Examining the determinants of sexual violence among young, married women in Southern India

Violence Against Women in India: An Analysis of Correlates of Domestic Violence and Barriers and Facilitators of Access to Resources for Support

Purpose

Domestic violence (DV) is a significant public health problem in India, with women disproportionately impacted. This study a) identified risk and protective correlates of DV and, b) barriers and facilitators for seeking and receiving help for DV among women in India.

Methods

A systematic search of 5 databases was performed to identify correlates of DV in the quantitative literature. The search resulted in inclusion of 68 studies for synthesis. For qualitative exploration, data were collected from 27 women in India.

Results

While factors such as social norms and attitudes supportive of DV were both risk correlates and barriers to addressing DV, omen's empowerment, financial independence and informal sources of support were both protective correlates of DV as well as facilitators in addressing DV.

Conclusions

Strong efforts in India are needed to reduce DV-related risk factors and strengthen protective factors and enhance access to care for women in abusive relationships.

Crimes Against Women in India: A District-Level Analysis (1991-2011)

Crimes against women (CAW) in India have been rising despite faster economic growth, higher education attainment, and increasing numbers of women in the economic sphere. This article explores the reasons for the incidence of reported CAW in India. We study five CAW (rape, kidnapping, cruelty, dowry deaths, and molestation), across 35 states and union territories, 594 districts, over three decades (1991-2011). We use panel fixed-effects regression models to explain crime. Our results confirm the importance of female literacy rates, female paid workforce participation, and female-male ratio in understanding crime. We find that these commonly-used socioeconomic variables have nonlinear effects on CAW. Our findings improve upon earlier results that have not explored either spatial distribution or nonlinearity in India. These findings could have significant implications for the policies aiming to reduce CAW.

Intimate partner violence against women with disability and associated mental health concerns: a cross-sectional survey in Mumbai, India

OBJECTIVES

The risk of intimate partner violence (IPV) against women with disability is believed to be high. We aimed to compare the prevalence of past-year IPV against women with and without functional difficulties in urban informal settlements, to review its social determinants and to explore its association with mental health.

DESIGN

Cross-sectional survey.

SETTING

Fifty clusters within four informal settlements.

PARTICIPANTS

5122 women aged 18-49 years.

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY OUTCOME MEASURES

We used the Washington Group Short Set of Questions to assess functional difficulties. IPV in the past year was described by binary composites of questions about physical, sexual and emotional violence. We screened for symptoms of depression using the Patient Health Questionnaire-9 and of anxiety using the Generalised Anxiety Disorder-7. Multivariable logistic regression models examined associations between functional difficulties, IPV and mental health.

RESULTS

10% of participants who screened positive for functional disability had greater odds of experiencing physical or sexual IPV (adjusted OR (AOR) 1.68, 95% CI 1.23 to 2.29) and emotional IPV (1.52, 95% CI 1.16 to 2.00) than women who screened negative. Women who screened positive for functional disability had greater odds than women who screened negative of symptoms suggesting moderate or severe anxiety (AOR 2.50, 95% CI 1.78 to 3.49), depression (2.91, 95% CI 2.13 to 3.99) and suicidal thinking (AOR 1.94, 95% CI 1.50 to 2.50).

CONCLUSIONS

The burden of IPV fell disproportionately on women with functional difficulties, who were also more likely to screen positive for common mental disorder. Public health initiatives need to respond at local and national levels to address the overlapping and mutually reinforcing determinants of violence, while existing policy needs to be better utilised to ensure protection for the most vulnerable.

Determination of the factors affecting sexual violence against women in Turkey: a population-based analysis

Background

Sexual violence is one of the most investigated types of violence by national and international decision makers. The purpose of this study was to detect the factors that affect sexual violence against women in Turkey.

Methods

In this study, a cross-sectional data set was employed from the survey titled the National Research on Domestic Violence against Women in Turkey, which was conducted by the Hacettepe University Institute of Population Studies. Binary logistic and probit regression analyses were used to determine the factors influential in women’s exposure to sexual violence.

Results

The findings obtained from the analyses indicated that women’s exposure to sexual violence was influenced by a variety of factors including region, age, level of education, employment status, health condition, marital status, number of children as well as exposure to physical, economic, and verbal abuse. In addition, it was determined that the level of education, employment status, drug use, infidelity and other variables related to the husband/partner of the women who participated in the survey affected the women’s exposure to sexual violence.

