigmatization. The multinomial model showed that experiences of childhood or other trauma, emotional intimate partner violence (IPV), having less gender equitable attitudes and food insecurity were significantly associated with medium or high versus low levels of stigma. Internal and external stigma were significantly associated with each other. Women who had been previously raped reported less stigma. The SEM showed a direct path between food insecurity and rape stigma, with poorer women experiencing more stigma. Indirect paths were mediated by more traditional gender attitudes and childhood trauma experience and other trauma exposure. Our findings confirm the intersectionality of rape stigma, with its structural drivers of food insecurity and gender inequality, as well as its strong association with prior trauma exposure. Rape survivors may benefit from gender‐empowering psychological support that addresses blame and shame.

Comparisons of Sexual Victimization Experiences among Sexual Minority and Heterosexual Women

This study examined the associations among heterosexual women (HW) and sexual minority women (SMW; for example, lesbian and bisexual), adolescent and adult sexual victimization experiences, childhood experiences of abuse, coping strategies, and mental health symptoms. Participants were 177 women recruited across the United States via the Internet to complete an online survey. Participants first completed the Sexual Experiences Survey and then described qualitatively their most distressing and/or severe sexual victimization experience. They were asked to include situational (e.g., location, alcohol, and drug use) and interpersonal features (e.g., relationship to perpetrator) of their experience. They then completed self-report questionnaires on childhood sexual abuse, coping with substances, coping through self-blame, social reactions to their assault disclosure, and symptoms of anxiety, depression, and somatization. Nonparametric tests were used to examine associations among the variables. There were no significant differences between SMW and HW in terms of the contextual features (i.e., situational, interpersonal) of their most distressing (i.e., severe) sexual victimization experiences or their postassault experiences. However, results revealed significant associations between sexual minority status and both victimization severity and sexual revictimization, with SMW reporting more severe victimization histories and higher rates of sexual revictimization relative to HW. In addition, there was a significant difference between SMW and HW with respect to coping through substances, with SMW reporting more substance use relative to HW. Future work should endeavor to identify the reasons for these important differences and seek to develop appropriate interventions for SMW who have experienced sexual violence.

Why Do Women Talk About It? Reasons for Disclosure of Sexual Victimization and Associated Symptomology

Many sexual victimization survivors disclose their experience; however, there is limited research investigating why women disclose this experience and how reasons relate to psychopathology. The current online study aims to further understand the experiences of 142 female survivors (aged 18-29 years) by identifying their reason for disclosure and investigating how reasons relate to self-reported depression and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptomology. Qualitative analyses identified two reasons: intentional and elicited disclosures. Hierarchical linear regressions revealed that elicited disclosures were associated with higher PTSD symptomology than intentional disclosures above and beyond relevant covariates, suggesting that disclosure reason is an important factor in the recovery process.

Alcohol's Role in Social Reactions to Sexual Assault Disclosures: A Qualitative Study of Informal Support Dyads

Studies of informal support dyads are lacking to understand the disclosure of sexual assaults and social reactions informal supporters make to survivors. This study of 19 informal support dyads using interview data examined how three relationship types-significant others (i.e., romantic partners), family, and friends-differ in social reactions to sexual assaults in the context of drinking or alcohol problems. It was expected that alcohol's role in responses to such disclosures would differ depending on relationship type as well as role alcohol played in the assault and/or in the survivor's life or those in her social network, including the perpetrator. Results show that alcohol has mixed effects and that alcohol-related assaults as well as contexts where survivors, perpetrators, and/or their support networks have alcohol problems need further study to understand how such disclosures and social reactions occur and the impact they have on survivors, their relationships, and recovery.

Post-traumatic Stress Disorder in Victims of Sexual Assault With Pre-assault Substance Consumption: A Systematic Review

Background: Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and substance consumption commonly co-occur in victims of sexual assault. Substance consumption can occur pre- andi/or post-assault. Pre-assault substance consumption may have an impact on the subsequent development of PTSD. This review aims to provide an overview of current understanding of the effects of acute substance intoxication and chronic pre-assault problematic substance use on symptoms of PTSD amongst individuals who were victims of sexual assault. Methods: PsycINFO, EMBASE, and MEDLINE were searched using terms related to PTSD, sexual assault, and substance consumption. These yielded 2,121 articles, 268 of which were retrieved for more detailed evaluation and 13 of these met inclusion criteria and were appraised in full. Results: Overall, the reviewed papers supported our hypothesis that acute substance intoxication and chronic pre-assault problematic substance use are associated with fewer initial PTSD symptoms but less improvement over time, resulting in slower overall PTSD recovery. They also highlighted post-assault characterological self-blame and negative social reactions as mediators of recovery in the context of pre-assault substance consumption. Conclusions: Acute substance intoxication and chronic pre-assault problematic substance use appear to have an impact on the development of PTSD symptoms amongst victims of sexual assault. The importance of developing early interventions and routine screening and assessment for PTSD and pre-assault substance consumption is emphasized. The limited research on male victims and on substances other than alcohol is highlighted.

"I Still Feel Like I Am Not Normal": A Review of the Role of Stigma and Stigmatization Among Female Survivors of Child Sexual Abuse, Sexual Assault, and Intimate Partner Violence

Child sexual abuse (CSA), sexual assault (SA), and intimate partner violence (IPV) occur within social contexts that shape how survivors judge themselves and are evaluated by others. Because these are gendered sexual and intimate crimes that violate social norms about what is appropriate and acceptable, survivors may experience stigma that includes victim-blaming messages from the broader society as well as specific stigmatizing reactions from others in response to disclosure; this stigmatization can be internalized among survivors as self-blame, shame, and anticipatory stigma. Stigma and stigmatization play an important role in shaping survivors' thoughts, feelings, and behaviors as they recover; their risk of revictimization; and their help-seeking and attainment process. In this review, we synthesize recent CSA, SA, and IPV research ( N = 123) that examines female survivors' self-blame, shame, internalized stigma, and anticipatory stigma as well as negative social reactions in response to survivors' disclosure. We highlight critical findings as well as implications for research, practice, and policy, and we note gaps in our current knowledge.

Sexual Assault Supportive Attitudes: Rape Myth Acceptance and Token Resistance in Greek and Non-Greek College Students From Two University Samples in the United States

Colleges are rape-prone cultures with high rates of sexual victimization. Fraternities' and sororities' relationships with sexual assault are consistent themes in literature focusing on sexual violence among college students. Previous research suggests that fraternity men are more likely to endorse rape-supportive attitudes compared with non-Greek men or sorority women. The present study examines rape-supportive attitudes as well as rape and sexual assault victimization in college students with a focus on gender and Greek-life (i.e., involvement in fraternities or sororities) status variables. College students ( N = 1,002) completed a survey including the Token Resistance to Sex Scale (TRSS), Illinois Rape Myth Acceptance Scale-Short Form (IRMA-S), and items related to past experiences of nonconsensual sex. Two regression models tested predictors of token resistance and rape myth acceptance. Chi-square analyses tested between-group differences of experiencing rape and sexual assault. Gender ( p < .001), Greek status ( p < .001), and race/ethnicity ( p < .001) were predictors for TRSS scores. For IRMA scores, gender ( p < .001), Greek status ( p < .001), and race/ethnicity variables ( p < .001) were also significant. Interaction terms revealed that Greek men had higher token resistance and rape myth acceptance than any other group. Chi-square analyses indicate women more frequently report experiences of rape (χ² = 25.57, df = 1, p < .001) and sexual assault (χ² = 31.75, df = 1, p < .001). Men report high rates (40.8%) of experiencing sexual assault "because refusing was useless." No differences of victimization rates were found between Greeks and non-Greeks. Gender and sexual scripting theory can help explain gender differences in attitudes and experiences. Greater endorsement of rape myth acceptance and token resistance by Greeks, who influence college party culture, could be contributing to a culture conducive to rape. Findings demonstrate a continued need for interventions focused on shifting sociocultural dynamics (e.g., traditional roles and sexual scripting) on college campuses.