Conclusion

There remains a higher probability of exposure to sexual violence among women residing in rural and less developed regions. A decrease in the women’s level of education increased their probability of exposure to sexual violence. An increase in the women's age and an increase in the level of education of the women’s husbands/partners lowered the probability of their exposure to sexual violence. There was a higher probability of exposure to sexual violence among women who had experienced physical, economic, and verbal abuse.

Prevalence and Factors Associated With Intimate Partner Violence Among Young Women Aged 15 to 24 Years in India: A Social-Ecological Approach

Intimate partner violence (IPV) is a critical public health issue that has reached epidemic proportions. Research investigating IPV among young women in India using large-scale population data is lacking. This study examined the prevalence and factors associated with IPV among women aged 15 to 24 years in India through a social-ecological approach. This cross-sectional study analyzed data from the National Family Health Survey, a population-based survey conducted in India from 2005 to 2006. The past-year prevalence of emotional, physical, and sexual forms of IPV, among ever-married women aged 15 to 24 years were computed. Multivariate logistic regression was conducted to evaluate the association of factors at various levels of the social-ecological framework with the past-year experience of emotional, physical, sexual, and any form of IPV. The past-year prevalence of IPV among women aged 15 to 24 years (n = 16,285) was 29%. Physical IPV was the most common, affecting 23% in the past year. The past-year prevalence of sexual IPV among women aged 15 to 24 years at 9.5% was higher than older women. Individual factors significantly associated with the past-year experience of all forms of IPV were the young age at first marriage, parental IPV, and ever had a terminated pregnancy. At the relationship level, husband's controlling behaviors, his consumption of alcohol, and experience of violence from other family members were positively associated with all forms of IPV in the past year. Poverty and acceptance of IPV increased the women's odds of experiencing IPV. IPV was associated with multiple factors occurring at all levels of the social-ecological framework. Actions to prevent and eliminate IPV in India demand multidisciplinary and collaborative efforts that are tailored specifically for adolescents and young women. It is imperative to protect the girls and young women from IPV; it protects the future of India.

Domestic Violence and its Determinants among 15-49-Year-Old Women in a Rural Block in South India

Context:

Domestic violence in Indian setting has five major components: emotional abuse; physical violence; sexual violence; honor killing; dowry-related abuse; and death.

Aims:

The aim of the study was to estimate the prevalence of domestic violence and 3 of its components – emotional abuse, physical violence, and sexual violence among women in the age group of 15–49 years in Kaniyambadi block, rural Vellore, Tamil Nadu and to determine the risk factors of domestic violence.

Settings and Design:

A community-based cross-sectional study among women between the ages 15 and 49 years at the rural setting of Kaniyambadi block, Tamil Nadu.

Results:

Prevalence of all forms of domestic violence among women was 77.5%, and forty percent women were classified as having ever been subjected to severe domestic violence. Prevalence of physical violence was 65.8%, sexual abuse was 17.5%, and emotional abuse was 54.2%. Alcohol consumption by husband (adjusted odds ratio [AOR] 4.37; 1.35, 14.18), controlling behavior by family member (AOR 8.07; 2.47, 26.37), and woman's employment (AOR 4.33; 1.27, 14.77) were statistically significant determinants of domestic violence. Three-fourth (73.1%) of the women felt that being subjected to domestic violence has affected their physical and mental health.

Conclusions:

The high prevalence of domestic violence in our community needs to be addressed as it has tacit implications on socioeconomic well-being, physical and mental health of a woman, her family, and thereby, society as a whole.

Reciprocate and nonreciprocate spousal violence: A cross-sectional study in Haryana, India

Background:

Prevention of intimate partner violence is an important public health goal owing to its negative psychological and physical health consequence.

Objectives:

Estimate the prevalence of reciprocate and nonreciprocate violence, severity of injuries, and related risk factors.

Materials and Methods:

The present study was a community-based cross-sectional study using multistage random sampling in which a total of 880 currently married women in the age group 15–49 years were interviewed using modified conflict tactics scale. Logistic regression was used to identify factors associated with both the types of domestic violence.

Results:

Total prevalence for spousal violence was 33.2% (283), out of which 14.84% (42) were reciprocally violent. Alcoholic husband [Adjusted Odds Ratio (AOR): 3.262, P = 0.001], late year of marriage (>2 years) [AOR: 0.359, P = 0.001], low education of the participants [AOR: 1.443, P = 0.033], and low socioeconomic class [AOR: 0.562, P = 0.004] are the risk factors for nonreciprocate domestic violence. Alcoholic husband [AOR: 4.372, P = 0.001] and nuclear family [AOR: 3.115, P = 0.001] were found as significant risk factors for reciprocate domestic violence. Women indulging in reciprocate violence were associated with more severe injuries than nonreciprocate violence.