"Everybody's Really Close-Knit": Disconnections Between Helping Victims of Intimate Partner Violence and More General Helping in Rural Communities

Social support is key to well-being for victims of intimate partner violence (IPV), and bystanders have an important role to play in preventing IPV by taking action when there is risk for violence. The current study used qualitative interviews to explore young adults' perspectives on helping in situations of IPV, and more general helping, in the rural communities in which they resided. Participants were 74 individuals between the ages of 18 and 24 years from 16 rural counties across the eastern United States. Participants generally described their communities as close-knit and helpful, especially around daily hassles (e.g., broken down car) and unusual circumstances (e.g., house fire). Although participants generated ways in which community members help IPV victims, these mostly focused on providing support or taking action in the aftermath of IPV as opposed to more preventive actions. Lack of financial resources were uniquely cited as a barrier to more general helping, whereas concerns about privacy and lack of deservingness of help were barriers to both general helping and helping in IPV situations, although these were more pronounced in IPV situations than general helping situations. Taken together, these results suggest that although people generally see their communities as helpful and close-knit, these perceptions and scripts did not necessarily translate to helping in situations of IPV. Bystander intervention programs are needed that provide more specific helping scripts for IPV.

Understanding Support Providers' Views of "Helpful" Responses to Sexual Assault Disclosures: The Impacts of Self-Blame and Physical Resistance

Prior research on the factors associated with various disclosure responses has often been conducted on sexual assault victims and formal support providers, while informal helpers, who are the most common recipients of disclosures, have received far less attention. This experimental study examined potential informal helpers' views of disclosure reactions and their influence on the self-reported likelihoods of engaging in those responses. Undergraduate students at a large Canadian university ( N = 239) received vignettes describing a hypothetical sexual assault disclosure that varied on victim's self-blame and physical resistance, and then rated common disclosure reactions. The results revealed that participants' perceptions of various responses were at odds with victims' experiences, with many negative responses, such as victim blame and egocentrism, viewed as equally or more helpful than positive responses, such as emotional support. Moreover, when the victim blamed herself and did not physically resist, positive responses were seen as less helpful whereas negative responses were seen as more helpful, with some notable gender differences. Regression analyses indicated that the perceived helpfulness of each response was the strongest predictor of the likelihood of providing that response. Practical implications of these findings are discussed.

Proximal relationships between social support and PTSD symptom severity: A daily diary study of sexual assault survivors

BACKGROUND

In cross-sectional studies, social support and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms appear related, in that higher severity of PTSD is associated with lower social support and vice versa. Theoretical models of the causal direction of this relationship differ. Most longitudinal studies suggest that PTSD symptoms erode social support over time, although some suggest that higher social support is prospectively associated with decrease in PTSD symptom severity. It is unclear, though, how social support and PTSD affect each other in the short term. The purpose of this study was to test day-to-day relationships between PTSD and social support to elucidate how PTSD and social support influence each other.

METHODS

Using 1173 daily observations from 75 college women who met screening criteria for lifetime sexual assault and past-month PTSD, this study tested same-day and next-day relationships between PTSD and social support using mixed models.

RESULTS

Within-person analyses indicated that, when PTSD was higher than usual on a given day, social support was higher the next day. Between-person analyses suggested that people with generally higher social support tended to have lower PTSD symptoms on a given day, but average PTSD symptom severity was not associated with day-to-day fluctuations in social support.

CONCLUSIONS

Rather than eroding in response to daily symptoms, social support might be sought out following increases in PTSD, and when received consistently, might reduce symptoms of PTSD in the short term. Interventions that increase college women's access to social support after sexual assault may thus be helpful in addressing PTSD.

A Short Measure of Social Reactions to Sexual Assault: The Social Reactions Questionnaire-Shortened

Social reactions to disclosures of sexual assault have significant effects on women's postassault recovery. However, being the most widely used measure of these reactions, the 48-item Social Reactions Questionnaire (SRQ; Ullman, 2000) is too long for some research and evaluation efforts. Thus, we developed a 16-item short version, the Social Reactions Questionnaire-Shortened (SRQ-S). Three preexisting college and community samples of women survivors (N = 1,012; 1,084; and 344) were used to determine which SRQ items were most related to psychological symptoms and could form reliable subscales. The brief version was then administered in a college and community sample of 447 women survivors. Confirmatory factor analyses (CFAs) and supporting psychometrics showed the SRQ-S reliably measures three general scales of the SRQ (Turning Against, Unsupportive Acknowledgment, Positive Reactions) as well as eight 2-item subscales (e.g., Blame). The SRQ-S provides researchers and interventionists with a brief alternative measure to the original SRQ.

From My Own Brother in My Own Home: Children's Experiences and Perceptions Following Alleged Sibling Incest

Sibling incest is an understudied field despite its high prevalence rates. The current study was designed to characterize the way children describe their experiences and perceptions following alleged sibling incest. The sample consisted of 20 forensic investigations with children who were referred to forensic investigation following suspected sibling incest. The age range of the children was between 6 and 12 years old, including 17 girls and three boys. Thematic analysis was conducted on all the interviews and the children's perceptions greatly echoed the ecological framework while they elaborated on three levels: family level, in which children discussed the context of the abuse and the disclosure; sibling level, in which children discussed their siblings' behaviors and the grooming process; and the child level, in which the children discussed their own behavior during the abuse. The discussion highlights the relevance of the ecological framework to the study's results and stresses the complexity of this phenomenon and the challenges it raises for practitioners in various contexts-child protective, forensic, and clinical.

Social Support, Coping, and Posttraumatic Stress Symptoms in Female Sexual Assault Survivors: A Longitudinal Analysis

Social support and coping affect each other after stressful life events, including sexual assault (Taylor & Stanton, 2007). The present study examined the associations among assault-specific support, maladaptive coping, and posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSS) over 3 years in a sample of female sexual assault survivors from a large metropolitan area (N = 1,863). A 3-wave cross-lagged panel model revealed significant weak-to-moderate reciprocal associations between maladaptive coping and PTSS (βs = .09 to .21), significant weak reciprocal associations between turning against social reactions and PTSS (βs = .07 to .10), and inconsistent weak reciprocal associations between maladaptive coping and unsupportive acknowledgment reactions (βs = .06 to .14). We conclude with implications regarding treatment and intervention for survivors and their support networks.

Correlates of Disclosure Cessation After Sexual Assault

Contacts with responders after sexual assault may influence further disclosure, but this possibility has not been explored empirically. Thus, this study investigates associations between survivors' contacts with responders and their decisions to discontinue disclosure. Fifty-four college students with a history of unwanted sexual experiences described 94 ordered contacts with responders. Results indicate that survivors' perceptions of responsiveness were not associated with continued disclosure, but survivors were more likely to continue disclosing when they perceived more rape myth acceptance from responders and when the assault was more recent. These findings highlight survivors' tenacity in meeting their needs, even after problematic responses.