Conclusion:

This study depicts that every third female has experienced spousal violence and also highlights the existence of reciprocate violence in India. Alcoholism, low education of husbands, and living in nuclear family are the important determinants for reciprocate violence. Also, reciprocate violence is associated with severe injuries.

Sexual intimacy and marital relationships in a low-income urban community in India

Data from a six-year study of married women's sexual health in a low-income community in Mumbai indicated that almost half the sample of 1125 women reported that they had a negative view of sex with their husbands. Qualitative interviews and quantitative survey data identified several factors that contributed to this diminished interest including: a lack of foreplay, forced sex, the difficulty of achieving privacy in crowded dwellings, poor marital relationships and communication, a lack of facilities for post-sex ablution and a strong desire to avoid conception. Women's coping strategies to avoid husband's demands for sex included refusal based on poor health, the presence of family members in the home and non-verbal communication. Factors that contributed to a satisfactory or pleasurable sexual relationship included greater relational equity, willingness on the part of the husband to not have sex if it is not wanted, a more 'loving' (pyaar karna) approach, women able to initiate sex and greater communication about sexual and non-sexual issues. This paper examines the ecological, cultural, couple and individual dynamics of intimacy and sexual satisfaction as a basis for the development of effective interventions for risk reduction among married women.

Correlates of domestic violence perpetration reporting among recently-married men residing in slums in Pune, India

Domestic violence (DV) is prevalent in low-income and slum-dwelling communities in India. To date, the focus of DV prevention in resource-poor settings has largely been with women. We herein aim to identify correlates of DV perpetration to help inform future primary prevention efforts that focus on behavioral change in men. Utilizing a cross-sectional design, potential correlates of DV perpetration were explored among a geographically-clustered random sample of 100 recently-married men residing in slums in Pune, India. In multivariable regression, DV perpetration was associated with less time spent alone in the relationship post-marriage (standardized β = -0.230, p<0.01), not attaining the “husband ideal” (standardized β = -0.201, p<0.05), poor resilience (standardized β = -0.304, p < .01), having limited definitions of behaviors constituting DV (standardized β = -0.217, p<0.05), and reporting greater jealousy if the participant’s spouse were to talk to men outside the family (standardized β = 0.272, p<0.01). The identified correlates should inform components of future DV primary prevention interventions that target men as potential perpetrators or the couple as a unit.

Intimate partner violence against women during and after pregnancy: a cross-sectional study in Mumbai slums

Background

At least one-third of women in India experience intimate partner violence (IPV) at some point in adulthood. Our objectives were to describe the prevalence of IPV during pregnancy and after delivery in an urban slum setting, to review its social determinants, and to explore its effects on maternal and newborn health.

Methods

We did a cross-sectional study nested within the data collection system for a concurrent trial. Through urban community surveillance, we identified births in 48 slum areas and interviewed mothers ~6 weeks later. After collecting information on demographic characteristics, socioeconomic indicators, and maternal and newborn care, we asked their opinions on the justifiability of IPV and on their experience of it in the last 12 months.

Results

Of 2139 respondents, 35% (748) said that violence was justifiable if a woman disrespected her in-laws or argued with her husband, failed to provide good food, housework and childcare, or went out without permission. 318 (15%, 95% CI 13, 16%) reported IPV in the year that included pregnancy and the postpartum period. Physical IPV was reported by 247 (12%, 95% CI 10, 13%), sexual IPV by 35 (2%, 95% CI 1, 2%), and emotional IPV by 167 (8%, 95% CI 7, 9). 219 (69%) women said that the likelihood of IPV was either unaffected by or increased during maternity. IPV was more likely to be reported by women from poorer families and when husbands used alcohol. Although 18% of women who had suffered physical IPV sought clinical care for their injuries, seeking help from organizations outside the family to address IPV itself was rare. Women who reported IPV were more likely to have reported illness during pregnancy and use of modern methods of family planning. They were more than twice as likely to say that there were situations in which violence was justifiable (odds ratio 2.6, 95% CI 1.7, 3.4).

Conclusions

One in seven women suffered IPV during or shortly after pregnancy. The elements of the violent milieu are mutually reinforcing and need to be taken into account collectively in responding to both individual cases and framing public health initiatives.