Exploring Correlates of Alcohol-Specific Social Reactions in Alcohol-Involved Sexual Assaults

Disclosing pre-assault drinking may influence reactions sexual assault survivors receive from their support networks. Such reactions likely affect survivor's post-assault adjustment. Thus, it is important to identify assault and disclosure characteristics related to disclosing one's drinking and receiving social reactions that specifically comment on pre-assault alcohol use. This exploratory study examined demographic, assault, and disclosure factors as predictors of both survivors' decisions to disclose their pre-assault alcohol use and social reactions survivors received related to their pre-assault alcohol use. Out of survivors who were drinking at the time of the assault, those with more education and who reported greater alcohol impairment or resistance during the assault were more likely to disclose pre-assault alcohol use. As expected, this study found that of women disclosing pre-assault drinking, those with more education and more violent assaults received more negative social reactions specifically commenting on their use of alcohol prior to the assault. Such negative reactions were more common for those telling parents, police, or medical professionals. Women with less education received more positive and negative social reactions that commented specifically on their use of alcohol prior to the assault. Interestingly, results showed that disclosing pre-assault alcohol use in greater detail was related to positive social reactions specific to preassault drinking and experiencing greater alcohol impairment at the time of the assault was associated with both positive and negative social reactions specific to pre-assault alcohol use. Implications for research and intervention are provided for survivors disclosing alcohol-related sexual assaults.

Sexual Assault Disclosure and Sexual Functioning: The Role of Trauma Symptomatology

INTRODUCTION

Previous research has demonstrated that a history of adult sexual assault (ASA) is associated with negative outcomes, including trauma symptomatology and fear of sexual intimacy. Disclosing sexual assault might be protective against such negative outcomes.

AIM

To examine the indirect effect of trauma symptomatology on the association between disclosing ASA and current sexual functioning.

METHODS

Participants included 652 women 21 to 30 years old with a history of ASA recruited from the community. Participants completed self-report measurements on a computer.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Separate models were performed, with sexual functioning divided into sexual desire, orgasm, and pain during sex.

RESULTS

ASA disclosure was indirectly associated with sexual orgasm and pain during sex by trauma symptomatology. However, there was no indirect effect of trauma symptomatology on the relation between ASA disclosure and sexual desire.

CONCLUSION

Disclosing experiences of ASA could serve a protective function by lessening trauma symptomatology, thereby mitigating impacts on aspects of sexual functioning, such as orgasm and pain.

College Women’s Assignment of Blame Versus Responsibility for Sexual Assault Experiences

The present study investigated in a sample of college women ( N = 154) (a) assignment of self-blame, perpetrator blame, personal responsibility, and perpetrator responsibility for sexual assault; (b) differences in how women assigned blame versus responsibility toward themselves and the perpetrator; (c) significant correlations between blame and responsibility of self and the perpetrator and positive and negative post-assault outcomes; and (d) the underlying factors that explained different forms of blame and responsibility. The present study suggests a need for future sexual assault research to delineate and further examine the constructs of blame and responsibility. Implications for practice are also discussed.

Predicting Sexual Assault Revictimization in a Longitudinal Sample of Women Survivors: Variation by Type of Assault

This study used a large community sample of women sexual assault survivors to prospectively assess 17 theorized predictors across four types of sexual assault revictimization: unwanted contact, coercion, substance-involved assault (SIA), and force. Results indicated that predictors varied across types of revictimization: Unwanted contact and coercion appeared more common in social contexts more hostile toward survivors, whereas forcible assaults and SIAs occurred in circumstances where survivors were vulnerable to being targeted by perpetrators. Overall, the strongest predictors were social environments hostile to survivors, race, childhood sexual abuse, decreased refusal assertiveness, and having more sexual partners. We discuss implications for intervention and research.

Longitudinal Relationships of Social Reactions, PTSD, and Revictimization in Sexual Assault Survivors

Sexual assault survivors receive various positive and negative social reactions to assault disclosures, yet little is known about the directionality of associations of social reactions to posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms over time. Data from a large, diverse sample of women who had experienced adult sexual assault was analyzed with hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) to examine how negative and positive reactions relate to PTSD symptoms over 3 years and to test the hypothesis that the relationship between negative social reactions and PTSD symptoms is reciprocal. We found that, as predicted, social reactions predicted subsequent PTSD symptoms, and in turn PTSD symptoms predicted subsequent social reactions. We also investigated the role of sexual revictimization by comparing women who suffered (vs. not) additional sexual victimization during the course of our study. Revictimized women had greater PTSD symptoms and more negative social reactions, but associations of social reactions with PTSD symptoms did not vary according to revictimization status. Implications for practice and suggestions for future research are discussed.

Measuring social reactions to female survivors of alcohol-involved sexual assault: The Social Reactions Questionnaire-Alcohol

For women who disclose sexual assault, social reactions can affect post-assault adjustment. Approximately half of the sexual assaults of adult women involve alcohol use. Experimental studies indicate that people put more blame on women who were drinking before the assault, yet no studies have assessed how often actual survivors receive social reactions specific to their alcohol use. This study presents a new measure to assess alcohol-specific social reactions for survivors of sexual assault (The Social Reactions Questionnaire-Alcohol, SRQ-A). Factor analyses of a large community sample indicated that women often receive both positive and negative alcohol-specific reactions when disclosing assault. Discriminant validity confirmed that such reactions are distinct from other types of assault-related social reactions. Against predictions, alcohol-specific reactions were not associated with depression, posttraumatic stress symptoms, binge drinking, or intoxication. However, in support of the hypotheses, alcohol-specific reactions were related to increased characterological self-blame and alcohol problems. Notably, such reactions had both positive and negative relationships with self-blame, indicating a potential avenue for intervention. Implications for researchers and practitioners are discussed.

Sexual assault-characteristics effects on PTSD and psychosocial mediators: a cluster-analysis approach to sexual assault types

Using cluster analysis, we investigated the effects of assault characteristics (i.e., level of violence, subjective distress, alcohol consumption, perpetrator identity) on PTSD symptoms, and whether these effects are mediated by postassault social and psychological reactions. A large community sample of women sexual assault survivors completed 2 mail surveys at a 1-year interval. In line with prior research, cluster analyses revealed the existence of 3 general categories of sexual assault, which we described as "high violence," "alcohol-related," and "moderate sexual severity." Alcohol-related assaults resulted in fewer PTSD symptoms than high-violence assaults at Time 1, but not at Time 2. Alcohol-related and violent assaults resulted in more PTSD symptoms than moderate-severity assaults at both times. The effect of assault-characteristics clusters on Time 2 PTSD was mediated by Time 1 self-blame and turning against social reactions. The importance of considering effects of violence and alcohol consumption during the assault to better understand postassault PTSD, including implications for theory and practice, are discussed.

The behavior patterns of abused children as described in their testimonies

The aim of the current study is to identify how children describe their behavior during abuse and to explore their behavior further with respect to the type of the abuse (physical or sexual), frequency of abuse (single or multiple incidents), familiarity with the suspect, and children's age and gender, with the assumption that this information may have a significant effect on the children's recovery process. The study involved 224 transcripts of interviews with alleged victims aged 5-14 in Israel. The sample was randomly selected from all of the forensic investigations with children that were conducted in Israel in 2011. The results show that abuse type has a strong effect on children's behavior, with children in the sexual abuse group reporting more fight and flight behavior and children in the physical abuse group reporting more self-change behavior. This finding was interacted with the severity of abuse variable, with children in the sexual abuse group reporting less flight behavior and an increase in the self-change behavior with the highest level of severity of abuse (touch under the clothes and penetration). Investigative interviews with children can be a significant source of information for practitioners within the clinical context. The current study stresses the consequences that abuse can have on children's behavior during these incidents and the implications for the therapy process with the children.

Social Reactions to Sexual Assault Disclosure, Coping, Perceived Control and PTSD Symptoms in Sexual Assault Victims

The social reactions that sexual assault victims receive when they disclose their assault have been found to relate to posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms. Using path analysis and a large sample of sexual assault survivors (N = 1863), we tested whether perceived control, maladaptive coping, and social and individual adaptive coping strategies mediated the relationships between social reactions to disclosure and PTSD symptoms. We found that positive social reactions to assault disclosure predicted greater perceived control over recovery, which in turn was related to less PTSD symptoms. Positive social reactions to assault disclosure were also associated with more adaptive social and individual coping; however, only adaptive social coping predicted PTSD symptoms. Negative social reactions to assault disclosure were related to greater PTSD symptoms both directly and indirectly through maladaptive coping and marginally through lower perceived control over recovery.

Coping, emotion regulation, and self-blame as mediators of sexual abuse and psychological symptoms in adult sexual assault

This study examined whether coping, emotion regulation, and self-blame mediate relationships of trauma histories with post-traumatic stress disorder and depression in adult sexual assault victims (N = 1863). A path analysis showed that theorized mediators partially mediated associations between trauma history variables and psychological symptoms. Specifically, child sexual abuse severity was related to greater post-traumatic stress disorder and depression indirectly through maladaptive coping and decreased emotion regulation but not self-blame. Other traumas had direct relationships with symptoms and partially mediated effects through maladaptive coping and emotion regulation. Child sexual abuse was unrelated to self-blame, but other traumas were related to greater self-blame. Results differed according to whether women had counseling post-assault. Implications are drawn for future research and clinical treatment of adult sexual assault victims.

Unsupported or Turned Against: Understanding How Two Types of Negative Social Reactions to Sexual Assault Relate to Post-Assault Outcomes

Social reactions to disclosures of sexual assault have significant effects on women's post-assault outcomes (see Ullman, 2010, for a review). The Social Reactions Questionnaire (SRQ; Ullman, 2000) measures these reactions (as reported by survivors) and aggregates them into positive and negative scales. However, studies indicate that only some "negative" reactions have a negative valence for survivors whereas others produce a mixed (positive and negative) valence. The current study compares a one-primary-factor model of "negative reactions" to a model with two primary factors that we have labeled "turning against" and "unsupportive acknowledgement." Results showed that although one primary factor was plausible, two primary factors provided a better fit to the data. To assess the discriminant validity of the two factors, we performed regressions predicting social support, psychological adjustment, and coping behaviors. Analyses supported the hypotheses that reactions of being turned against were related to social withdrawal, increased self-blame, and decreased sexual assertiveness whereas reactions of unsupportive acknowledgment were related to both adaptive and maladaptive coping. Against predictions, depression and PTSD were more related to receiving unsupportive acknowledgment than to receiving turning against reactions. Implications for interventions and research are discussed. Importantly, almost all women (94%) in our sample received reactions that acknowledged that an assault occurred but failed to provide support, and this lack of support was associated with worse coping than even more hostile reactions such as being blamed or stigmatized. Therefore, there seems a great need for effective programs to train community members to respond to survivors with the kind of emotional and tangible support that promotes better outcomes.

PTSD symptomatology and hazardous drinking as risk factors for sexual assault revictimization: examination in European American and African American women

A sexual victimization history is a risk factor for experiencing further sexual victimization. Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms have been posited as predictors of revictimization through multiple pathways, including through their association with risk recognition and alcohol use. There is, however, limited longitudinal research examining these revictimization risk factors, including the extent to which they predict risk for forcible rape (rape involving threat or force) and incapacitated rape (rape of a victim incapacitated by substances). Additionally, there is no research evaluating ethnic differences in revictimization risk pathways. The current study examined PTSD symptoms and hazardous drinking as predictors of new forcible and incapacitated rape over 1 year in a community sample of European American (n = 217) and African American (n = 272) sexual assault victims (M = 34 years; 84% high school education or above). We hypothesized that PTSD symptoms would predict both types of revictimization and hazardous drinking would predict incapacitated rape. Results supported that PTSD symptoms predicted both types of rape (forcible rape, β = .34; incapacitated rape, β = .20), and hazardous drinking predicted incapacitated rape (β = .24). PTSD symptoms predicted hazardous drinking in African American women only (β = .20). Thus, there is a need to evaluate risk pathways for specific types of victimization among diverse samples.